Gas Turbines Third EditionAbout the Author V Ganesan, currently working as Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, is the recipient of Anna University National Award for Outstanding Academic forthe Year 1997. He was the Head of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, between October 2000 and ‘June 2002 and was the Dean (Academic Research) between January 1998 and October 2000. He has so far published more than 300 research papers in national and international conferences and journals, ‘and has guided 20 MS and 40 PhDs. Among other awards received by him are the Babcock Power Award for the best fundamental scientific paper of Journal of Energy (1987), the Institation of Engineers Merit Prize and Citation (1998), SVRCET Surat Prize (1995), Sri Rajendra Nath Mookerjee Memorial Medal (1996), Automobile Engineer cf the ‘Year by the Institution of Automobile Engineers (India) (2001), Institution of Engines (dia), Tamil Nadu Scientist Award (TANGA) 2003 by Tamil Nadu State Council for Science and Technology, ISTE Periyar Award for Best, Engineering College Teacher (2004), NK Iyengar Memorial Prize (2008) by Institution of Engineers (India) SVRCET Surat Prize (2004), Khosla National Award (2004), Bharat Jyoti Award (2006) UWA Outstanding Intellectuals of the 21st Century Award by United Writers Association, Chennai (2006), 2006 SAE Cliff Garrett Turbomachinery Engineering Award by SAE International, USA, Sir Rajendra Nath Mookerjee Memorial Prize (2006) by Institution of Engineers, Environmental Engineering Design Award 2006 by The Institution of Engineers (India), 2006 SAE Chiff Garrett Turbomachinery Engineering Award (2007) and Excellence in Engineering Education (Triple “E") Award by SAE International, USA (2007), He has received the Best Faculty Award from [Nehru Group of Institution in Coimbatore in 2009, He is the Fellow of Indian [National Academy of Engineering, National Environmental Science Academy. Fellow of SAB International, USA, and Fellow of Institation of Engineers (India). He has authored several books including the first edition of Internal Cor bustin Engines, MeGraw Hill International Publications, Gas Turbines, Computer Simulation of Four Stroke Spark-Tanition Engines, Computer Simul cation of Four Stroke Compression-Ignition Engines, and Heat Transfer and has. ited several proceedings. He was formerly the Chairman of Combustion Institute (Indian Section) and the Chairman of Engineering Bdueation Board of SAE (India), besides being 2 member of many other professional societies. ‘Dr Ganesanis actively engaged in a number of sponsored research projects and is a consultant for various industries and R&D organizations,Gas Turbines Third Edition V Ganesan Professor Department of Mechanical Brginering “din Tstitate of Teohology Madras KEE®) P/ sre i) (2/ Useany B\~ez/5) Wea? McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited NEW DELHI ‘McGraw Hi Edveaton Ofoas Newwodhi New Yok StLous San Frenisco Ackland. Bogot4 Caracas ‘ali Lumpur Usben tendon Madd Meee Gly. Milan Moses! San Juan Santago "SingsporeSyshey Tajo. Troe,3 LEIA vicGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited Gas Turbines, Sie Copyright© 2010, 1990, 1957 by MeCirae Hill Edueation (nia) Private Limited [Nineteenth reprint 2015 RXACRDLVRBXDL “Al sights reserved no part of this publication may be reproduced or distebuted in any form forby any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, reconing, or otherwise o stored ina ditabase of tetieval system without the prioe writen pemnission ofthe publishes. The program listings {i any) may be entered, stored al executed ina computer system, but they ‘may not be reproduced fr publication. “This eition ean be exported from India only by the publishes, MeGiraw Hill Education (India) Private Limite ISBN (13 digi: 978-0-07-068192-7 ISBN (10 digi): 0-07-068192-9 Managing Director: Kaushik Bellard Head-Higher Education (Publishing and Marketing): !7bke Mahajan Publishing Manager—SEM & Tech, Eu Shan Jha SrProdtion Manager: Sander 5 Bavefa Marketing Manager—Higher Ed: Sjay Saran General Maneger—Produetion; Rajender P Ghonsela ‘Manager—Presuetion: Ret Kumar Information contained in tis work as been obisined by MeGraw Hill Fauation (nd). ftom sources belived 1 be reliable, However, ncther MeGraw Fil Education (dia) nor its euthors guarantee the accuracy of completeness of any information pubised hei, and nether MeGraw tll Education (India) nor is autors shal be responsible foe any errs. ‘omissions, or damages arising ou of we ofthis information. ‘This work i polished wih the Understanding that MeGraw Hil Eaton (Ini) and is authors are supplying inforeation tut are no tempting fo render engineering or othe professional services. such services re reuired the assistance of an appropriate professional shouldbe sought Poblished by MeCiaw Hill Education (Inia) Private Limited, P-24, Green Pavk Extension, ‘New Delhi 110016 and petted at AP Offset, Zoe Bengal, Dilshad Garden, Dethi 110095, Visitus at: wow mbodueation cainDedicated to HimPreface ‘This text on gas turbines has been prepared keeping in mind the need of 8 firs-lovel textbook for the undergraduate, graduate and a professional reference for practicing engincers. When I started writing the manuseript a few years ago, to my knowledge, suitable text material was practically non-existent, especially in SI units, and it seems tobe true even today. It, is my earnest hope that this textbook will simplify the teaching of this Important subject. Target Audience ‘This book is primarily intended for undergraduate/postgraduate students. Hence, I have endeavoured to explain various topics right from the fundamentals so that even a beginner can understand the exposition, Besides, topics such as inlets, blades, environmental consideration, ete., are included to help the practising engineers as well. Professionals who are engaged in the design and development of various power plants, who are often called upon to undertake the work related to gas turbines, will find this book extremely useful ‘New to this Edition tis gratifying to note that this book on Gas Turbines is being well received by the academic community. Based on the suggestions and comments received, all the chapters have been thoroughly revised. A set of multiple ‘choice questions has been introduced in each chapter. New sections and subsections have heen added in various chapters. A new chapter on ‘Transonic and Supersonic Compressors and Turbines has been included. Farther, minor errors brought to my notice have been rectified. Organisation of the Book SLunits have been used consistently throughout the book. The book includes a large number of typical worked-ont examples and several illustrative figures for an easier understanding of the subject. Bxercises have been given in various chapters eo that the inquisitive students may solve these problems and compare their answers with the answers provided. Quite a lot of technical literature is available on this subject and owing to the rate at which these technical papers now appear, a comprehensiveii Preface bibliography has not been included. However, a few references have been. selected and are appended to appropriate chapters. The text material is, divided into eight parts. * Introduction and Fundamentals (Chapters 1 to 4) Cyele Analysis (Chapters 5 to 7) Compressors (Chapters 8 and 9) Combustion Systems (Chapter 10) ‘Turbines (Chapter 11) Advanced Topies (Chapters 12 to 15) Environmental Considerations (Chapter 16) Rocket Propulsion (Chapter 17) By dividing the chapters in the above manner, it may be seen that the ‘work has been organised to form a continuous logical narrative. Web Supplements ‘The web supplements can be accessed at http:/www.mbhe,com/ganesan/ ge and contain Solution Manual and PowerPoint Lecture Slides for Instructors, and a Sample Chapter and Links to Reference Material for students. Acknowledgements twould be impossible to refer in detail toall those who have been consulted. in the compilation of this work. A special note of appreciation is due tomy ‘gas-turbines course students of the 1999 batch, for their help in checking ‘the worked out as well as exercise problems. Tam thankful for the help and support received from colleagues of the department and sister departments of ITT Madras. I am particularly grateful to Prof, P Srinivasa Rao and Prof, S Sampath who spared a great amount of their valuable time in correcting the entire manuscript. Their critical comments and suggestions were of immense help in improving ‘the presentation. In this context, I would also like to mention the names of all the reviewers of the book. Avinash Kumar Agarwal _ Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kanpur Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh VK Bajpai National Institute of Technology (NIT) Kurukshetra Kurukshetra, Haryana LD Garg Punjab Engineering College (PEC) University of Technology Chandigarh, PunjabPreface ix Sowvik Bhattacharyya —_Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kharagpur Kharagpur, West Bengal Dipankar Chaterjee Haldia Institute of Technology (HIT) Haldia, West Bengal Ranjan Basak Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology Majitar, Sildim ‘Mahesh Rathore SNIB's KBJ College of Engineering ‘Nashik, Maharashtra Venkatraj Varadharajulu Bharati Vidyapeeth College of Engineering and Technology Mumbai, Maharashtra ‘M Udayakumar ‘National Institute of Technolgy (NIT) Tiruchirapalli ‘Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu P Chitambarnathan Dr Sivanthi Adithanar College of Engineering ‘Thiruchendur, Tamil Nadu B Srinivas Reddy G Pulla Reddy Engineering College Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh I wish to express my thanks to the Centre for Continuing Education for encouraging me to write this book and helping me in the preparation of this manuscript, will be failing in my duty ifI do not acknowledge the help of my family members, Ms P Rajalakshmi, Ms Vijayashree, Mr Venkatasubramanian and Ms Aparna, Words are not sufficient to express my gratitude to Ms ‘Vijayashree who has put her heart and soul in the preparation of the book. ‘My sincere thanks are due to all of them. Feedback Although maximum care has been taken to minimize the errors, I wil be grateful for any constructive criticism for further improvement of the book. Thope and wish the present edition also would be well received, V Ganesanx Proface Publisher's Note Do you have a feature request? A suggestion? We are always open to new ideas (the best ideas come from you!). You may send your comments to tmh.cefeedback@gmail.com (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line). Piracy related issues may also be reported.Contents Preface Nomenclature 1 Introduction LA Prime Movers 1.2 Simple Gos Turbine Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions 2 Keview of Basic Principles 2 Definitions and Laws 22. Energy Equation 23 Fluid Dynamics 2A Basie Definitions 25. Streamtube Area-Velocity Relation 2.6 Normal Shock Waves 2.7. Equations of Motion for a Normal Shock Wave 28 Oblique Shock and Expansion Waves 29 Flow with Friction and Heat Transfer 2.10 Flow in Constant-Area Duct with Friction Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions 3. Fundamentals of Rotating Machines 3.1 General Fluid Dynamics Analysis 3.2. The Physical Meaning of the Energy Equation 3.3 Classification of Machines 3.44 General Thermodynamic Analysis wewnn & 15 19 BS #2B8 2 36 37 39 39 2 aContents 3.5 Bificieney of Rotating Machines 3.6 Dimensional Analysis of Rotating Machines 3.7 Elementary Aiefoll Theory Review Questions ‘Multiple Choice Questions Cycle Arrangements 41 Open-Cyele Arrangements 42 The Closed-Cycle 4.3. Basic Requirements of the Working Medium 4A Properties of Various Working Medin 45° Applications 4.6 Comparison of Gas Turbines with Reciprocating Baines Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Ideal Cycles and their Analysis Assumptions in Ideal C3 ‘The Simple Gas Turbine Cycle ‘The Heat Exchange Cycle ‘The Reheat Cycle 5 The Reheat and Heat Exchange Cycle 6 Tho Intereooted Cycle 7 The Intercooted Cycle with Heat Exchanger 8 The Intercooled and Reheat Cycle 9 Intercooled Cycle with Heat Exchange and Reheat 5.10 Comparison of Various Cycles 5.1 Briesson Cycle Worked out Examples Review Questions Exercise ‘Multiple Choice Questions Practical Cycles and their Analysis 6.1 Assumptions 6.2 Stagnation Properties 6.3 Compressor and Turbine Efcieney GA Pressure or Flow Losses 6.5 Heat Exchanger Blectiveness 6.6 Effect of Varying Mass Flow 6.7 Effect of Variable Specific Heat 68 Mechanical Losses ar 48 5 59 oo 101 103 104 128 130 134 137 17 138 140 us, uy as 49 1506.9 Loss due to Incomplete Combustion 6.10 Cycle Eiicieney 6.11 Polytropic Bfciency 6.12 Performance of Actual Cycle Worked out Examples Review Questions Exercise Multiple Choice Questions Jot Propulsion Cycies and Their Analysis 7.1. Reciprocating or Propeller Engines 72. Gas Turbine Engines %3_The Ramjet Engine TA” The Pats Jet Engine [B. The Turboprop Engine 26 ‘The Turbojet Engine 77 Thrust and Thrust Equation 18 Specific Thrust of the Turbojet Engine 7.9 fcioncies 70 Parameters Affecting Fight Performance 7411 Thrust Augmentation Worked ont Exanps, Review Questions Exercise Multiple Choice Questions Centrifugal Compressors 8. Essential Parts of a Centrifugal Compressor 8.2 Principle of Operation 8.4 Ideal Buergy Transfer 8.4 Blade Shapes and Velocity Triangles 8.5 Analysis of Flow through the Compressor 86. Dilfser 8.7 Volute Casing BS Pevformance Parameter 8.9 Losses in Centrifugal Compressors 8.10 Compressor Characteristics 2 8.11 Surging and Choking Worked out Examples Review Questions Exercise ‘Multiple Choice Questions Contents 150 151 152 156 165 203 203 210 23 aid 215 216 20 24 2 235 237 28s 216 2H 282 on 2m 276 279 280 22 230 2x7 290 02 306 307 310 310 aul 326 327 33xiv. Contents oe ial Flow Compressors 333, 82 Historical Background 393 922. Geometty and Working Prineipe 85 93 Stage Velocity Tangles 30 844 Work Done Factor x0 95, Battalpy Entropy Diagram uz 86 Compresor Stage Bfiieney 8 87 Performance Coefcents Bn 88. Degre of Reston 5 9 Flow though Blade Rows a1 810 Flow Losec 253 4.11 Stage Loses 256 9.12 Pressure Rise Caeuatio in & Blade Ring 7 9.13 Pexfomance Characteristics a9 14 Comparison of Axial and Centrfgal Cmpresors 365 Worked out Examples 246 Review Questions 0 Brerese 27 Multiple Choice Questions 30 Peombustin ete a0 101 Combustion Themy Aria! t Ces Turbine Combustor 204 10.2 Factors Affecting Combustion Chamber Design 27 103 Factor Affecting Combustion Chamber Peformance 308 1044 Form of Combustion System 402 10.5 Requirements ofthe Combustion Chamber sos 106 ‘Te Process of Combustion in a Gas Turbine 5 107 Combustion Chamber Geometry 06 108 Mixing and Dilation 09 109 Cotabsstion Chamber Arrangements 409 10.10Somne Practical Problems an Review Questions as Multiple Choice Questions 419 1 Impulse and Reaction Turbines a ALI A Single impulse Stage 22 112 A Single Reaction Stage wa 11. Multistage Machines 43 114 Velocity Triangles ofa Single Stage Machine au 1.5 Expresion for Work Output 26 11.6 Blade loading and fw coeficients ar 11.7 Blade and Stage Bffciencies a7Contents xv 11.8 Maximinm Utilization Factor for a Single Impulse Stage 428 11.9 Velocty-compounding of Multistage Impulse Turbine 430 11.10Pressure Compounding of Multistage Impulse Turbine 435, 11.11The Reaction Turbine 435 11.12Multistage Reaction Turbines 436 11,18Blade-to-Gas Speed Ratio 450 11.LLosses and Eficiencies 451 11.15Performance Graphs 451 Worked out Examples 454 Review Questions 463 Exercise 464 Multiple Choice Questions 465 12 Transonic and Supersonic Compressors and Turbines 467 124 The Supersonic Compresior 468 1222 Supersonic Axial Flow Compressors 460 12.3 Superson Radial Compresons a 1244 Superson Axial Flow Turbine Stages 45 Review Questions 48 Multiple Choice Questions 48 Byte an Noses 4st 13,1 Inlets 181 18:2 SubwonicInlets 82 133 Dilfer 484 1344 Supersonic Inlets 486, 1355 Exhaust Nozales 488 Review Questions 498, Multiple Choice Questions 498 14 Blades sor 141 Blade Materials 501 1.2 Manfcturng Teebniques sas 143 Blade ising 508 14.4 Problems of High Temperature Operation 510 145 Blade Cooling 58, 146 Liquid Cooling 518 142 Air Cooling 58 1148 Practical Aie Cooled Blas ss Review Questions 521 ‘Multiple Choice Questions 521xvi Contents 15 Component Matching and Performance Evaluation 15.1 Posformance Characteristics 15.2 Bquilibrium Running Diagram 4153 To Find the Equilibrium Points 154 Procedure to find Equilibrium Point 15.5 Performance Evaluation of Single spool Turbojet Engine 15.6 Operating Line 15.7 General Matching Procedure 15.8 Tnsient Operation Review Questions ‘Multiple Choice Questions 16 Environmental Considerations and Applications 46.1 Air Pollution 16.2 Aircraft Emission Standards 16.3 Stationary Engine Emission Standards 16.4 NO, Formation 16.5 NO, Reduction in Stationary Bngines 166 Noise 167 Noise Standards 16.8 Noise Reduction 16.9 Assessment of the Gas Turbine 16.10Typical Applications of Gas Turbines 16.11 The Small Gas Turbine Applications 16.12Blectric Power Generation Applications 16.13Marine Application 16.14Gas Pumping Applications 16.15Locomative Applications 16.16Antomotive Applications 16.1TAireraft Applications 16.18Process Applications 16.19Additional Features of Gas Turbine Engines 16.20Trends in the Future Development Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions \eket Propulsion 17.1 Classification of Rockets 172 Principle of Rocket Propulsion 17.8 Analysis of an Ideal Chemical Rocket ITA Optimum Expansion Ratio for Rocket 17.5 The Chemical Rocket 523 526 526 527 530 531 897 543 545 56 S47 549 551 555 597 550 560 562 507 569 569 570 570 sr 572 572 573 513 bra 578Contents 176 Advantages of Liquid Propellant Rockets over Solid Propel lant Rockets 17,7 Free Radical Propulsion 178 Nuclear Propulsion 179 Blectro Dynamie Propulsion 17.10Photon Propulsion 17.11Comparison of various types of rockets 17.12Staging ITABMultistage Rocket 17.14Compatison of Various Propulsion Systems 17.15Prepulsive Bfciency’ Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Appendix Index 600 601 on 606 607 608 609 en 613 as 619Nomenclature nozzle area velocity of sound in air absolute velocity exhaust velocity from the nozale specific heat at constant-pressure specific heat at constant-volume calorific value diameter of the blade diameter of the duct characteristic linear dimension drag activation energy energy energy transfer Fanning’s co-efficient of skin friction fuel-air ratio resultant force thrust enthalpy Stagnation enthalpy Net calorific value of the fuel 2 REP TASS Hm DURES QANeo eke Hyp Bnthalpy of the reaction imep indicated mean effective pressure T impulse k ratio of specific heat k thermal conductivityGas Turbines bulk modulus of elasticity constant characteristic length length lit mass flow rate molecules ‘Mach number mean molecular weight impeller tip diameter/eye tip diameter umber of blades polytropie index speed non-flow process pressure power input propulsive power pressure loss coetficient flow work done beat input beat supplied volume flow rate blade radius pressure ratio compressor pressure ratio degree of reaction resultant force universal gas constant Reynolds number entropy specific fuel consumption Dlade pitch temperature ratio time temperature torque peripheral velocity specific internal energyu internal energy » specific volume w rolative velocity w work ¥ loss coefficient * number of blades Zz potential energy GREEK a absolute air angle @ acceleration of the rocket a cliective speed ratio a relative air angle Ah change in enthalpy Alyy enthalpy of reaction AP) pressure loss « effectiveness « utilization factor fn pressure loss coefficient a elfcioncy "he polytropic efficiency of compressor ‘he —_polytropic efficiency of turbine 7 ratio of specific heats # dynamic viscosity » Mach angle i” slip factor y Kinematic viscosity o angular speed a empirical factor a work done factor 6 flow coefficient Gp pressure coelfcient v loading coefficient meses density mean molecular diameter shear stress angle enthalpy loss coefficient Nomenclature yosexi Gas Turbines SUFFIX. al axial velocity at inlet act actual adia adiabatic am mean axial amb ambient ‘atm atmosphere A angularity b ‘combustion B blade e total head pressure ratio di Cet actual work of compression fe actual work input carnot Carnot ‘comb combustion c compressor a diameter of wheel da diffuser D diffuser blade row vb discharge D drag f fuel fp finite process fp infinitesimal reversible process 9 acceleration due to gravity 9 as te —_gross thrust coefficient h nub pe high pressure compressor pt high pressure turbine i inlet ie inlet casing ‘ideal ideal if Input factor i jet loss Toss Ipe —_low prossure compressor pt Tow pressure turbine L ite‘mech std mechanical number of blades nozzle net ambient overall stagnation property optimum pressure propulsive polytropic power turbine power rotor radial velocity rotor blade relative rotor blade row shaft slip specific stage static standard tip actual work of turbine tangential velocity at inet ‘thermal turbine work with losses mean tangential transmission transmission turbine factual work of expansion turbine power velocity volume ‘maximum workdone Work transfer per unit mass flow1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 PRIME MOVERS ‘The distinctive feature of our civilization, one that makes it different from all others, is the wide use of power from mechanical means. At one time tho primary source of power, or prime mover, for the work of peace and war was chiefly man's muscles. Even after animals had been trained to help and after the wind and running streams had been harnessed, man was mainly depending on his musele power. But when he learned to convert the heat ‘of chemical reactions into mechanical energy, it revolutionized the world, Machines which serve this purpose are known as heat engines. ‘The first heat engine to have a revolutionary effect was the gun. Ft is perhaps hard to realize that the vital difference between the bow and the {gun was the substitution of gunpowder for the bowman’s muscles, because the musket was much inferior to the bow in range and accuracy. In principle, the gun is the ancestor of our interual combustion piston engines. Another revolution began when Watt perfected the steam piston en- sine, Here, au intermediate working fluid was used, so that the products of combustion did not act directly on the moving parts of the mechanism, Later, the aucient principle of the turbine was adopted to steam, and the piston engine took the back seat, ‘Among engines for the production of mechanical power there were, a {ow years ago, throe principal competitors in the fc ) the steam turbine plant, (G) the diese piston engine, and (iil) the gasoline piston engine, ‘The steam turbino, since the beginning ofits career around the turn of the nineteenth century, las beeome the most important prime mover for power generation and a widely used power plant for marine application. However, it has an inherent disadvantage of the need to produce high- pressure, high-temperature steam. This involves the installation of a bulky2 Gas Turbines and expensive steamn-generating equipment, a boiler or a nuclear rexctor. ‘The hot gases produced in the boiler furnace or reactor core never reach the turbine. ‘They, merely are used to produce an intermediate working fuid, namely steam, Clearly, a much more compact power plant results when the water to steam step is eliminated and the hot gases themselves are used to drive the turbine, Diesel piston engines started replacing bulky steam power plants for power generstion, Gasoline engines were used in early days for aircraft propulsion, A device known as the gas turbine came into existence to a Timited extent in certain types of superchargers used with piston engines ‘The earliest patent on gas turbine was that of the Englishman, John Barber, in 1879. Eazly designs were unsuccessful, largely due to two factors (i) the low efficeney of the compressors, and (ii) the combustion temperature limitations imposed by the materials then available, Serious development of gas turbine began only after the second world war ‘with shaft poscer in mind, ut attention was soon shifted to the turbojet fengine for aircraft propulsion. Since then, the gas turbine made a progres- sively greater impact in an increasing varety of applications. However, only in the recent past much research effort has been focused on the design and development of efficient gas turbine units. Of the various means of produc- ing mechanieal power available tadag- the gat tmrbine, im many respects, seems to be the most satisfactory power plant. [tis mainly due to (i) the absence of reciprocating and rubbing members which reduces the vibration and balancing problems, (Gi) high seliabitity (ii) low lubricating-oil consumption, and (iv) high powersto-weight rato, 1.2. SIMPLE GAS TURBINE In onder to produce an expansion through a turbine a pressure ratio must bbe provided. Hence, the first necesiary step in the eyele of a gas turbine plant must be compression of the working fluid. If, after the compression, the working fuk is to be expanded direetly in the turbine and there were no losses in either component, the power developed by the turbine would just equal that absorbed by the compressor. Thus, ifthe two were coupled together, the combination would do no more than turn itself round. “The power developed by the turbine can be increased by the addition of energy to raise the temperature of the fluid prior to expansion. When the ‘working fluid is ar, a very suitable meas of doing this is by the combustion of fuel inthe air which has been compressed. Expansion of hot working fluidIntroduction & ‘then produces a greater power output from the turbine than the power nec- ‘essary to drive the compressor. The three main components are, therefore, ‘compressor, a combustion chamber ancl turbine, connected together as shown in Fig. Lt Combustion tates hie Proms ofcopbuston Compressor ‘Tine Fig. 11 A simple gas turbine In a practical eyele, losses do occur in both the compressor and the turbine which increase the power absorbed by the compressor and decrease the power output of the turbine. A certain minimum addition of energy in the form of fuel to the fuid will therefore be required before one component can drive the other. This fuel produces no useful power, due to component losses and lowering of efficiency of the machine. Further addition of fel will ‘ull in « useful power output. However, there Isa limit to the aaiount of fuel that can be added per unit mass of air and therefore to the net power output. The fuel-air ratio that may be used is governed by the working temperature of the highly stressed turbine blades. This temperature is limited by the creep strength of the materials used in the turbine blades and the working life required. ‘The two main factors which affect the performance of gas turbines are the-eficiencies of various components and turbine working temperature, ‘The higher they are made, the better isthe all-round performance of the plant. It vas, in fac, low efficiencies and poor turbine materials which caused the failure of a mmber of early attempts. For example, in 1904 two French engineers built a unit which did litle more than turn itself over, with compressor efficiency of abont 60% and the maxim gas temperature of about 740 K. The averall efficiency ofthe gas turbine cycle mainly depends ‘upon the pressure ratio of tho compressor. ‘The development of science of ‘eerodynannics aud that of metallurgy made it possible to employ very high pressure ratios (20:1) with an adequate compressor efficiency (85-90%) and high turbine inlet temperatures, up to 1500 K. ‘Two possible combustion ystems were proposed: one al constant-pressure land the other at constant-volame Theoretically, the thermal efficiency of the constant-volume eyele is higher than that of coustant-pressuire ey- cle. However, constant-valume combustion involves mechanical lifficulties requiring valves to isolate the combustion chamber from the compressor and tbine. Combustion is intermittent impairing the smooth running of the4 Gas Turbines ‘machine. After cortain initial attompts, constant-volume type combustion ‘was discontinued. In the constant-pressure gas turbine, combustion is continuous and valves tare not necessary. Tt was soon accepted that the constant-pressure cycle had the greater possiblities for future development. It is important to realize that in the gas turbine the process of eom- pression, combnstion and expansion do not oceur in a single component 1s they do in a reciprocating engine. They occur in components which are separate, in the sense that they can be designed, tested and developed individually and these components can be linked together to form a gas tourbine unit in @ variety of ways, ‘The possible number of components is not limited to those already mentioned. More compressors and turbines ca be added with intercoolers between the compressors, ane reheat combus tion chambers between turbines. Waser coolers and heat exchangers can be additionally fitted. ‘These refinements are used to inerease the power out put and efficiency of the plant at the expense of aided complexity, weight and east. The way these components are added not only affects the mnaxi- ‘mum overall thermal effcieney but also the variation of thermal efficiency. Each arrangement is to be chosen depending ou its suitability for given application, Thus, itis seen that o simple ges turbine consists mainly of, three components. OF the three, two are rotating machines and the third ‘one is a heat addition device. However, more complex system is possible with the addition of auxiliary devices such as heat exchanger, intercooler snd reheater, In order to understand the working principle and cycle ar rrangements one should frst have some fundamental knowledge of rotating rmachines. This will be taken up in Chapter 3 after the review of some hasie principles iu Chapter 2. Review Questions 11 What is the difference between our civilization and the ancient ones and what action of the man revolutionized the world? 1.2. What is @ heat engine and what i its origin? 13 What és a steom engine and what are its characteristics? 4.4 What is the inkerent disadvantage of a steam power plant? 1.5 Which were the three contemporary power plants for the production of power? 1.6 When was the earliest gas turbine design attempted and what was the result? 1.7 What are the latest research efforts in gas turbines and why is this power plant considered to be satisfactory? 1.8 Explain with a neat sketch the details of a simple gas turbine power plantIntroduction 8 1.9 Compare the steam and gas tirhine power plants 4.10 Which parameter is most important to delermine the overll efficiency of a gas turbine cycle? 4.41 What are the two factors which affect the performance of a gos tur- bine? 1.12 What are the two types of combustion systems? 1.13 Why is constant-prescure hext addition is more advantageous in a gas turbine? 4-14 What advantage does a gas turbine power plant have over a recigro- ‘cating engine from the point of view of component developments? 41.15 How many components are there in a simple gus turbine purser plant? Mention the additional components that can be added to improve the power output and efficiency. Multiple Choice Questions (choose the most appropriate answer) 1, Around the tum of nineteenth century the mest important prime (a) gas turbines (6) diosel engines (c) steam turbines (4) gasoline engines 2, Barly aircraft engines used (a) 2s turbine engines (b) gasoline engines () Diesel engines (4) steam turbines 3. The gas turbine was invented by (a) Jobn Barber (b) Brayton (©) Otto (2) Atkinson 4. arly designs of the gas turbine were unsuccessful due to (6) low efficiency of the compressor (b) low efficiency of the turbine6 Gas Turbines (6) combustion temperature limitation (@) allof the above 5, Reciprocating engines are preferred over gas turbines because of (2) igh reliability (©) high power to weight ratio (6) all of the above (€) none of the above 6, A simple open-cycle gas turbine power plant consists of (0) turbine, combustion chamber and heat exchanger (b) turbine, combustion chamber and charge cooler (6) turbine, combustion chamber and compressor (@) turbine, compressor and heat exchanger 17. The combustion in a gas turbine is at (a) constant-pressure () constant-volume (c) pattly constant-pressure and partly constant-volume (2) constant temperature 45. The performace of « simple gas eurbiae depends on (.) efficiency of the compressor (b) efficiency of the turbine (c) efficiency of the compressor and turbine (@) none of the above 9. The pressure ratio of the modern gas turbine power plant is (a) 5a (b) 101 (©) a5 (@) 204, 10. The highest turbine inlet vemperature is (2) 1000 K (®) 1200 K (6) 1500 (a) 1800 K Ans: 1.-(2) 2~(0) 3 -(2) 4-(@) 5 (a) 6 (6) T-() 8 (0) 9 -(@) 10-0)2 REVIEW OF BASIC PRINCIPLES INTRODUCTION Turbines and compressors are usually analyzed wsing thermodynemic and fluid dynamite equations. “The thermodynatnie equations relate tem perature, pressure and volume whereas the fluid dynamic equations relate force, mass and velocity. The following are the laws that are frequently used! in dealing with problems of and operation of these machines: {@) energy equation in its various forms from the first law of thermody= (Gi) temperature, entropy and gas relations from the second law of ther- ‘modynamies, (i) continuity relationships from the law of conservation of mass, end nt from Newton's second lnw of mati (iv) momentum equat 2.1 DEFINITIONS AND LAWS Before discussing the various acto-thermodynamic aspects of compressors ‘and turbines, let us review some important definitions used in the analysis fof compressible flow useful for rotating machines, However, the tead is advised to refer to standard textbooks on thermodynainies and fluid dynamics for more details 2.1.1 System A fixed identity with an arbitrary collection of matter is known as a systett. ‘The boundary isan imaginary surface which separates the system froin its surroundings. Surroundings are those which are outside the system, System can be classified as either an open system or a closed system,8 Gas Turbines Open System When there is a continuous low of matter iti called an open system. Such a system is usually depicted by a contral volume. It has fixed space but does not contain a fixed mass of matter; instead there is a ‘continuous Row of mass through it. ‘The properties of the matter occupying the control volume can vary with time, The surface which encloses a control volume is called control surface, Glosed System When there is a fixed quantity of matter (Fluid or gas), it is called a closed system. There is no inflow or outflow of matter to tnd from a closed system. However, a closed system can interact with its ‘surroundings through work and heat transfers. ‘The boundaries of a closed system containing the fixed mass of matter ean change. Expanding gas in ‘reciprocating internal combustion engine is one such example, 24.2 State Condition of a system, defined by its properties, is known as the state of syste 2.3 Process |A change or a series of changes in the state of a system is known as & process 21.4 Cycle If tho initial and final states of a system experiencing a series of processes fre identieal, it is said to have excented a eye 21.5 Pressure Prossure at a point surronded by au infinitesimal area, AA, is the force per unit area. Pressure is usually designated by Pascal in SI units. Tt may flso be expressed as N/m? or bat. In this book, we will follow “bar” as the luni of pressure 2.1.6 Density ‘The density of a medium is the mass of the matter (gas) per unit: volume. Density is expressed in ka? 24.7 Temperature When two aystems are in contact with each other and are in thermal equi- librium, the property common to both the systems having the same value is called temperature. Thus temperature isa measure ofthe thermal potential of a system,Review of Basie Principles 9 21.8 Energy Energy is the capacity to do work, ‘The state of a system can be changed by adding or removing energy. Heat and work are different forms of energy im transit. They are not contained in any system, Heat is the form of energy which transfers between two systems by virtue of the temperature diference between them. Heat transfer to or from a system changes its state Work is said to be done by a system on its surroundings when they are moved through a distance by the action of a force; this is exerted by the system on the surroundings in the direction of the displacement of the surroundings. The magnitude of mechanical work is given by Work done = Force x Distance in the direction of force Both heat and work are path functions and they depend on the type of process and therefore, are not properties of a system. In Sl units, energy, heat and work are all expressed in joules (J), kilojoules (kd) or Newton metres (Nm) 2.1.9 First Law of Thermodynamics It states that when a system executes a eyelie process, the algebraic sum of ‘the work transfers is proportional to the algebraic sum of the heat transfers. for = fue = sfoo an ‘When heat and work are expressed in the same units, then fao- fav = 0 aa It can easily be shown that the quantity (dQ ~ dW) is independent of the path of the process and henoe it represents a change in the property of the system. This property is referred to as energy, denoted here by the symbol £. Thus, ae = éQ-aw 23) ‘Equation 2.3 for the two states ofa system can be written as EB = Q-W Q = WH(h-B) ea) Heat transfer = Work done + Change in energy 21.10 Specific Heats of Gases ‘The specific heat of a gas is the heat carrying eapacity in a process. It is the amount of heat that is required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the gas by one degree10 Gas Turbines 1 theriodytannie analysis two different types of specific heats are used (i) Specific heat at constant-volume, and (G) Specific heat at constant-pressure “The specific heat at constant-volume (C,) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the gas by one degree at coustant= -@).-@, a ‘Tho specific heat at constant-pressure (C) is the amount of heat requited toraise the temperature ofa unit mass of the gas by one degree at constant- presse It given by #), - (H), ew The specific beats of actual gases are a function of temperature and vary with: Lemperature Cn Co = ST) en ‘The ratio of the two spevific boats (9), an important parameter in come presible flo problems of turbomachines nud is defined as G G d= (28) 21.11 Internal Energy ‘The internal energy of gas is the energy stored in it by virtue of its molecular motion, Ii i assumed that the internal energy of a perfet gas is zero at the absolute zero temperature, its value at a temperature Tis sven by uo = Gr 29) 24.12. Enthalpy "The heat supplied to or rejected by a system at constant-pressure is the change of enthalpy during the process. The value of enthalpy at a given state given by ho = Utpw ut 5 (2.10) sl for a ideal gas (eu)Review of Basle Principe 14 2.113 Ideal Gas ‘Am ideal gas obeys both Boyle's and Charles laws, ic, (pe)p = constant (Boy's aw) en) (&),, = semtant (Chore twp eas) “Ts, a ideals obeys the smple equation of sate oer ery p = pRT (2.15) ‘The two specific heats and the gas constant for an ideal gas are related by the following equation: Op- Ce R (2.6) Substituting Bg. 2.8 in 2.16, we got (27) (2.8) 2AM Perfect Gas A perfect gas is an ideal gas whose specific heats remain constant at all temperatures 0 (29) constant with temperate and dic. rn) (220) Cy = constant with temperature, Unless otherwise stated, analyses of ‘compressible flow given in this book assume perfect gas relations. 21.15 Semi-perfect Gas A semi-perfect gas is an ideal gas whose specific heats vary with Lemperar G& = KT) md CG = fT) 2) 21.16 Real Gas ‘The real gas behaviour deviates from that of an ideal gas. It docs not ober the equation of state (Eqs. 2.14, 215, ete,). Different equations of state are used for real gases12 Gas Turbines 2.117 Second Law of Thermodynamics "The second law of thermodynamies can be stated in a number of ways. Some of them are a follows: () Clausius statement Heat cannot, on its own, flow from a body at lower temperature to a body at higher temperature. (ii) Kelvin-Planck's statement It is impossible to construct a heat engine ‘which performs a complete cycle and delivers work exchanging heat from a single source. ‘The following relations can be derived from the second law of thermody. Definition of entropy oo om) fR [se .. 4 a2 mm > 0 (2.25) tn any eve, eS 2 fe eo om) ss 0 (2.27) 2.1.18 Reversible Process [A process is reversible if the system and its surroundings can be restored to their initial states by reversing the process. A reversible process in a flow machine is possible only in the absence of fluid friction and heat transfer ‘with finite temperature difference. Since these conditions are impossible to Achieve in actual processes, all real flows in compressors and turbines are inreversible. The reversible process is used only as an idea! reference process or comparison with its equivalent actual processReview of Base Principles 13 2a An irreversible process is one which does not satisfy the above conditions of reversibili 19 Irreversible Process 2.1.20 Adiabatic Process During a process if there is no heat transfer between the system and the ‘surroundings itis known as an adiabatic process. All the rotating machines discussed in this book are assumed to follow only adiabatie processes 2.1.21 Isentropie Process ‘An adiabatic process in which entropy remains constant is known as a reversibly adiabatic or isentropic process. For unit mass, this is governed by the following relations: po? = constant (228) B-@"-@"- @ om th-vdp = dh=Zap = 0 (2.30) Tas 2.1.22 Non-flow Process A process that occurs in a closed system is @ non-low process. One such ‘example is shown in Fig, 2.1. Tt represents the expansion of a fixed mass of gas inside the cylinders of a reciprocating engine Volume ig. 2.1 Blustration of a non-flow process ‘The work done in an infinitesimal nonslow proces is given by aap = pv ean) "The work done between the two states I and 2 is1d Gos Turbines Wore =f mtv (232) For an adiabatic process, assuming perfect gas relations Warp = Pylon mm) @33) G(T = Th) = th ~ (23a) 2.1.23 Flow Process |A process that oceurs in an open system or in a control volume is a flow process, Processes occurring in all turbomachines are of this type. Figure 2.2 represents scl a process. x constant Pressure Volume Fig. 2.2 Ilustration ofa flow process “The infinitesimal work done in a reversible process is given by Wy = edp (2335) For a finite process : Wy = - [vay (2.36) For an aabatc prooes in pefet gas Wip = Lyre — pam) (237) Wry = Cpl 7) (238) Wry = hime (239)Review of Basic Principles 18 2.2 ENERGY EQUATION ‘The energy equation (Bq. 2.4) ip basically derived from the frst law of thermodynamics as given in Section 2.1.9. Its written as Q@ = WHe-H) (240) For application in turbomachines, the energy’ terms will include internal ‘energy, gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy. Other forms of ‘energy which can be included but are not relevant here are strain energy, magnetic energy, ete Ee u dnc? U + mlgzZ) + 5me4 (2.41) ae = ay+mg tz +ma( ie) (2.2) where U is the internal energy and Z is the potential energy and e is the velocity ofthe fui. ‘The change in the energy in finite process between two states is given by f= Wa Uy) +mal(Zz- 2) + 3m(B—4) 248) Substituting Eq. 2.43 In Eq. 2, a general form ofthe energy equation can be obtained. Q=W + U0) + al Dividing thronghout by m 4 = wh(w-m)+o(Ze- 2) 3 (G-4) 24s) eS a)+ing-d) aa 2.2.1 Steady-flow Energy Equation For steady flow processes through turbomachines, the work vermin Eas, 244 ‘nd 2.45 contains shaft work and flow work, Ths, Wo= We+(n¥a- mv) (246) Substituting Eq, 2.46 in Bq, 2.44 and rearranging, we to Q = We Ua + Va) (Us + M+ mglZa— Zi)+3m(h—4) C0) Writing enthalpy #7 for the quantity U + pV, y+ mgZa + pm +Q My +mgZa+ Em, (2.48) In terms of specie quantities, mnrarit Shea = hbo t tat, — (249) Equation 2.48 ot 2.49 is the steady-flow energy equation fora control volume ‘or an open system. This will now be rewritten for processes in. various turbomachines and their components,16 Gas Turbines f 2.2.2 Hydro-turbomachines In hydro-turbomachines as constant as shown in Figs. 24(a ~ a). ‘The moving object creates disturbance waves. Asin Figs. 2a and b) the disturbance waves will roach a stationary ebsorver before the source of disturbance (moving object) could reach hit in subsonic flow. In supersonic flows, Pig. 2.4(@) it takes considerable amount of time for an observer to perceive the pressure disturbance, after the source has passed! him. This is one of the fundamental ¢iferences hetwoen subsonic and supersonic flows. ‘Therefore, in a subsonic flow, the sireamlines sense the presence of my obstacle itr the flow field and adjust themselves ahead of it and flow around it smoothly. But in the supersonic flow, the streamlines feel the obstacle only when they hit it. The obstacle sets as @ souree of disturbance md sc the streamlines deviate as the Mach cone as shown in Fig, 2.4(d). shoul be noted that the distunlsaner die to obstacle is sucklen and therefore, the flow behind the obstncle hs to change abruptly. 1h Fig, 24(d), it is shown that for supersonic motion of au abject, there iy a well-defined eonieal zone in the fost field with the abject located at te nose of the cone, anul the disturmce ereated by’ the moving object is confined only to the field included inside the cone, ‘The Hl field zone ‘outside the cone does not even feel te disturbance. For this reason, von Karman termed the region inside the cone as the ne of action, and the region outside the cone ns the zone of sitence. The lines at which the pressure disturbance is concentrated anx-whieh generate the cone are called Mach waves or Mach lines. The angle between the Macla line and the direction of motion of the body is ealled the Mach angle,Review of Base Principkes 28 Were Fig, 24 Propagation of disturbance wave From Fig, 2.4(d), it ean be written as ao . sing = Boe Eo (2:75) 1 i sing = em). From the disturbance waves propagation shorn in Fig. 2.4, we eam infer the following features of the ow regimes. {) When the medium is incompressible [ = 0, Fig. 2.4)] or when the speed of the moving distance is negligibly small compared! vo the local sound speed. the pressure pulse crentel by the cisturbance will spread uniformly in all directions. (ii) When the disturbance source moves with n subsonic speed [M <1 Fig, 2.4(b)), the pressire disturbance will he felt i all directions At all points in space (neglecting viscous dissipation), the presstre patter will not be svmuotrical, (ii) For sonic velocity [MF = 1, Fig, 24(e)) che pressure pulse sill he at the boundary between subsonic and supersonic flow aud sive wave front wall be in a plane, liv) For supersonic speods [AF > 1, Fig. 2.4(4)] the distrbanee seove plienioniena ave totally different from those nt sthsonie speeds, AIL the24 Gas Turbines pressure disturbances are included in cone which has the disturbance soutee at its apex. The effect of the disturbance is not felt upstream ‘of the disturbance source, Flow around a wedge shown in Figs. 2.5(a) and (bean be seen with smooth change and abrupt change in How direction for subsonic and super- sonie flow, respectively. FB 7 a Mas Ma?! (a) Subsonic flow (b) Supersonic flow Fig. 25 Flow around a wedge For Mmz <1, the flow changes its direction smoothly and pressure decreases with acceleration; for My > 1; there is sudden change in flow drcotion at the body and pressure Increases downstream of the shock. 2.4.14 Small Disturbance When the apex angle of wedge, 6, is extremely small, the disturbances will be small. Then, we can consider these to be identical to sound pulses In such a case, the deviation of streamlines will be small. There will be infinitesimally small increase in pressure across the Mach cone as shown in Fig. 26. Fig. 2.6 Mach coneReview of Basie Principles 25 24.15 Finite Disturbance ‘When the wedge angle, 5, is finite, the disturbances introduced are finite, and then the wave is not called Mach wave but 2 shock or shock wave (Fig, 27). The angle of shock, is always smaller than the Mach angle, 4 Fig, 27 Shock wave ‘The deviation of streamline is finite and there is fnite pressure increase across the shock wave, 2.4.16 Transonic Flow Whe u buy is het i transonic ow (Mach wuumber between 0.8 ond 1.2), it experiences subsonic flow over some portions ofits surface and supersonic flow over other portions, ‘There is also a possibility of shock formation on the body. Tt is this mixed nature of the flow field which makes the study of transonie flows complicated, 2.4.17 Hypersonic Flow ‘The temperature at stagnation point and over the surface of an object in the hypersonic flow becomes very high and, therefore, it requires special treatment. ‘That is, we must consider the thermodynamic aspects of the flow along with gas dynamic aspects. That is why hypersonic flow theory js also called sero-thermodynamic theory. Besides, because of high tem- perature, the specific heuts become functions of temperature and hence the gas cammot be treated 9s perfect gas. Ifthe temperature Is quite high (of the order of more than 2000 K), even dissociation of gas can take place. "The complexities duo to high temperatures associated with hypersonic fow rakes its study complicated, 2.5 STREAMTUBE AREA-VELOCITY RELATION Im this section, let us consider quasi-one-dimensional flow, allowing the streamtube area A to vary with distance x, as shown in Fig. 2.8.26 Gas Turbines ana Pop) Pepi T=) a) Pig. 28 Quasi-one-dimonsional fow Let us continue to assume that all flow properties are uniform across any given cross-section of the streamtube, and hence are functions of only for steady flows. Such a flow, where A = A(z),p = ple), = A(t), and © = e(¢) for steady low, is defined as quasi-one-dimensional flow. Algebraic equatious for steady quas-one-dimensional law can be obtained bby applying the integral form of the conservation equations For any streamtube of area A, the continuity equation is given by pAc = coustant (27) Differentiating with respect to-6, we obtain Since, os ca Tren oc + Ane) = 0 4 = (278) Equation 2.78 is an impostant result. It called the araa-eelocty relation ‘The following information ean be derived from the atea-velocity relation: (3) For incompressible low limit, Le., for M —+ 0, Eq. 2.78 shows that constant. "This isthe famenis volume-consereatin eqytation oF nuity equation for incompressible HowReview of Basie Przeples 27 (i) For 0 < M <1, a decrease in area results in increase of velocity, and viee versa. Therefore, the velocity increases in a convergent duct and decreases in a divergent duct. This result for compressible subsonic flows is the same as that fr incompressible flow. (ii) For a1 > 1, an inerease in area results in increase of velocity and vice versa, ie, the velocity increases in a divergent duct and decreases in a convergent duct. ‘This is directly opposite to the behaviour of ‘subsonic flow in convergent and divergent duct. (iv) For AM = 1, by Eq, 2.78, dA/A = 0, which implies thet the location where the Mach number is unity, the area of the passage is either ‘minimum or maximom. We can easily show that the minitnum in area isthe only physically realistic solution, ‘The above results are shown schematically in Fig. 2.9 Velocity, Subsonic, M=1 Superonie, M> | ae Kaen a Fig. 2.9 Flow in convergent and divergent ducts From the above discussions, itis elear that for a gosto expand isentropi- cally from subsonic to supersonic speeds. it mast flow through a eonvergent- divergent duct, as shown in Fig.2.10. The minimum area that divides the convergent and divergent seetions of the duct is called the throas. From the point (3v) above, we know that the flow at the throat must be sonic with M = 1. Conversely, for a gas to get compressed isentropieally from super sonie to subsonic speeds, it mnst again Bow through a convergent - amie head of the stream C2 ‘The hydraulic diameter, D is defined as pf lcrosesectionat_acea) a wetted perimeter ‘The advantage of using hydraulic diameter is liydraulie diameter, are valid even for duets the equations, in terms of h non-circular cross-section. ‘The maximum length of the duct requited for the flow to choke fora given Initial Mach mumber is given by Jonas Y= ME 71, [_ Gea? igs = a an ei] em where J isthe mean friction cosicient with respect to duet length, defined by Pe [me 283) ‘The duet tng require for the ow to ps Som a given inl Mach Iter Me agen final Mach nunber Nf an be bane fom the reson Ce) It should be understood that Fanno flow friction always drives the Mach number towards unity, decelerating a supersonic low and accelerating a absonie flow. For any given initial Mach number, for a certain value of L the flow becomes sonic. For this condition the flow is said to be choked since any farther increase in L is not possible without causing a drastic change of the inlet conditions. Por instance, ifthe inlet conditions were Achieved by expansion through @ supersonic nozzle, and if L were larger than thet allowed for attaining Mach 1 at the exit, then a normal shock would form inside the supersonic nozzle and the duct inlet conditions would suddenly become subsonic. Tis important to note that fiction always causes the total pressure to Ldecresse whether the inlet low is subsonic or supersonic. Further, unlike the Rayleigh curve for low with heating or cooling, the upper and lower por- tions of the Fanno curve eannot be traversed by te same one-dimensional flow. In other words, tis not possible to fist decelerate a supersonic flow ‘to sonie condition by fiction, aud then further retard it to subsonic speeds84. Gas Turbines also by friction, sinee such a subsouie deceleration violates the second law of thermodynannies. In summary, it ean be stated that change of state in flow properties is achieved by the following three means: (@) with area change, treating the fluid to be inviscid and passage to be frictionless, (i) with friction, considering the heat transfer between the surrounding and aystem to be negligible, and (Gi) with beat transfer, assuming the uid to be invised and passage to be fiictionless. ‘These three types of flows are called isentropic flow, frictional or Fanna- type flow , and Rayleigh-type flow , respectively. Al gas dynamie problems encountered in practice ean be classified un der these three flow processes, of course with appropriate assumptions, Although it is impossible to have a flow process whieh is purely isentropic for Fanno-type or Rayleigh-type. In practice, itis justified in assuming x0, since the results obtained from these processes prove to be accurate enough for most of the practical situations in gas dynamics Flows in which wall friction is the chief factor bringing about changes In uid properties, assuming that no heat is transferred to oF from the fui stream are termed Fanno-type flow. When the ducts are short, the flow is approximately adiabatic. However, when the duets are extremely lang. in the case of natural gas pipe lines, there is sufficient aren for heat transfer to make the flow non-adiabatic and approximately isothermal 2.10.1 Laminar Flow In laminar flow the fuid flows over a body in exderly parallel layers with no components of fluctuations in any of the three directions (x,y and 2 directions). In such a flow, the surface fretion force predominates. nd keeps the flow parallel to the surface. Other layers of flow slide on Lop ofthe other. The values of the Reynolds number in such flows are comparatively lover. 2.10.2 Turbulent Flow At higher values of the Reynalds number, the inertia force hecomes predom= inant and the duid particles are no longer constrained to move in parallel Inyers. Sneh a flow experiences stall uctuation cotaponents <2, and ¢! inthe three reference directions. These fluctuations eause continuous mix: ing of various layers of the flow lending to flow equalization in the major part of the fo fel. On account of differnt flow patterns in laminar and turbulent flow, the velocity profites (shown in Fig. 214) in these are diferent. ‘The nature of flow in blade passages in a turbine can be identified to a great extent by the velocity profiles and the values of Reynolds number.Review of Basic Principles 35 low page |e Tare come Fig, 2.44 Nature of velocity profile in laminar and turbulent flows 2.10.3 Degree of Turbulence ‘The presence of siall-seale fluctuations (¢,.¢, and ¢2) of volocity superin- posed on the main flow is called turbulence,” The degree of turbulence is Aefined by Degree of turbulence = 422) (290), 2.10.6 Boundary Layer Figure 2.15 shows the velocity profile at Section A in a Row passage. The ‘velocity of the fluid on the passage wall is zero. It is developed fully to the Tree stream velocity ex. over a short distant 6 from the wall. This layer of flow with thickness 6 from the wall is known as the boundary layer ‘This exists only in a viscous Sow. The boundary layer is absent in inviscid flow, ‘The effect of viscosity is predominant in this region, causing high energy losses. ‘The boundary layer thickness decreases with an increase in the Reyuolds number on account of the lower viscous forees compared to the inertia forees H i Free i scam 1 1 Pw Fig, 2.15 Boundary layer and free stream regions in a flow passage36 Gas Turbines 2.10.5 Friction Factor Friction factor or the coefficient of skin friction is ® measure of the fietional resistance offered to the flow. This is defined by 1-2 0) whore f is the Fanning’s cooficient of skin friction. Tt may’ be noted that Dares’s friction factor is four times the Fanning’s coefficient. 2.10.6 Boundary Layer Separation ‘The boundary layer is the slow-moving or tired layer of the flow near a solid surface. When the flow occurs in the direction of static pressure rise (adverse pressure gradient), the boundary layer becomes thicker and reverses if this statie pressure gradient (or the pressure hill) s too high. The Jeaving of the boundary layer from the surface and its reversal is known as ‘separation. This loads to chaotic flow, Inge drag and high energy’ losses In an accelerating flow, on aecount of the continuously deereasing static presente the thickening of the boundary layer is prevented; in fact, the higher inertia forces make it thinner. ‘The available pressure drop helps in ‘washing down any localized thickening of the boundary layer or its separa- ‘The separation of boundary layer and the point of separation depend on the geometry and roughnens of the surface, nature ofthe How {turbulent ot laminar) and Reynolds momber. The laminar boundaey layer gets separated ‘earlier than the turbulent boundary layer In order to achieve high itt and good performance it is necessary to prevent or delay the separation of the boundary layer. Two of the methods to achieve this are (}) sucking away the decelerated layer, an (i) energizing it by injocting high energy fluid parallel to the surface. Separation ean also be delayed by achieving transition of the laminar flow into the turbulent ‘earlier. In all turbomachines boundary layer separation should be avoided. Review Questions 2.1 State the various lous used in the design of turbomachines. 2.2 Explain (i) open system, and (3) elosed system. 2.9 State the relationship between enthalpy and internal energy? 2.4 State Clausius and Kelvin-Planck's statement of second last of ther- ‘modynamic. 2.5 Explain the flow and non-flow process. 2.6 Derive steady-state energy equation. 2.7 Eaplain the terms “stagnation pressure’ and 'stagnation temperature”Review of Basie Principles 87 2.8 What ave streamlines and streamtubes? Brplain with a sketch. 2.9 Beplain the difference between laminar and turbulent flow. 2.10 What is « boundary layer? Give « brief account of boundary layer separation. Multiple Choice Questions (choose the most appropriate answer) 1. Pressure ean be expressed in units (2) Paseat (b) N/m? (6) bar (€) sone of the above 2, Cy can be expressed as = (8), wa), © c= (F), @) 6 = (BB. 3. Cp cam be expressed as (0) Co= Ge 9 &o= (85) (© Gp= (3), (@) Cy= (Hy 44. A process that occuts in closed syste s (9) closed fow process () non-flow process {c) open flow process (2) none of the above 5, A process that occurs in a open syste is (a) open flow process (b) nom-flaw process (6) flow process (@) none of the above38 Gas Turbines 6. Energy transformation ean occur (2) in moving blades (b) in fixed blades (©) both moving and fixed blades (2) none of the above 7. I the relative change in the density of a uid in a process is negligible then itis called (2) compressible ow (b) incompressible flow (6) steady flow (€) unsteady low 8. Reynolds number isthe ratio of (2) clastic fore / viscous force (©) inectia force / elastic force (6) viscous force / inetin force (@) inertia foree / viscous force 9. Mach mabe ie the satio of (a) Inertia force / viscous force (b) inertia force / elastic force {e) viscous force / inertia force (i) elastic force / viscous force 10, Tn a pipe flow if the Reynolds mimber is greater than 2000 then it is considered as («) laminar (b) steady (©) turbulent (@) unsteady Ans: 1 -(2) 2-() 3-@ 4-0) 5.-@ 6.=(6) T= (b) 8 -(@) 9~() 10. ~(@)3 FUNDAMENTALS OF ROTATING MACHINES INTRODUCTION In the Inst chapter we reviewed some basic principles weil for the gas ‘ourbine eyele analysis. In this chapter we will deal with the fundamental principle of operation of rotating machines. Rotatiug machines are ust ally called turlomachines, ‘These mnchines work on the principle of work addition or extraction. When a fluid passes through a rotating, machine two things happen, viz., energy transfer and energy transformation. The energy transfer means transfer of available energy Irom one part (Fotor) to ‘the medium (lluid) or vice versa, Energy trausformation ineans change of lone form of energy into another form, for example, change of Kinetic energy to pressure energy in a compressor. ‘The energy transfer can occur only in its moving or rotating elements whereas the energy transformation can ‘occur in both stationary and rotating elements As both the compressors and turbines are concerned with energy trans- fer, we will consider their basie performance together. In compressors the ‘encrgy is transforred from the rotor to the finid while in turbines itis from fluid to the rotor. The effectiveness of this transfer of energy int a fuid machine is governed mainly by the fluid dynamies of the system, 3.1 GENERAL FLUID DYNAMICS ANALYSIS Figure 8.1 shows the details of the passage ofa Suid through a rotor of any ape. The rotor has an axis A—A and rotates at a steady’ angular velocity ‘of u radians per second. Let us assume that st point 1 the Aud enters with a velocity ¢, and leaves at point 2 with velocity es. ‘The radial distance of these points from the axis A~A is r; and 79 respectively. The velocity e1 ean be represented by three velocity components, viz, (cai + axial velocity in a direction parallel tothe axis A— AL40 Ges Turbines 4 w radis A Fig. 3.1 Fluid flow through 2 rotor (i) 641 + radial velocity in the direction normal to A A (ii) car + tangential velocity in the dizeetion normal to any radius ‘Similary, at the exit point 2, the velocity cg will have the three components, Gans and eee respectively. Figure 3.2 shows the velocity triangles at the entry as well as at the cexit of a general rotating machine. All velocity vectors shown are in the tune plane and assumed to remain constant over the entire entry and exit Fig, 3.2 Energy transfer in a turbomachine ‘The angular speod of the rotor is w radians per second, ann 2 ae‘Fundamentals of Rotating Machines 44 ‘The peripheral velocities of the blades at the entry and exit correspond- ing to diameters dy and da are i ENG ey _ aNd w = ‘The directions ofthe relative velocity vectors correspond tothe rotor blade angles. The absolute velocity vectors, 2 are those which wil be observed by ‘ person standing outside the rotor, svhereas, the relative velocity vectors are the oues which will be observed by an observer positioned on the rotor. ‘The thre velocity vectors Zi and Za a section (or station) are elated by the simple vector equation es ate ‘The absolute velocity at both the entry and exit has a tangential component cy and a radial component cy. ‘The torque exerted by the rotor or by the fluid is obtained by employing Newton's second law of motion for the change of moment of momento Torque = Rate of change in moment of momentum Considering the interaction of fluid and rotor it will be seen that axial and radial components do not contribute to the rotation, ‘The axial oom ponent, ea, produces thrust and the radial component, c,, the radial foc ‘The tangential component, c,, produces rotational effects. Considering uni mass of uid, entering end leaving, in unit time, we ean write ‘The angulae moment of momentum at inlet = eur (3.1) ‘The angular moment of momentum at exit = cary (32) [As per Newton's law, the rate of change of angular moment of momentum is equal to the torque produced. Therefore, T = cun-ean (a) and hence the rate of energy transfer for unit mass flow per unit time will be given by. B= Te = wfear-ear) = eanw-cane (34) Bu, wry = uy and arg = up. Hence, B= enm—cau (35) ‘The above equation i called Buler Stnergy equation. ‘The equation can be analyzed under éwo conditions, viz.42 Gas Turbines () For crius > craua, in which the energy transfer is postive (i) Por eave “a= 30-be~1 ° Time: 20-2 ° On solving the above three simultaneous equations, we get a= b= oe = 0 Heenee, from Ba. = (332) Th = ptpDSN (33) MOLT? (arene) [ashe] (09 fr Meth prendre poms (oa) ‘Equating exponents, Mass ath Length: ~a-3b-+e Time: —2a—1Fundamentals of Rotating Machines 58 (On solving the above simultaneous equations, we have 1 1 pee oo oe os m = Be 2.35 ver 2 Ty = pfe'D%in (3.36) Ty ‘MOLST® [aenmer 2) fae (ce) (337) ee sel lull (3.38) qvating exponents Mas: atb41 ° Length: “a= toee = 0 Tue: 21 0 (on salving the above simultaneous equations we have 2 1 ee rhe e chee t=, 5g ox) step 6 Th ‘J (Hlay Ts) There, For a given compressor and working fuid, D and the gas constant, Rare fixed. Writing p in terins of pRT, the pressure ratio is given by a Bef ‘The process may be repeated, letting the outlet temperature Ty be a fane- tion ofthe saue variable, in which case wil again be found to be the function of | Wty | ete x Nir 1005 | TAO) O02at | 0.287 | Argon | 0515 | 1.660) 0.0163 | 0.151 Holium | 5.191 | 1.660 0.1425 | 10.050 Hydrogen | 14.186 _| 1.408 | 0.1743 | 50.984 4.4 PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS WORKING MEDIA ‘Table 4.1 shows the properties of various gases which can be used as a ‘working meditim in the gas turbine ‘An examination of the properties of some representative gases shown in the table would indicate that when desirable values of Cp and 7 are available, they are accompanied by high values of 2. ‘The work done during compression per kg. of flow of any gas is given by We = OTT) and the temperatures after compression, Te, is given by = Trt It is clear, therefore, that low values of 7 and Cy are conducive to lower ‘compression work. On the other hand, a high value of 7 and Cp are essential for higher turbine output, assuming the same R. It may be noted that the ret output of the cycle will always increase with high values of Cy and ‘x. ‘Then the increased output per kg of working medium would permit a reduction in mass flow rate. However, high values of thermal conductivity would result in appreciable saving in heat exchangers, i, regenerators and precoolers. The values given in the Table 4.1 for F ate based on O°C for ‘comparative purpose, Actually, these values would be considerably higher ‘at the temperatures encountered in regenerators. Therefore, it may be concluded that any serious reduction in size of the gas turbine plant by using a gas other than air would have to be realized in heat exchangers. Of course, a gas other than air could be used in an externally-fited closed-yele. But it should be the aim to have a reduction in the size of heat exchanger and is particularly important, 4.5 APPLICATIONS Gas turbines ean bo classified into aireraft and industrial gas turbines, the second term meaning all those gas turbine power plants which are uot ichuded in the first category. ‘The aircraft gus turbines differ from the industrial gas turbines in three main aspects,Chole Arrangements 78 (i) The life ofthe industria gas turbine is expected to be ofthe order of 120,000 hours without major overhaul as against 600-1200 hours for aircraft gas turbines. (W) Size and the weight of an aireraft power plant is very erucial compared to industrial unit it) The aircraft power plant can make use of kinetic energy of the gases leaving the exhaust wheress it is wasted in other types and conse- quently, this energy loss must be kept as minimum as possible ‘These differences in the requirements have consideruble effect on design, although fundamental theory is same for both the categories, Industrial gas turbines are rugged in construction, with many ausiliary equipments. They ‘often employ a single large cylindrical combustion chamber. They are also designed for multfuel capability Apart from the aircraft market, the widest application of gas turbines hhave been in pump sets for oil and gas tranamission pipe lines and gen- eration of electricity. So far gas tunbines have made no inroads into the ‘world of merchant shipping but itis extensively used in naval operations A major disadvantage of the gas turbine in naval use is its poor part load performance and higher specific fuel consumption. To overconte this prob Jem, combined power plants consisting of gas turbines in conjunetiow with steam turbines, diesel engines and other gas turbines have been considered “Yo date, little impact has been made in the Bld of rail transport. Ex- perimental trains have been operating in some countries. The high speed passenger train with gas turbine power is an attractive concept for the fu- ture. Maybe in the near future, a long haul truck market will provide a major application for the gas turbine. Major automobile industries ate ac- tive in developing engines in the range of 200 ~ 300 kW. ‘These vehicular engines employ low pressure ratio, centrifugal compressor, free povwer tt bine and a rotary heat exchanger. Concern with exhaust pollution will be a critical factor in favour of gus turbine, The major problem is still with hight part-load fuel consumption. Another concept of potentially great importance is the so-called ‘Total Energy Plant, where exhaust heat is used to provide building heating in winter and reftigeration/air conditioning in the summer. Other uses for ‘enorgy in gas turbine’s exhaust are found in process industries, ‘The gos turbine ean also be used as a compact air compressor suitable for supplying large quantities of air at moderate pressres 4.6 COMPARISON OF GAS TURBINES WITH RECIPROCATING ENGINES Gas turbine is also an internal combustion engine. Its competitor in early stages was the reciprocating internal combustion engines. Let 1 compare thenTA Gas Turbines 4.6.1 Advantages of Gas Turbines over Reciprocating Engines (i) Mechanical efficiency Mechanical efficiency of the gas turbine is com siderably higher than that of the best reciprocating engine: For sim ple gas turbine design mechanical efficiency of 90% to 95% has been Claimed while for reciprocating engine itis from 85 to 90% under fall Toad conditions. It is due to more frictional losses in reciprocating engines, (ii) Balancing Due to absence of any reciprocating mass in gus turbine engine, balancing ean be near perfeet. Torsional vibrations are absent because gas turbine is a steady flow machine. (ii) Cost in case of larger output gas turbine units of 2500 kW, it can ‘be built at an appreciably lower cost and in a shorter time than the corresponding multicylinder petrol or diesel engines (iv) Weight The fuel consumption per KW hour of best available aireraft _gas turbine is almost twice that of the normal petrol engine. However, it has inch lighter weight per kW so that the total weight of turbine plus fuel does not compare unfavourably with reciprocating type of engine and ite fuel. To give quantitative example, the specific weight fof (a) steam turbine is about 83 ky/kW, (b) diesel engine is about 116 kg/KW and (c) gas turbine is about 20 kg/kW, (v) External shape and size ‘The basic eylindrieal shape of turbine and ‘compressor unit renders the gas turbine more conventent 1 ste, ‘specially in ireraft and locomotives. (vi) Fuel The turbine ean be designed to operate with cheaper and more readily available fuels such as benzene, powdered coal, and heavy ‘graded hydrocarbons. Promising results have been obtained using furnace ofl and also pulverized coal as fuel (ii) Lubrication Compared with reciprocating engines the lubrication of {gus turbines is comparatively simpler. The requirement is chiefly to Inbricate the main beating, compressor shaft and bearings of aussi (vill) Maintenance The fact that the gas turbine consists of essentially a sin- ‘le turbine and compressor unit with « common ar coupled shaft 1un- ning in a relatively smaller number of main bearings, only minimum maintenance is necesary as compared to the reciprocating internal combustion engines (Gx) Low operating pressures The gas turbine generally operates at rel tively low pressures 90 that the parts exposed to these pressitres can ‘be made light although the effects of thermal expansion and contrac- tion must be taken into account, ‘The maximum combustion pressure is much lower-than that in reciprocating engines so that, the pressure joints and piping do not pose any difficultyCycle Arrangements 75 (2) Silent operation Since the exhaust from # gas turbine occurs under Practically constant-pressure conditions unlike the pulsating nature of reciprocating engine exhaust, the turbine and compressor, if dy- namically balanced, can run very smoothly. ‘The usual vibrational noises asin the ease of reciprocating engine are almost absent. (i) Smokeless exhaust With the present tendency to use relatively Inege surplus air for combustion in order to reduce temperature of gases, ‘the exhaust from the turbine is almiost smokeless and generally free from pungent odour associated with optimum and rich fuel mixture whichis characteristic of reciprocating engines (si) High operational speed Turbine can be mace lighter than the vecip- zocating engine of similar output. It can be run at much higher speed ‘than reciprocating engines. The output of any engine varies directly as the product of the driving shaft torque and its rpm. Therefore, for a given output and higher speed the torque will be lower. It may be noted that the torque characteristies of the gas turbine Is much better than that of reciprocating engine, since the former gives a high Initial torque and its vatiation with speed is comparatively less. 4.6.2 Advantage () Bffcioney The overall efficiency of the turbine is much les thats the sosiprocating engine ainoo 70% of the output of the tusbine is to be fed to the compressor and other accessories and axsdliary parts of Reciprocating Engines over Gas Turbines (il) Temperature limitation "The maximum temperature in gas turbine cannot exceed 1500 K because of the material consideration of the Dlade while in reciprocating engines with complete combustion of the fuel the maximom temperature can be raised to 2000 K.. This high ‘temperature is permitted since the piston and eylinder head are sub- jected to this high temperature only for a fraction of a second. (itl) Cooting We ean achieve very good results by efficient cooling in recip- rocating engine by which the heat of the eylinder walls is taken away, which enables to keep the wall temperature only around 500 K but in gas turbine, cooling is complicated, and, therefore, much higher temperature cannot be allowed to reach. (iv) Starting difcutties 1 is more dllfcult to start a gas turbine than a reciprocating engine as it requires compressed air or some suitable starter mechanism which are complicated, Review Questions 4.1 What ave the two types of eycle arrangements possible for a gas turbine system and what is the basic difference betueen the two arrangements?76 Gas ‘Turbines 4.2 Brplain the details of single-shaft orrangement for fied load eondi- tions. 4.9 What is the purpose of adding « heat exchanger? Explain the detoils with suitable sketches 44 With neat sketches explain the details of a gas turbine system when ‘flexibility of operation is of paramount importance 4.5 Beplain with neat sketches the cycle arrangements of « series flow wih intercaling and series flow with reheating 4.6 With a neat sketch explain the straight compounded twin-spoot ar- sragement. 4.7 With reat sketches explain the working of elosed-cycle arrangements 4.8 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of elosed-cyole system over ‘open-eyele system, 4.9 What are important factors to be considered if working media other than air 8 to be used? 4:10 Briefly discuss the applications of gas turbines. 4.11 Discuss the advantages of gas turbines over reciprocating engines and 4:42 Discuss the adventages of reciprocating engines over gas turbines. “Multiple Choice Questions (choose the most appropriate answer) 1. A gas turbine eyele can he operated, (a) only as an open-eyele arranger (b) only as a closed-cyele arrangement () both as an open-cyele and close-eyele arrangen (a) none of the above mM 2, For the same pressure ratio and eyele peak temperature {) open-eyele is more efficient than closed-eycle (b) open-cyce is less efficent than clased-evele (6) both open-eyele an clsed-eyete will have the sain efi (4) none of the above 8/ Adding heat exchanger to a simple ideal eyele (2) improves work output (b) recluces work ontptCyele Arrangenents 77 (6) improves efficiency (@) improves both work output and efficiency 4. When flexibility of operation is important (a) single-shafe arrangement is better (b) toviu-shafe arrangement is better (c) multiple compression is better (4) none of the above 5. Major applications of gas turbines is for (a) aiverate (0) locomotive (©) automotive (@) all of the above 6, The specific weight of a gas turhine power plant is (0) 50 kg kw (b) 20 ka hw (6) 100 kg/kw (4) 80 kg 7. The selection of the working medium of a closed-eycle gas turbine power plant is based on (6) the availability and cost (b) non-explosive and non-cortosive properties (©) high specific heat value and specific heat ratio (2) all ofthe above 8. The life ofan industrial gas turbine without (a) 120,000 (®) 12,000 (©) 12008 (@) 20m sor overhaul is ‘The life ofa aircraft gas turbine without major overhaul is (a) 120,000 b (0) 12,000 5 (6) 12008 (@) 20%78 Gas Turbines 10. The overall efficiency of a gas turbine engine compared to reciprocat- ing engine forthe same power output (a) more (b) less (6) same as reciprocating engine (@) none of the above Ans: = (2) 2 (0) B-() 4 =) 5.~G) 6-0) T-@) &-@) %-|) 10-0)5 IDEAL CYCLES AND THEIR ANALYSIS INTRODUCTION In the previous chapter, we have seen, how large is the mumber of pos- sible varieties of gas turbine eyele arrangements, when multistage compres- sion and expansion, heat exchange, reheat and intercooling are incorpo- tated. A comprehensive study of the performance of all such eyeles allowing for the various ineficiencies of the components, would result ina very large ‘number of performance curves. This chapter io mainly concerned wit de- seribing methods for calculating eyele performance unider ideal conditions. For convenience, we will treat eyces i two groups: (@ shat power eyele, and (ii) aircraft propulsion eyele. An important distinetion between the two groups arises from the fact that the performance of sirerafe propulsion cycles depend very significantly ‘upon forward speed of the aireraft and altitude at which itis flying. How. ever, these two variables do not enter into performance calculations of shaft power eycle used in marine and land hased power plants to which this chap ter is confined Before proceeding with the main task, it will be useful to review the performance of ideal gas turbine eyes in which perfection ofthe individual components is assumed. The specific work output and eyele efficiency will jonly be a function of pressure ratio and maximum eycle temperature. The limited munber of performance curves so obtained enables one to analyze ‘the major effects of various additions to the simple eyele. To be seen clearly, such curves also show the upper limit of performance. In the limit this 's the maximum that ean be expeeted of real cycles as the efficiency of the gas turbine component is improved. Before going into the details of performance analysis let us list the various assumptions we make in the analysis of ideal eyele.80 Gas Turbines 5.1 ASSUMPTIONS IN IDEAL CYCLE ANALYSIS ‘The assumption of ideal gas turbine cycle will be taken to imply the fole low (i) The change of kinetic energy of the working Auid between inlet and cutlet of each component is negligible. (ii) Compression and expansion are reversible and adiabatic, ie, isen- trope. (il) There are no pressure losses in the inlet ducting, combustion cham bers, heat exchangers, intercooles, exhaust ducting. and ducts con- necting the components He vIn het echg & met be perfect (100% (~) The mass flow of gas is constant throughout the cycle (i) Working fnid has the same composition throughout the cycle and is a perfect gas with constant specific heats. (vii) Bening and windage friction, ete, are neglected. 5.2. THE SIMPLE GAS TURRINE CYCLE ‘The schematic details of a simple gas turbine are shown in Fig. 5.1, Figure 5.2 shows the various processes on a p-V diagram whereas Fig. 9.3 gives the details on a T-s diagram. Figures 5.1 and 5.5 show the performance curves ofthe evele. From the thermodynamic analysis the relevant steady flow energy equ~ tion bias been shown to be (refer Eq. 2.54) w= Ah = hah a) where 1, is the work transfer per unit mass flow, and ft stands for en~ ‘halpies. Applying Eq, 5.1 to each component and assuming unit mass flow of| the working fluid, we ean write the work input to the compressor (process 12) as ‘Compressor work [Wc] We = (e-m) = G(-T) (62) Heat addition (Q] Qa = (haha) = GylTs~T) 63) “Turbine work {Wr}‘eal Cycles and their Analisis 81 Combastion — Product of 3 sombasn 2 Fee i Powe i oupue Compressor Taine Fig. 5.1 Schematic arrangement of a simple gas turbine fe 3 | ? a. ls 2 NN Hi 7 s Fig. 5.2 p-V diagram Pig. 5.3 2s diagram 2 os. 06 Nos 02 ° Fig. 5.5 + vs efficiency82 Gas Turbines Wo = (uh) = Olt 7) (4) et work dutput [y} = Wr-We = Gp(Ts~ 1) ~ Ta —) (65) 2 on(B -R-B +) 60) Let ty nm Bata Bar 7 then oe qT = Lt 8) 1 a e(a-2)-e-0 69) Equation 5.9 shows that the specific work output 24x, upon which the sizeof the plant depends i «funtion of not only the pressure rai, (7), but ho of masz eyle tomperature Ts, Now, [Net work output Wye aoe ‘Heat input @ Ce ee 2 SRY Beat un) = Ghit-9-(9)) | tobe on[R-# = netebe 2) ‘The efciency of a simple gas turbine thus depends only on the presure ratio and the nature ofthe 4, (7) Figure 5.4 shows the plot of work output in non-dimensional forts 2 asa fanetion of rand t Ttmay be noted thet the value oft depends on fhe‘Heal Cyeles and thelr Analysie 88 ‘maximum cycle temperature, known as the metallurgical limit. The highly stressed perts of the turbine should withstand this temperature during the required working hfe. For an industrial plant it might be bebween 3.5 and 4.0, whereas a value of 5,0 to 55 is permissible for an aircraft engine with ‘cooled turbine blades. A glance at the specific output curves (Fig. 5.4) show that a constant ¢ ‘curve exhibits a maximum at a cortain pressure ratio; W =0 at r= 1 and also at the value of the pressure ratio, r= t™1—¥) (ie,, ¢ = t) for which the compression and expansion processes coincide (refer Eq. 5.9) For any given value of t, there must be an. optimum pressure ratio to sive a maximum specific output. This ean be found by differentiating the Eq, 5:9 with respect to ¢ and equating it to zero; the result is, cee vi (6.13) Squaring both sides, trun BB 9 (15) th If Eg, 5.15 is to be true then it follows that T must be equal to Ty i. het ‘This means that the specific work output is maximum when the pressure ratio is such that the compressor and turbine outlet temperatures are equal For all values of r between 1 and €/20-), 7, willbe greater than Te and 1 hoot exchanger can be incorporated to utilize the energy in the exhaust fg8s to heat the air coming out of the eompressor and thereby, the efficiency Improvement can be achieved. Figure 5.5 shows the relation between 7 and r when the working fluid is air (7 = 1.4), or a mono-ntomic gas such as argon (7 = 1.66) is used, Tt can be seen that the efficiency increnses with pressure ratio but the rate of Increase reduces with the inerease in pressure ratio, 5.3. THE HEAT EXCHANGE CYCLE A schematic arrangement of a simple gas turbine eycle incorporating ex- Ihaust heat exchanger is shown in Fig. 5.6. The corresponding p-V and T-s slingrams are shown in Fig. 5.7 and Fig. 5.8 respectively. Figures 5.9 and 5.10 show the performance curves ofthe eyele84 Gas Tinhiney Heat exchanger 3 Conanian “amber | 1 3 2 3 Fuel Power ‘ouput Compressor Turbine Fig, 5.6 Schematic arrangement of heat exchange eycle 7 rh oes = 7 . 4 % Fig. 57 pV diagram Fig, 58 Ts diagram Fig. 3.9 5 vs Fig. 5.10 + vs efficiency‘eal Cyelos and their Analysis 85 It may be noticed that the T-s diagram is unchanged in outline from ‘at of the simple gas turbine eyele, as ean be seen from Figs. 5.8 and 5.8, except for the presence of the heat exchanger as indicated by the two dotted lines 45 aud 2-6, It may be seen that the temperature of the compressed air has been raised from 7, to Tin the heat exchanger resulting in the fall in temperature of the exhaust gases from T; to Tp. Now, for a unit mass flow rate Compressor work (IVe] We = (te-m) = G(T) (616) Heat addition [Q] Qin = (has) = Op(T~Te) 17 ‘Turbine work (Hr) War = (hha) = Gy(T)—T) 6.8) Since, the expressions Wy = 1p We is identical compared to a siniple ceyele (Eq5.5), we have, Be = e(i-t)-e-n However, the expression for» will be difveut We sy = EMO te- 0) WET) Since, 7 = Ty (9) [As can be seen from Eq. 5.19 the efficiency of the heat exchange eyele is tot independent of maximum eyele temperature and clearly increases as ¢ Js increased. Further, iti evident that for a given value of f the efficiency increases with decrease in pressure ratio and) not with increase in pressure ratio as for the simple eycle. In Fig. 8.10 the solid line curves represent the above equation (Eq. 5.19). Each eurve for t starts at r = 1 with a value of 7 = 1—1, which is the Carnot ‘effcieney. This isto be expected becanse in this liniting ease the Carnot requirement of complex external leat reception and rejection at the upper86 Gas Tusbines and lower eyelo temperatures is satisfied. ‘The curves fall with increasing pressure ratio until a value corresponding to’the value of vt equals c is reachod, and at this point the ellency becomes that of the simple cycle. At this pressure ratio 7; = Tp and the output is maximum. For higher values of r a heat exchanger would coo! the air leaving the compressor reducing the efficiency ‘The specific output is unchanged by the additions of a heat exchanger Compare the curves of work output of Fig. 5.4 and Fig. 5.9. From the ‘curves of eficleuey for heat exchange cycle (Fig. 5.10) it can be concluded that to obtain on appreciable improvement in efficiency by heat exchange cycle we must have a value of + appreciably less than that for the optimum specific work output. It may be noted that it is not necessary to nse a higher eyele pressure rato as the maximum eyele temperature is increased, ‘The following observations can be made from the performance curves: (With heat exchanger eyele, the eyele eficency reduces asthe pressure ratio Increases, which is opposite to that ofa simple eycle. This is due to the fact that as the pressure ratio increases the delivery tempera ture from the compressor inereases and ultimately will exceed that of ‘the exhaust gas from the turbine. Then heat in the heat exchanger ‘will be lost from the air to the exhaust gases instead of desired gain. ‘The efficiency with lower temperatures, say at ¢ = 2, is seen to bocome negative soon after the pressure ratio 11.3 i exceeded (refer Fig. 5.10 Wy <0). The reason is that the temperature at compresior outlet actually exceeds the assunied combustion temperature in this Cas, (3) Im many cases, regeneration is not desirable. With high pressure ratios, efficiencies are higher without regeneration, again because loss of hent from the compressed air to the exhaust gases, (ii) ficiency with heat exchanger eye rises very rapidly with increase jn maximum temperature ofthe cycle. (iv) Lower pressure ratios and high cycle temperatures are favourable for the regenerative cycle, since large heat recavery is then possible, (©) Fora given tomperatire-ati, the enrve falls with increasing value of pressure ratio until a value of e given by c= ¢ is reached (Fig. 510). ‘After this, the eficiney is equal tothe ideal eyele without regener ‘tion. Any further inerease of pressure ratio will yield an effiieney ‘which is lower than this value and is of no interes. 5.4 THE REHEAT CYCLE A good improvement in specific work output can be abtained by splitting ‘the expansion and reheating the gas between the high pressure and low pressure turbines. Figure 5.11 shows the schematic arrangement of the reheat eyele along with the p-V (Fig. 5.12) and T-s (Pig. .13) diagrams. Figures §.1d and 5.15 show the performance curves ofthe eyele. The turbineeal Cyeles and their Analysis ‘87 ‘work increase is obvious from the fact that the vertical distance between ‘any pair of constant-pressure lines increases as the entropy increases. Thus (y~ Ty) + (I~ T) > (Us Tv) (Consider the T-s diagram in Fig. 5.18 in which the expansion is cart out in two stages, reheating of the working fluid to the upper limit of temperature 75 taking place between the stages Let the pressure ratio in compression be r and the pressure ratios of the expansion stages be ry and 4 80 that te nen ay th » = rowh a (6.21) . oo For a unit quantity of uid flow Compressor work [We] Wa = (am) = G(T) (625) Heat addition [@] Qa = (hyn) = G(T) (526) Qi = (hehe) = G(T) (627) ‘Turbine work [Wr] War = (toh) = Op(Ts~T) (628) Wes = (she) = OplTs—Te) (529) Net work output [Mx] Wr-We = Op(Ty — Ts) + Cy(Ts — Te) — Cp(Ta — Ti) ~ onl(&-#)-(B-8)-B-] (5.30)88 Gas Tins ‘Combustion chamber Reheat combustion a thamber Product of Caen 3 sie 4 Ful]! [rater] = core 2 Work required to drive the compressor = GT.=T,) = 1.005 x 460 ~200) = 17085 keg a oo im Boe = URL ise ‘Turbine pressure cai, a4 = iss = 5 pe 5.7 The ratio of net work to turbine work of an ideal gas turbine plant js 0.503. ‘Take the inlet temperature to the compressor a 300 K, Calculate the temperature drop across the turbine ifthe thetmtal ficiency of the unt is 35% Aastame a mass flow rate of 10 g/s, Cy = Tk /kg K and 9 =. Solution For ideal simple eyele, aoe = 035 © = 15384 ho = Txe = 300x158 = 46152K We = O(%-1) = 1x (461.52~ 300) = 161.52 kI/kg112 Gas Turbines r I, a ' Fig. 5.49 = 0508 = 0563 We = le 161.82 058 ~ “oar = 369.61 Kah of air Wy = Wr-We = 96961-10152 = 208.00 el ig of air Not heat supplied per kg of air 1 2os.0 = 804.54 kJ/kg of air a = Oy(T3-Ta) 504.54 9 = 1x (T — 461.52) ‘T; = 1056.06 K —e e = Be ism nos B 1096.06 . 680.47Ideal Cycles and their Analysis 118 Hence, temperature drop across the turbine TT 1056.06 — 686.47 = 369.59 K ae 5.8 The specific power ontput ofa turbine is 336.5 kW/kg and the exhaust ‘gases leave the turbine at 700 K. Caleulate the turbine pressure ratio if the value of Cy and Cy, are 1 kJ/kg K and 0.717 ki/kg K respectively. Round off the pressure ratio to the nearest integer. Solation ca : Set = 100 GT) = 3965 1-70 205 ts 1090.5 By By fi i 4 5.9 A gas turbine plant works between temperature limits of 300 K and 900 K. The pressure limits are 1 bar and 4 bar. Estimate the thermal cffcieney of the plant and the shaft power available for the external Toad in KW. Assume mas rate of flow of air to the compressor as 1600 g/min. SolutionLIA Gas Paris For simple eyele gas turbine plant ” noe woe Gh 900 t= Mas w 1 worms = **(1zig:)-ee-0 = 0.4952 Kd kg of air TW = 0.4952 1.005 > 300 = 149.8 kg of air Mass flow of ai, 1600) = 1 20.06 nels A 0 bes Shaft power available = 149.3 2666 = 3980.84 KW a 5.10 In a gas turbine, the pressure ratio to which air at 15°C is eom- press is 6. ‘The same ait then heated toa maxim permissible Temperature of 750°C. Fist it heat exchanger and then combustion ‘Shamber. Tt is then expanded in evo stages sue that the expansion sro fs maximum, ‘The ai reheated to T50°C afer the firs stage Determine the cyele thermal efficiency. the work ratio (ff) and net shaft work per kg of a Solution © os = 1.660 Ty = Thx 16) = 288% 1650 = 48067 K For sins expansion work a 5 ve = vO = 245 a‘eal Cycles and their Analysis 115 1023 te = TLTK Gas C ee We = Offs) = 1010 (067-258 2 eee Wr = G(Ts- Ts) + OTs - To) = 21.05 (15-7017) = s0L9 K/h aa 9 = OTs ~T) + C,(Ts - Ts) Bano 10% ezrin, 6 ee oe 464.9 kJ /kg of air = Wy Wr-We = 4649 ~199.56 271.34 kW = Wy 2H gy an 0 “p= Fp <1 = sasox u116 Gas Turbines 5.11 A gas turbine plant operates between 5°C and 899°C. Find @) pressure ratio at which eyele efficiency equals Carnot cycle eff ciency, c pressure ratio at whieh maximum work is obtained, and ‘ficiency under conditions giving maximum work, Solin r l 558 — mS ons For single oe foe ee a. ee im ‘Therefore, pressure ratio at which eycle efficiency equals Carnot efficien 18. Bee (ae Pressure ratio for maximum work is obtained when‘eal Cycles and their Analysis 147 ae ° o 0+3)-0-0) @ t S-1 = 0 « viz Vi = 2 = 2 = = a Pressure ratio for maximum work = ual a ficiency at maximum work output 50% a= 5.12 An ideal open-cycle gas turbiue plant using air operates in an overall pressure ratio of 4 and between temperature limits of 300 K and 1000 K. Assuming the constant value of specific heat Ciy = 1 kd kg K and Cy = 0.717 kag K, evaluate the specific work output and ehestial ‘efficiency foreach of the modification below and state the percentage change from the basic cycle. Assuming optimum stage pressure ratios, pevfect intereooling and perfect regeneration, find (i) basic eyete, (ii) basie eyete with heat exchanger, (it) asic eyele with two stage inter cooled compressor, and (Gv) basic eyele with heat exchanger and two-stage intercooled eon pressor, Solution Basic eycle: (refer Fig. 5.3) k 13017 1.4804 3.33818 Ge Turbines Be = eden = saan (1 gy) ~ @sto4—1) ste : Le (-pig)am = max Basic eyee with heat exchanger (eer Fig. 5.8) Wy 180.56 nom 18 (a = 55.58% Basic eyla with intercooled compresior: (oer Fig 5.28) Wr 1 ak = (2-29 aaa (1 0.0515 Wy = 1x 300% 0.68815 = 19448 KI/ks _ »- (es A= 2\] 100 = sox San VOT asic eyele with heat exchanger ancl intercooled comprescor: (refer Fig. 5.28) Wy 194AT KI/kg. ave=1) [- 2 ATRIA vos 33x 0 re, a-2) = 59.92% a2eal Cycles snd their Anatysie 139 Cycle Wy [a] % change | % change (ed eg) | [in Wy | in Basie eyele 180.36 | $2.45 With heat exchanger | 180.36 | 55.58 | 0 71.28 With intercooling | 194.47 | 30.63 | 78 =3.01 With heat exchanger | 19447 | 59.92 | 7.8 5465, & intercooling 5.18 Prove that the efficieney corresponding to the maximum work done in a Brayton evel is given by the relation 7 1 Meme a ‘whore tis the ratio of the maximum and minimum temperatures of the eyee, A gas turbine operating on Brayton evele between 27°C and 27°C. Determine the maximum net work por kg and cycle elfciener. Also compare Carnot eficiency with Brayton efficiency for these tetapers- ‘ure limits Solution Pig. 5.58 Wpoo= Cth TH We GiT—TH) Wy Wr-We = Gla-T)-(%- To]120 Gus Turbines Let ry be the pressure ratio, we = off and t= Fe We = ofa(-4)- ne-v] For maximum work dW /de = 0. 1 c ofne -1] 1 a. 1 2.8 e- Bae c 4 (iT) ~ (eT) Gah) = US--0 _ e-nf-1) {t-0) tea (e-0(8) 4 For maxinmm work e= YE Nomer = = 300Kdeal Cycles aad their Analysis 124 = 10K = BO aoee Wa = G[(1-%)-n(vi-2)] = 005 x [100 (1 ag.) ~ 30 (va 1] = 252.34 ki /kg of air ey Tome = (1 Jylgg) 100 = arr a Meant = Tmax 1100 = 07272 = 12.72% = ‘5.14 In an ideal gas turbine cycle with reheat, air at state (py, Ti) is com- pressed to pressure rp; and heated to Ts. The air is then expanded in two stages, each turbine having the same pressure ratio, with reheat to Ty between the stages. Assuming the working fluid to be a pet- fect gas with constant specific heats, and that the compression and ‘expansion are isentropic, show that the specific work outpat. will be fa maximum when r is given by oe 3h) Solution =e we % . a = (WA = ve Assume unit mass flow of air and given 7 = Ty, ‘Total turbine work output, Wr = G(—7) + Cys Ta) GT ~ Ty) + Cys ~ To)122 Gas Turbines Fig. 5.54 = 2G,(Ta-T) = 2647 Compressor work input, Wo = Gi%=T) = = Gte-1) Net work output, wy = | ae.n(1- GTe-1) Specific work output We By a > RC 4)-(e-1) -(e-1) = afi- Spevte wor output is maxima when $2 ‘Therefore, difer ating Eg, (1) and equating i t0 ero,eal Cycles and their Analysis 128 5.19 A Brayton cycle works betwoen 1 bar, 300 K and 5 bar, 1250 K. There are two stages of compression with perfect intercooling and two stages ‘of expansion. ‘The work out of first expansion stage being used to drive the two compressors, where the interstage pressure is optimized for the compressor. ‘The air from the irs stage turbine is again heated to 1250 K and expanded. Caleulate the power output of free power ‘turbine and eyele efficiency without and with a perfect heat exchanger ‘and compare them. Also calculate the percentage improvement inthe ciciency because of the addition of heat exchangers. Solution <— : A , J Tr Tr : 4 io my a Fig, 5.55 Because of perfect intereoolng, Pm ve 2.236 bar Further, Ty = and Ty = Ty = Rage = 1.259 ty Tee = 900x1259 = 3m7.7K % Th = o7K We WatWe = Wa = 20(Te-T) = 2x 1.005% (977.7 ~ 300) = 156.2 kl/kg Wr = We CTs ~ Ta) 1502 aR124 Gas Turbines Te Wr a With regenerator 1 5 poy = 8188 ber @) pe 350x (-4.)°" = o009K ae ,(Tr - Ts) 1.005 x (1250-9009) = 3808 kik Wy. Wn 7 7 Gls ~ Ts) + Cys ~ Te) 1.005 x ((1250 ~ 377.7) + (1250 — 1094.6)] 1032.84 kif 3508 soy ape *100 = 33.90% Gp x (Cs ~15) + (Ty ~ Tal} 1.005 x {(1250 ~ 900.9) + (1250 ~ 1094.6)] 507.02 &3/ke 69.2 -38.96 a a 50.9% 5.16 The p-V diagrams of wo gas turbine power plants operating on identi- cal inlet conditions of 1 bar and 27°C are shown in the Fig, 5.56, The ‘maximum turbine inlet temperature is 1200 K for both the plants. Ass ing that the pressure ratio and temperature ratio are the sane for both the plants. calculate the efficiency rato of the power plants Also find the pressure ratio of LPC, HPC, HPT and LPT. Solution 1+ £4.29)eal Cycles and their Analysis 126 : v n t 4 pm = ase ve = 129 5 1=(.219/4) Trae = 17 a 1.407 ae nm re ta nm = vi / = 5.7 An ileal gas turbine operates with m mumber of compressor stages ‘and n number of turbine stages with # overall pressure ratio, %. The maximum temperatine is Tyo, and the mininum temperature Toy. Assume pressure ratios in compressor is same in all m stages sand perfect interoooling and reheating, Also assume that pressire ratios in all stages in turbine are same, Show that t= ten xo") 4H, where 7, aud Tp are the ext126 Gas Tusbines Solution Let ric and ray be the stage pressure of the compressor and turbine respee- tively. ee dl Now referring to the Fig. 5.57, Be = and Tm nee (i) * (ii) gives Ree = id x ra)" = (rt xrt)" = (FY fee ' tenia % (ui 5.18 In the above problem, ifthe gas turbine is working on optimum pres- sure ratio to give the maximum specitie work output, establish the relation between f and ¢ Solution Let r be the pressure ratio ofeach stage, where i = 1,2,...1n for compres- sor and i= 1.2,...0 for, turbine. For compressor r TG Ko Tn ” ‘The exit temperature of the compressor is Tz and that of turbine is Ts Since, the stage pressure ratios are equal, the temperature ratio will also be equal‘eal Cycles and their Analysis 127 a © Similarly Tar = Tye w From (i) and (ii), 1h\m" On Since. for tte given condition 1 = Te 5.19 A gns turbine amit operntes at a mass flow of 30 kg/s. Ait enters the compressor at » pressure of 1 bar and temperature 19°C and is discharged from the compresior ata pressure of 10.5 bar. Combustion ‘occurs at constant-presse und results in @ temperature rise of 420 K. Ifthe flow leaves the turbine at a pressure of 1.2 bar, determine the net power output from the unit and also the thermal eficiency. Take Cy = L005 kilkg K and = 1128 Gis Turbines now (2) = seems » sue hom mansoe — ‘sume HY We tnCy(T2 — T)) = 305.1005 (66122— m0) = ame Wr rinCy(Ts ~ Ta) 30. x (on.22- 8827 anierewe Ce Sea ates ee ‘m= Heat supplied “pees * = 42.55% eS Power output == 5888.74 kW view Qvetona 5.1 In what way the gas turbine cycles can be grouped and what are the Lumportant distinctions between them? 5.2 State the assumptions made in an ideal cycle analysis of gas turbines. 5.9 Draw the schematic diagram of a simple cycle and explain briefly the working of the cycle. Draw the p-V and T-s diagrams of the cycle. 54 Derive the expression for specific work output and the efficiency of @ simple cycle. Draw their trends as a function of pressure ratio. 5.5 Show that the specific work output is maximum when the pressure ratio is such thatthe compressor outlet and turbine outlet temperatures are ualeal Cyeles and their Analysis 129 5.6 Find a suitable equation for the two pressure ratios where the specific ‘output becomes zero for @ constent temperature ratio 5.7 Beplain why the specific power output becomes sero at these two pres- sure ratios for the above cycle 5.8 Draw the schematic diagram of @ simple eycle with « heat exchanger and explain briefly the working prineiple. Draw also the p-V and T-s diagrams of the epee. 5.9 Derive the expression for specific work output and the efficiency of a simple cycle with a heat exchanger, Draw their trends as a furction of pressure ratio 5.10 Explain the important observations from the specific work output and efficiency variation as a function of pressure ratio for the above cycle. 5.11 Drow the schematic diagram of a simple cycle with reheat and explain briefly the working principle. Draw also the p-V and T-s diagrams of the cycle. 5.12 Derive the expression for specific work output and the efficiency of @ simple cycle with reheat. Draw their trends as a function of pressure ratio. 5.19 Bzplain the important observations from the specific work output and ‘eBlcienry variation as a function of preseure ratio for the above cycle 5.14 Drow the schematic diagram of « simple cyele with reheat and heat exchange and explain briefly the working principle. Draw aso the p-V ‘and T-s diagrams of the cycle. 9.15 Derive the expression for specific work output and the efficiency of a ‘simple cycle with reheat and heat exchange, Draw their trends 08 a Function of pressure ratio, 5.16 plain the important obseruntions from the specific work output and ‘efficiency wariation as a function of pressure ratio for the above cycle 5.47 Drow the schematic diagram of a simple cycle with intercooler and explain briefly the working principle, Draw also the p-V and T-s diagrams of the cycle. 5.18 Derive the expression for specific work output and the efficiency of 1 simple cycle with intercooler. Draw their trends as a function of pressure ratio. 5.19 Brplain the important observations from the specific work owtput and ‘efficiency variation as a fnction of pressure ratio for the above cycle 5.20 Drow the schematic diagram of a simple cycle with interceoled ond hheat exchanger and explain briefly the working principle. Draw also the p-V and T-« diagrams of the cycle130 Gas Turbines 5.21 Derive the expression for specific work output ond the efficiency of @ simple cyele with interonled and heat exchanger. Draw their trends a a function of pressure ratio. 2 Explain the important observations from the specific work output and Bfciency variation as a function of pressure ratio for the above cycle. 5.29 Drow the schematic diagram of a simple cycle with intercooled and reheat and explain briefly the working principle. Draw also the p-V ‘and T-s diagrams of the cycle. 4.24 Derive the expression for specific work oulyat and the efficiency of 4 simple cycle with intersooled and reheat. Draw their trends as-0 function of pressure ratio. 5.25 Explain the important obserentions from the specifie work output and ‘Blciency variation as a function of pressure ratio for the above eycle. 5.26 Drow the schematic dingram of «simple cycle with intereooled heat fechange and reheat and explain briefly the working principle. Drow falso the p-V and T-s diagrams of the eyele 5.27 Derive the expression for specific work output and the efficiency of a simple cycle with intercoled, heat exchange and reheat. Draw their trends as @ function of pressure ratio 5.28 Buplain the important obscruations from the specific work output and cffciency variation as a function of preseure ratio for the above cycle. 5.29 By means of suitable graphs compare the specific work output of var ious eyeles without heat exchanger: 5.90 With a'T-s diagram briefly explain the Eriesson cycle [Note: Take 2=! = 0.286 and Cy unless stated otherwise] 1.005 kJ/kg K for all problems, 5.1 In-a gas turbine plant, air enters the compressor at 1 bar and 27°C. ‘The pressure ratio is 6. The temperature at turbine inlet is 1000 K. ‘The mass flow rate of nir is 10 kx/s. Determine (power required to drive the compressor and the turbine power output (i) the ratio of the tusbine to compressor work, i) net power developed by the plant, and (Gv) the thermal efficiency Ans: (2) 2018.14 KW; 4020.75 KW ({i) 1.907 (Gi) 2011.61 RW (ie) 40.10%eal Cycles and their Anabysie 191 5.2 A gas turbine is supplied with 60 lg/s of gas at 5 ber and 800°C and ‘expands it isntropically to 1 bar. Take the mean specific heats of the gas at constant-pressure and constant-volume to be 1 ki/kg K and O.717 kJ/kg K respectively, Calculate the exhaust gas temperature and the power developed in MIW. Ans: (i) 680.44 K (ii) 23.55 MW 5.3 An open-eycle gas turbine receives air at 0.08 bar and 23°C. The air is compressed to 5.25 bar and reaches a maximum temperature of 650°C before entering into the turbine. ‘The hot air expands back to 0.98 bar Assmming air-standard cyele and for unit- mass flow rate, compute the thermal elfcieney of the plant if the compression and expansion processes are isentropic. What is the ratio of the work required to rive the compressor to the work developed by the turbine. Ans: (i) 38.19% (i) 0.5188 5.4 In a gas turbine plant the air enters the compressor at 1 bar and 300 K, The pressure ratio is 5. The temperature at the turbine inet fs 1200 K, The mass rate of Row is 12 kx/s Sketch the eycle on p-V and Ts planes aud indicate the area rep= resenting the heat supply, heat rejection and uct work of the cycle. Deteriaine, (9 compressor and turbine work, (i) net work developed, (Gi) the ratio of turbine work to compressor work, and (iv) the thermal efficiency Ans: (i) 2116.58 KW; 5841.37 RW (i) $224.84 KW (ii) 2.5236 (iv) 26.9% In an air-standard cycle heat supply is at constant-volume and the heat rejection is at constant-pressure. The compression and expansion are isentropic and the air at the stat of the compression is at 30°C and 1 bar. ‘The pressure ratio is 6, The heat supply is 860 K/ky, of alr and air flow is 2.0 ky/s, Assume C, = 1.005 kJ/kg KC and Gp = 0.717 ki/kg K. Calculate (i) temperature at the end of each processes, (ii) the power developed, and (Gi) the thermal efficiency. Ans: (3) 505.82 K; 1708.26 KG; 721.56 K (Gi) 1560.6 KW (il) 91.25% 5.6 The inlet pressure and temperature before compression in a Joule eyele are 1 atm and 300 K respectively. What will be the imep of the cele when the pressure ratio is 2.0 and peak temperature at the end of combnstion is 2200. Ans: 0.7218 bas182 Cas Turbines 5.7 Ian ideal regenerator is added to the above cycle, for the same tem- perature and pressure ranges as for the previous problens, caleulate ‘the work done and efficiency. Ans: (i) 381.8 ki/kg (i) 83.4% 58 A simple ideal gas turbine works with pressure ratio of 8. The compressor and turbine inlet temperatures are 300 K and 800 K re spectively. Ifthe volume lw rate s 250 n° /s, compute the net power ‘output and eycle efceney Ans: (i) 88.557 MW (i) 44.75% 5.9 A gus turbine power plant, working on an airstandatd eycle, the heat supply is at coustant-volume and hest rejection is at eonstant- pressure. The compression and expansion are isentropic. ‘The atmo- spheric temperature and pressure are 27°C and 1 atm respectively, ‘The pressure ratio is 9, The heat supply is 600 ki/leg of ait, For an air flow of 3 /s caleulate, (3) temperature at the end ofeach process, (i) she uet power developed and (il) the thermal effcieney. Draw the pV and Tos diagratns ‘Ans: (V) 502 K; 1898.8 K; 574.9 K (6) 1694.12 KW (i) 94.1% 5.10 A turbine supplied with gas at 5.15 bar and 800°C and expands it ‘isentropically to 1.03 bar. If the mean specific heat of the grs at constant-pressure andl constant-volume are 1 kl kg K and 0.717 kl/kis K respectively. ‘The air inlet temperature to compressor is at 20°C. Calculate (i) the exhaust temperature and (ithe power developed it Ic} per ky of gas per mint, Ans: (3) 680.4 K (ii) 13068 kal /kg 5.11 An opereycle gas turbine plant receives air at 1 bar and 23°C. The air is compressed to 5.5 bar and reaches @ maximum temperature ‘of 700°C in the cyele. The hot air expands back to 1 bar. Asst ing airstandard cycle, compute thermal effcieney of the plant if the ‘compression and expansion are isentropic. What is the ratio of work oquired to drive the compressor to the work developed by the turbine, Ans: (i) 38.6% (fi) 0.495, 5.12 In a gas turbine plant the ait at 10°C and 1 bar is compressed to 4 bar with compressor efficiency of 100%. The alr is heated in the regen crator having 100 per cent effectiveness and the combustion chamber Lill its temperature is raised to 700°C and has a pressure drop of 0.14 ‘bar. Determine the thermal effcieney of the plant. Ans: (1) 55.9% 5.19 A gas turbine operating between pressure limits of 1.5 bar aud 6.5 bar. ‘The inlet air temperature of the compressor is 20°C and the ‘ir entering the turbine is at a temperature of 560°C. If the volume rate of air entering the compressor is 1600 m3/min, determine the available power output for the eycle. Assume that the eyele operates ‘under ideal conditions Ans: (3) 6057.57 kWlal Cycles and their Analysis 138 ‘5.14 In a rogenorator gas turbine eycle, ale enters the compressor at tem- perature and pressure of 30°C and 1.5 bar and discharges at 220°C and 5.2 bar. After passing through the regenerator the air temper- ature is 396°C. The temperature of air entering and leaving the gas turbine are 900°C and 510°C. Assuming no pressure drop through the regenerator, determine (i) the output pet kg of ar, (i) the effcieney ‘of the cycle and (ii) the work required to drive the compressor, Ans: (3) 201 kd/ke (i) 39.6% (i) 190.95 Ra /kg 5a Compare the maximum work detivered by an aireraft gas turbine which works in the following two atmospheric conditions (two-stage compression with perfect intereooling, but without reheat and regen eration). Compressor pressure ratio is 4 and metallurgical tempera- ture limit is 1000 K. At ambient conditions: pressure = 1 atm ancl ‘temperature = 28°C and at 6000 m altitude : pressure = 0.5 atin and temperature = —25°C, Find the percentage change in Net work output, eficency and exhaust temperature if the volume flow rate of sir is 25 m°/s Ans: (i) 82.11% decrease (ji) 1.34% increase (il) Nil 5.16 A closed-eycle gas turbine (with reheat) power plant operates using Inelium as the working medium. ‘The pressure ratio is 10. ‘The maxi- smum permitted temperature is 1000 K. Assuming the work output to >be maximum, calculate the effiency. If air is used instead of helium, caleulate the ellicieney and difference in heat added. Assume ideal Brayton cycle, Temperature st the inlet of compressor = 27°C, Cy of holium = 5.20 kl kg K and » of helium = 1.67, Ans: (1) 0.16%; 46.28% (i) 2490.22 Kd kg, 5.17 A Brayton eycle operates with ideal air between 1 bar, $00 K and 5 boar, 1000 K. The air is compressed in two stages with perfect inter- cooling, Similarly in the turbine expansion oceurs in two stages with perfect reheating, Calculate the optimum pressure in bar, net work output and the fraction of turbine output that has to be put back to compressor (Wo/Wr) Ans: (8) 2.236 bar (ii) 257.3 kd/ke (ii) 0.878 5.18 A gas turbine unit operates at a mass flow of 80 kg/s. Air enters the compressor at a pressure of 1 bar and temperature 15°C and is ischanged fram the compressor at & pressure of 10.5 bar. Combustion ‘oceurs at constant-presste and results in a temperature rise of 420 K, If the flow leaves the turbine at a pressure of 1.2 bar, determine the net power output from the unit and also the thermal eficieney. Ans: (3) 5888.74 KW (i) 42.55% 5.19 An ideal oper-eycle gas turbine plant using air operates on an overall pressure ratio of 4 and between the temperature limits of 300 K and 1000 K. Assuming constant specific heats, Cy = 1.005 kJ/kg, K and184 Gas Turbines Cz = 0.717 ki/kg K, evaluate the specific work output and thermal ellciency for each of the modifications below and state the percentage change from the basic eyele, Assuming optimurn stage pressure ratios, perfect intercooling and perfect regeneration, find i) basic eyele, (Gi) basic eycte with heat exchanger, (ii) basic cycle with two-stage intercooled compressor, and (iv) basic eycle with hent exchanger and intercooled compressor | tm | Be ahanage | % change Cvele oe % [ine | inne Basie we paar Heat exchange 06 | 554] 0 9a Inereooted 0653] 309) ss | -55 Heat exchange & intercooled | 0.053 | 59.8 | _ 88 s29 Multiple Choice Questions (choose the most appropriate answer) 1, Performance of an ideal eyele power plant pertains to (9) work output (0) elfcieney (6) specific uel consumption {€) all of the above 2. A simple ideal eyele consists of (a) two adiab (b) two adiabatic and two isothermal ‘and two isentropic (©) two isothermal and two constant-pressure (4) two isentropic, one constant-pressure, one constant-volume 3, For the maximum specific output, for any given value of f, the opti- ‘mum pressure rato is given by (ae Wye WeIdea! Cyetes and their Analysis 138 Power ontpat of simple eyele is @ finetion of (2) only pressure ratio (b) only temperature ratio (€) both pressure ratio and temperature ratio (8) all of the above ‘The efficiency of the simple ideal eye is a function of (.) only the > of the working uid (&) only the pressure ratio {) both pressure ratio and (@) inlet temperature of the turbine Maximum power output is achieved for a simple ideal cyele with re- spect to pressure ratio when (0) outlet temperature of the compressor is equal to ontlet temper- ature of the turbine (b) outlet temperature of the compressor is lower then the outlet temperature of the turbine (©) outlet temperature of the compressor is higher than the outlet temperature of the turbine (@) Te has nothing to do with outlet temperatures When a heat exchangor is added to an ideal simple eyele, (9) power output decreases but the effcien (&) power output increases but the effcieney decreases () Doth remain the samme (@) power output remains the same but the efficieucy increases For better performance, an ideal heat exchange cyele should be oper- ated with, (6) lower fond higher r (b) higher ¢ and higher r (6) higher and lower r (@) r and ¢ should be the same Multistage compression with intercooling ay with reheating improves pultistage expansion (2) cfficieney () power output136 Gas Turbines () both power output and efficiency (@) none of the above 10. An ideal cycle with reheat, intercooling and heat exchange will n= (0) eficieney (b) work output (6) both efficiency and work output (@) none of the above Ans 1.-(@) 2-() &-() 4-@ 6 -(a) T=) &-(e) 9 ~(b) 5.-(@) 10. (e)6 PRACTICAL CYCLES AND THEIR ANALYSIS INTRODUCTION In the last chapter, ideal gas turbine cyeles have beew analyzed. Is prac: tice, its difficult to achieve those ideal conditions, ‘Therefore, in this chap ter, we will discuss the performance calculations of practical gas turbine tveles by taking into account the various lasses in dlflerent components Defave aig into Une details, varios sssuunptions made are enimeraten below: 6.1 ASSUMPTIONS ‘The practical yas turbine eyeles differ from: ideal cycles im the following tain respect: (9) As the fluit velocities are high in turho machinery, the chanse in kinetic energy between inlet and outlet of each component will bn taken into account. (i) The compression and expansion processes are irreversible adkabeti involving increase in entropy (ii) Fiuid friction resules in pressure losses in combustion chasiber and hhent exchangers and aso is the inlet and exhaust ductings (iv) Complete heat exchange i not possible in a heat exchanger (©) The mass flow is assumed to be the same inspite ofthe addition of the fc. Tis is justified because tho bleeding of air from the compressor (ovhich is around 1 co 2%) for cooling the turbine dises anc! blade roots is compensated by the addition of fac188 Gas Turbines (vi) The values of C, and 7 of the working fluid vary throughout the ‘eyele due to change of temperature and due to changes in chemical composition ofthe working medium, (i) Slightly more work than that requized for the compression process will he necessary to overcome beating and windage friction in the transmission and to drive ancillary components ‘The implication of the above assumptions axe discussed in the following sections. 6.2 STAGNATION PROPERTIES ‘The first assumption brings out the effect of fuid velocity. The kinetic ‘energy terms in the steady flow energy equation ean be accounted for, implicitly by making use of stagnation (or total) enthalpy. The energy ‘equation is 1 hy=h = 32-0) (63) whore, the stagnation enthalpy tig is the enthalpy which a gos strum of Cathaipy hand welocty would onsets when brought to rest edbaticaly and without work transfer. From Ba, tg = hee (6.2) when the fd is a perfect ga, CpT can be substituted for hy and the corresponding concept of sagnation temperature Ty i defined by ee 3) 5 In the above expression, ¢#/2C%, is called the dynamic temperature and, ‘when it is necessary to emphasize the distinctions, T is refered to as the static temperature, Au idea of the order of magnitude of the difference between Tp and T ‘be obtained by considering air at atmospheric temperature for which Gy = 1.005 ki lig K, flowing at 100 m/s, then 100? TT = 1.005% 109 5K It follows from the energy equation that, if there is no heat or work transfer, Twill romain constant. If the duct is varying in cross-sectional area or fiction is degrading the ditected kinetic energy into random molec- ‘ular energy, the static temperature will change, but Tp will not, ApplyingPractical Cycles and their Anal 130 the concept of an adiabatic compression, the energy equation becomes ny) Gey) static component dynamic component = Cp (Ten ~ To) (6.4) stagnation Similarly, for « heating process without work transfer @ = Cpl -Ta) (65) ‘Thus, if stagnation temperatures are employed there is no need to refer explicitly to the kinetic energy term. A practical advantage is that it is easicr to measure the stagnation temperature of a high velocity stream than the statie temperature, ‘When a gas is brought to rest, not only adiabatically but also reversibly, i.e, isentropicaly, the stagnation pressure py is defined by er a. (2) (60) Pp and Ty can be used in the same way as static values. ‘The stagnation and static states at the inlet and outlet of a compression process are shown, in Fig. 6.1, Fig: 6.1 Stagnation and static properties140 Gas Turbines ‘Thus the implication of the first assumption, vss, the effect of the in- clusion of velocity in the calculation is that we shall refer to stagnation conditions and not static conditions as we did in the ideal cycle analysis. 6.3 COMPRESSOR AND TURBINE EFFICIENCY {The effect of compressor an! turbine efficiency is disenssed in this section ‘The actual simple gas turbine cycle is shown in Fig. 62, on a Ts diagram, During compression process a considerable amount of eneray supplied to tie compressor is wasted in churning up the working uid. This enorgy dows not contribnte to the pressure rise but is converted into leat by fietion. ‘The onteoine is that the temperature of the working Ould is higher at the ‘end of the compression than it would have been had the process been fully ‘und truly isentropic. Tho compression process on the T-s diagram wil, therefore be represented by the line 1 ~ 2, the temperature at 2 being higher than at 2, which is the temperature that would have been reached by isentropic compression over the same pressure ratio. Because of this, ore work input to the eompresior is required and thereby the efficiency fof the compressor comes into picture. | | / 2 af 01-07-08.08 tea eycle Oh O1-02.03.08 Acta yet 7 Fig. 6.2 Actual gas turbine eyele on a Ts diagram ‘The compressor efficiency may be defined as the ratio of the monk re uived for isentropic compression to the actual work input I ideal cycle ‘analysis, it was assumed that the kinetic energy is the same before and alter the process. But in actual gas turbine eyes the changes in kinetic energy are appreciable and therefore this assumption is not valid. Thus, under sc ‘ha conditions we must consider the stagnation properties for caleulaing, ‘work done in various components The compressor efficiency is given by Isentropic compression work . ‘etual compression workPractical Oyeles and their Analvsis 141 hon Tow Tn Thea = Fon Tua —Tox (67) for the constant value of Cp. This ratio is wlse known as fotl-fuad isentenpic efficiency of the compression process. Let re be the total-hesd pressure ratio (or stagnation pressure ratio) luring compression, then in the isentropic process (1 ~ 2") Be pon am) oT CS (e20) ‘The above equation gives the wctual stagnation temperature tise during compression process Now referring to the expansion process ofthe gas turbine evele, (Pig. 6.2) a similar effect of wasteful heating of the working Muid will cour as in the tease of compressor, ‘This will result in the expansion following the line 4 in the Fig, 6.2, instead of ideal isentropic line 3-4. ‘The effect is therelore to reduce the work output of the turbine. ‘The efficiency of the turbine ean be written as Actual tunbine work output 3 = entropic turbine work output hs “hou “is =) Ream hee 7 Cs Tee). ga O19 for the constant value of Cy. fri the total head pressure ratio during the expansion process (34) Tia 2 frm (6.2) w= - oti (6.13) Talla] eat = nally] fo.) ‘When the turbine is exhansting direct to the atmosphere, the kinetic energy of the exhaust 1s wasted. Then, the efficieney will be given by the142. Gas Turbines ratio of work output to the isentropic enthalpy drop from stagnation inlet to static outlet conditions. ‘This eiceney may be denoted by 47 and is aiven by : Tow (6.15) It should be noted that the extra work supplied to the compressor, be cause of its inefficiency, is not entirely wasteful. ‘The additional heating effect, resulting fom non-isentropic compression, means that the heat to bbe supplied in the combustion chamber is reduced. ‘The gain in overall ficiency so derived is not sficient, however, to overcome te loss in effi ciency due to the incroased energy required to drive the compressor. The higher exhaust temperature resulting from turbine inefficiency can be, to some extent, utilized if an exhaust heat exchanger is included in the eyele. ‘The actual work of compression for unit mass flow rate is given by . Ge) (go-nyy 6.16) oe) Ne ‘and similarly, the actual work of expansiori for unit mass flow rate is given by Wau = mrOpa| (: 2 (6.17) Se ak dn ey we msta( 1 getyn) (BH) era) 6x9 If the works of compression and expansion are equated, the minimum tem perature ratio = fig canbe ealeulated for which no net work output 3s possible. Thus tit -F 7) Assuming the specific heats in bath processes are same and also re (2B) (97-1) eam Tig, w= To . 6.20 To wr tic Ce Ty, Oy = 621 To rnc Cee) Ror r= and no = mr = 085, with 7 = 1.4 with minum temperate ratio about 2.19. ‘Thus with Toy = 300 K, Tp must be about 657 K. The Eq, 6.21 explains why the gas turbine has not been developed into a satis- factory prime mover, even many years after it had been frst demonstrated.Practical Cycles and their Analysis 148 Neither materials suitable for high temperature nor compressors of high cficieney were available until about the middle 1930's. ‘Thus for r = 5 and or =n Tay must be 970 K before the unit is self-driving and ymist bbe considerably higher than this, for developing power to take any extra Toad! on the shat The difference between the efficiencies of steam turbine plants and ges tobine plants operating at the same temperature ean be comprehended by consideration of the net work expression. For steam turbines, the eompees- sion work is very small, since the working flu isi liquid state, and hs ‘the compression efficiency is a negligible factor. Ror the gas turbine, the negative work of compression is a considerable fraction of te total turbine work and so the compression efficiency is very significant. Seal variations in the compressor and turbine efficiencis can thus have a considerable effect. ‘on the overall performance. ‘The magnitude of this effet can be explained by a parameter known as the ‘work ratio’, defined as the ratio af net work to the total turbine work Higher the value of work ratio, ess is the effect on the variation of compressor efficiency and the performance Wy .We-We We Werkrnty = Wa MWe, We Wr Wr Wr rare we 2, (GENE =), . ‘0G yea oe Work aig = 1 Ta nem Tos (6.23) whore ¢= 1107 and t= Fi From this expression, it will be noted that the work ratio is increased ty high temperature ratio, t, and by law pressure ratio, r. Jn general, the value of work ratio is not used as any major eriterion bul if may be weful 4 a deciding factor. ‘Thos, the second assumption brings ito light how ‘important the component efciences are to achieve the best performance fiom the power plant, It may be noted thatthe higher values of efiiencies culminate in better performance 6.4 PRESSURE OR FLOW LOSSES In this section, effect of pressure losses will be considered. Although the irreversibility occurring in the compression and turbine has the major effect fon reducing the cycle performance from the ideal values, loss due 0 friction144 Gas Turbines and turbulence occurs throughout the whole plant, Its cue to the fact that ho fluid flow process ean be completely roversible. This overall loss may sonveniently be divided into the following, losses. (0) airs intercooler loss (i) sis heat exchanger loss, (i) combustion chamber los (bots main and rebeat), (iv) eneside hent exchanger les, ad (©) duet losses ete components and at intake and exhaust “These losses are measured as differences of pressure from the ideal value All the losses up to the turbine inlet may’ be considered as being equivalent to a reduction of pressure ratio during the compression and all those fol Tonwing the turbine being equivalent to a reduetion of pressure ratio during the exponsion, ‘he varions loses are indicated in Fig, 63. Fig. 6.3 Ts diagram showing various losses Tt can be seen that because of the loses, the pressure ratios for com ‘pression andl expansion are not oqual. ‘These fluid flow losses sometimes called parusiticlostes, age usually small individually compared with hose ‘of eompressor and turbine but are controllable to a large extent by suitably tlesigning the components and ducts. The loss in pressure due to How is proportional toe. From the continuity equation th = Acp (624) shiereforePractical Cyeles and thelv Analysis 45 & (6.25) ond apm pt Ee (6.26) ‘Thus, for a given mass flow rate sh and density p, the prestre loss ix inversely proportional to the square of flow area, oF assuming irene det of dinmeter : a x 5 (627 Losses, thus can be minimized by increasing erose-sctional tea. But the problem is not that simple, since for components like diffusers aid heat ‘exchangers, the length must be comparatively increased if low velocities fare to be achieved without higher Row losses. ‘Thus, the overall balle may increase. ‘The greatest ficlty is often on the exhaust sd, i, following the nine, becanse the gases have a very low presnure and high tamper ature thereby the specific volume wil be large. Hence, the gasside of the leat exchanger and the final exhanst dct is quite eitical as fara design is concerned. Temay be noted thatthe individual flow losses are stall compared with those de to irreversibility im compressor md turbine. Nevertheless, they are extremely important because of their cumulative effect. Further, thre is little point in making attempts to get the best companenteliciences, It ie effet fs nlf by parsite mses. Becatse, How loses ss dependent on sie and shapo, the actual layout ofa pe turbine plant has ‘great infuence on its overall performance "The effect of varying How loses on cycle performance can he in a manner convenient for calculation. ‘The analysis consists of nding the dilference in peeformance between the eyele without lsses and he eyele ‘with loses. neralized Without pressure lasses ps = por and pos = poy hence, the turbine work is (a) Wr = mCpTos (ay (628) Let 232 Wr wana (6.29) ‘with pressure lossos Pay = me ~ Ape (6a m= mtn (631)146. Gas Turbines We = noi Ay | om) here ps the prewar los between the compres delivery (ste point 2) and turbine inet, (state point 3) and dp, between tuzbine discharge, (tate point 4) and the atmosphere (633) |_| =. tees » By omitting higher order terms of 22 which by selfs stall, the turbine work with losses becomes We = (63) We = mtol Wy = Wie gives Wie Whee = me Cpe (636) wii In he term 1~ 082, the vue of aE wil be else to zero since ce = 0.286 5 for exhaust gas and $8 should not exceed 0.10. Thus, the los of utp canbe simplified to Wien = Geta [Are ey “bw me (637)Practical Cyels and their Analysis 147 In the demonstration above, only two pressure lases were used, but we ‘can generalize on the basis of effect of a loss being inversely proportional to the pressure evel at which it occurs so that EH (G2)-CB)-()] mm ‘and particulary for estimating the effect of varying amount of losses in the whole eye. 65 HEAT EXCHANGER EFFECTIVENESS ‘The implication of the fourth assumptions, viz., the effectiveness of heat ‘exchanger is discussed in this section. For ides] eyele calculations the regen- eration was taken as 100%, i.., the air from the compressor was assumed to be heated up to the turbine discharge temperature. Thus in Fig, 6.4, ‘Toe = Tea and as the fuid has constant specific heat, mass flow rate isthe same everywhere. Therefore, Tu Te = Tos— Tox (6.39) Ta = te Fig 6.4 Eifect of heat exchanger effectiveness148 Gis Turbines It is a welltuown fact that heat transfer requires a temperature dif. foence and when this difference is very stall, as i is in the ideal heat exchanger. then, infinite aten is required. For actual heat exchanger the royied surface area increases very rapidly as the temperature difference available decreases and thus for economie reasons the atnount of res tation is Hmitod (Fig. 6.4) Thus, Zin i less than Ty and correspondingly Tag > Tia- The mass flow rate of expanded gas in an actual gas turbine is not quite the same as the mass flow rate of compressed ait. Ie is usually slightly greater by the amount of the fuel injected in the combustion char ber provided thero is no bleeding of air from compressor outlet to cool the turbine blades, Normally the mass of fuel injected and the amount of bleed sir is ahmost sae, The specific heat of the ot gases: Cpy.is greater than that of the comparatively cool air by virtue of theit higher average temperature, Ths, for a beat balance TnCyl Tos ~Tia) = Hig CylTis Tas) (40) : si : wtn = (FAG) tort) > Tou Tow (6a) The effectiveness of the heat exchanger is defined as the ratio of the tem perutvre vise of the air (Tos. ~ Ty) to the masimum temperature difference ‘uoniloble (Toy ~ Toa). This vatio ts called the effectiveness ur thermal ratio fond in denoted by e- Ths Tos Tn .- BR (6.42) For ideal eyele with 100% effectiveness of the heat exchanger, the eyele clicioney increases with decrease of pressure ratio and this hols tru forthe actual eyele with e < 1.0. However, it is modified by the effect of component “fleiency to produce an optinuun pressure ratio forgiven valtes of eran ‘yy Thus the implication of the fourth assumption is that effectiveness of ‘he heat exchanger has a say in the performance of the evce. 6.6 EFFECT OF VARYING MASS FLOW : “The compressor handles mass fow rate. i. taken from the atmosplere ‘and seuds i¢ 10 the combustion chamber where a fuel fow rate of ry is added, Because of this the tusbine gos Bow rate, sv. is greater than the compresior air Hove rate, tig, by (Lf). where fis the fuekair ratio hy Ving = tng bing (6.43) oon les (64)Practical Cycles and thei Amalie 149 Although, the fuel-air rato is convenient to work with the calculations, it is usually more meaningful to think in terms of its reviprocal, the ait~ fuel ratio, AF in gas turbine ealeulations. For most hydrocarbon fuels, the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio is about 15:1 in whole numbers so that the 200% and 400% of theoretieal air represent air-fuel ratios of about 30:1 and Gord respectively: However, there is always nearly a compensating effect due to the bleed ing of air from the compressor, either at discharge or intermediately, for a variety of ancillary purposes, sich a8 cooling air for bearing, turbine wheel cabin cooling ete.. The quantity of bleed air is not known exactly when design eyele calculations are being made. Tt is normally of the order of 1 to 2% of the total ait. I is reasonable to assume that the ait and gas mass flows are equal. For final calculations it is necessary to know or to estimate as exactly as possible, the amount of bleed sir because it ean be of such proportions as to reduce the nominal performance significantly. Because of the higher speeds of military aiteraft and use of higher combustion temper- ‘ture, with correspondingly greater demand of cooling air, the demand for compressor bleed air increases 6.7 EFFECT OF VARIABLE SPECIFIC HEAT ‘The effect of vatiable specific heat is discussed in this section. The specific heat of air is independent of pressure within the operating limits of gas turbine. However, it varios eoniderahly with temperatnee. At, 300K the constant-pressure specific heat of ait is 1.005 kik K but at 1000 K, itis 1-140 kJ/kg K ~ an increase of about 13.4%. Farther, the internal combustion of fuel canses the expanding exbaust gas which contaias products of combustion, principally COz and HO vapour, Doth having bigher value of specific heat than that of pure air. At 1000 K, f typical value of Cy for gases after combustion is 1.147. In ideal eyele calculations the specific heat hias heen taken to be constant throughout the ceyee, with a value of 1.005 Id /kg ‘Thus, this assimuption would seen to introduce considerable error. be cause the difference between the cold air and hot gas values given above is about 15%. Althonigh thete i an’ervor. ie is amie tess than this vale Ibecamse of the compensating effeet of the deerease in value of + with teu perature. As decreases, the exponent = decreases and thus the change fof temperatine AT for a given presse ratio and initia temperature de- creases, Becayse it the calculation of york input-or output the change fof enthalpy, ChAT, ix involved. ‘Che effet of increased; Cis neutralized to some extent Actually the specific heat for air and gases. ehanges coe tinuously during compression and expansion, For precise calculation. a esration process is required. Keenan and Kaye" have provided tables of tir anid gos properties at yavions airfnel ratios in their ‘Gass Tables” which ‘ean be usod for precise calculations. TF Recuan, DH wd Rag Go Tals, ey, 1048150 Cas Turbines thas been shown that use of average value of specie heat over typical ranges of conditions existing in gas turbine is very suitable and convenient method. Adoption of a fixed value of Cy for the compression process and nother value for heating and expansion process ie most appropriate. Cor- responding values of ~7 can also be chosen, Numerical values commonly used for gas turbines with alr as working Suid are Com Cn 1.005 ky K andy LMT Ki /eg K and 40 during compression ‘88 during heating and expansion ‘The point to note is that even though Cp and values yary during a cyole, its recommended that a constant value for compressor (Ci = 1.005 J/kg. K) and another constant value for heating and expansion (Cog 1.147 kJ/kg K) will be more appropriate as this does not introduce sny significant error in the calculations. 6.8 MECHANICAL LOSSES Let us see the Jast assumption inthe practical eyele analysis. In most ofthe «as turbine plants the power required to drive the compressor is transmitted sirectly from the turbine without any intermediate gearing. Any loss that jccurs is therefore, only due to bearing friction, and windage. ‘The loss is very small and is usual to assume that it amounts to about 10% of the power necewsary to duive the eaupressur If any poner is used to drive ancillary components such a8 oil pump, fuel pump, ete., then this fs accounted for by simply subtracting it from the net output of the turbine unit. fall these are taken into account then its the practice to club it under ‘mech 80 that the work required to drive the compressor is calculated using the relation fo = 7 of air 5 We = 5 Cr(Tia — Tor) ki/kg of (6.45) 6.9 LOSS DUE TO INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION At the design operating conditions combustion efficiency in a gas turbine limit is quite high, close to 100%. 1 is defined as the ratio of enthalpy released to available enthalpy of fel It may be noted that the combustion efficiency is extremely difficult to measure accurately and itis the conser- vative practice to assume it as 98% for purpose of eycle calculations. It is {taken into account in the performance calculation by dividing the theoret- ical amount of fuel required by 0.98 and it affects only eycle eficiency and riot work output, It is extremely dificult to maintain combustion efficiency at this value in very lean mixtures especially at low loads or very high altitude in a turbo jet engine. Tt may be necessary to use lower values if operationalPractical Gyles and thoir Analysis 81 requirements dictate considerable periods at this condition, However, since both part load and high altitude imply that the total foe! consumption is relatively small, even a lower value of combustion efficiency may not be of very great importance. 6.10 CYCLE EFFICIENCY Airfucl ratio has considerable effect on eycle efficiency since gas turbine ‘operate on an overall air-fel ratio of the order of 60:1 to TOOL. In onder to calculate the cycle efficiency an accurate determination of air-fuel ra~ tio is essential, Assue ray and rte ate the mass low rates of fuel and air respectively. Equating heat supplied to the heat required to raise the temperature of the gas to Tay we have nym DFley = (i+ tre)Cpy(Tos ~Tn) (6.48) sere the combustion efieney. AF isthe enthalpy of rection for unit mass at 25°C (ler calorific value). By dividing the above equation With iy Lm Sry = (1+ Lp (Tas ~ Ton) (a) fis the fuc-air ratio : £1 Mey = Cya( Ten ~ Toa) (6.48) since f is small compared to 1.0. Consider Eq. 648. ‘There are two unknowns. vie, f and Cpy- Note that Cj is a fauetion of temperature and the species concentration in tive exhaust. ‘The species concentration depends upon the air-fuel ratio. In ‘order to solve the Ea. 6.48, start with a menn value of Cp = 1-147 ki/kg K ine = 98% and the lower calorie value of the fuel as 4 MJ/kg. Find the value of f. For this value of J. we ean find the species concentration and mote accurate value of Cpy. With this new value of Gyy find f and the process is repeated until the vale of Cy and f do not vary by a percentage, say, 0.1%. 'A set of standard curves, connecting the ideal temperature rise with air-fuel ratio for a range of intial temperatures are also available in the Titerature to find the value of fel-air ratio. Specific fuel consumption ean be found directly from 3000 my 3600 f iF le Waton We g/t (6.49) where Wy is the net work output in KW /kg/s of airflow ‘The evele i may be defined as » We L800 "= Fev ~ sjecv where the heating value, CV = 43 MiJ/kg. ‘Thus kuowing the accurate sirfuel ratio aetul evele efficiency ean be determined.152 Gas Turbines 6.11 POLYTROPIC EFFICIENCY It should be noted that isentropic effciencks of compression and expausion process vary with pressure. Therefore i i necessary to take this variation into account while ealeulating the performance of actual cyeles. This varia- tion ean be taken into account by defining a new parameter ealled polyropiec lor small-stage eficency. Let us consider an infinitesimal compressor stage (small stage with pressure and temperature tie of dp and dT respectively) in whiels the isentropic efficiency remains constant, Then, the small stage ‘offciency is defined as the isentropic efficiency of an elemental stage of the ‘compression which is constant throughout the whole process derstand the effect of overall pressure ratio on the relationship be- nn smallstoge eiclency and overall efficiency, lt us imagine the process fon a T-s diagramn (Fig. 6.5). Fig. 6.5 Multistage compressor process in a Ts dingram Since the process is not isentropic, the starting point for any elemental stage will be at higher level than the starting point of the whole process. ‘Thus, since the vertical distance between two constant-pressure Lines in creases with entropy, the isentropic temperature rise for the elemental or ‘sal sage is greater than that forthe corresponding stage in an isentropic compression. Hence, the sum of isentropic temperature rises for all the lemental stages making up the complete compression, 5° AT'S. is greater ‘than the single overall temperature tise which would result fron ay isn tropic compression AT” aud this offect is magnified as the overall pressure ratio increases. Now. the actual temperature-tise is found by dividing each AT” by the polstropie elicienes. It follows that the overall eliceney i less ‘than the polyteopie ellicienes, and that it deereases with the increase in berall pressure rato, A similar argument holds good for an expansion process also. Here the overall efficiency is alws greater than the polyéropie effcieney and increases with increase in presse ratio,