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Int J Mach Tool Des Res Vol 22. No 1. pp. 7 22. 1982 0020- 7357/82/010007 16 $03.

00/0
Printed in Great Britain Pergamon Press Lid

THE PREDICTION OF CUTTING FORCES IN END


MILLING WITH APPLICATION TO CORNERING CUTS

w . A. KLIN~E*, R. E. DEVOR* and J. R. LINDBERGt

(Originally receit~ed23 February 1981;infinalform 19 June 1981)

Abstract--This paper presents the development, verification,and implementation of a mechanistic model for the
force system in end milling. This model is based on chip load, cut geometry,and the relationship between cutting
forces and chip load. A model building procedure based on experimentallyobtained average forcesis presented and
both instantaneous and average force system characteristics are described as a function of cut geometry and feed
rate. A computer program developed to implement the mechanisticmodel provides tabular and graphical outputs
which show force distributions as functions of the axial depth otcut and rotation of the cutter. Force characteristics
during cornering cuts are predicted by the model and verifiedvia a set of cornering cut experiments typical of
aerospace machining operations. Force characteristics in cornering are examined as a function of axial depth of cut
and feedrate.

NOMENCLATURE
AD Axial depth of cut (in.)
CFX Center of force in X direction
CF Y Center of force in Y direction
DFRAD(ij,k) Radial force on the ith disk element at thejth angular position of the cutter
and the kth flute fib)
DFTAN(ij,k) Tangential force on the ith disk element at t h e j t h angular position of the
cutter and the kth flute (lb)
DFX(ij) X force on the ith disk element at the jth angular position of the cutter
DFY(ij) Y force on the ith disk element at the jth angular position of the cutter
D~ Thickness of axial disk elements
f Feed rate (in/tooth)
FT Average tangential force on cutter
FT(j) Total tangential or torque force on cutter at the jth angular position
FX Average X force on cutter
FX(j) Total X force on cutter at the jth angular position
FY Average Y force on cutter
FY(j) Total Y force on cutter at the jth angular position
KR Empirical constant in radial force equation
KT Empirical constant in tangential force equation
Nf N u m b e r of flutes
No N u m b e r of angular increments
Nz N u m b e r of axial disk elements
RAD Radius of cutter (in.)
RD Radial depth of cut (in,)
t,(id,k) Chip thickness for the ith disk element at the jth angular position of the
cutter and the kth flute
cte, Angle at which cutter enters the cut
Ctex Angle at which cutter exits the cut
cth~ Helix angle of cutter
fl(ij,k) Angular position of the ith disk element at the jth angular position of the
cutter and the kth flute

* Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana.


IL 61801, U.S.A.
t Metcut Research Assooates Inc., Cincinnati, OH 45209. U.S,A.
7
8 W.A. KLIN~,R. E. DEVORand J. R. LIN~DBERG

y Angular spacing between flutes


O(j) The jth angular position of cutter

INTRODUCTION
THE END milling process is used extensively in the machining of airframe structures,
accounting for up to 40~/0 of the costs of fabrication of non-electrical parts for a high
performance aircraft. In planning machining operations, the part programmer is faced with
the need to select economic cutting conditions but yet avoid conditions which give rise to
excessive cutter deflection and cutter breakage. This is becoming increasingly more
important in finish machining as more and more workpieces are compacted of powdered
metal, forged and cast to nearly their final shape. Toward the improvement of end milling
efficiency, several major studies have been undertaken to investigate the effects of process
variables on cutting forces and cutter breakage [1, 2]. These studies have provided a large
amount of data which have been used to empirically relate the cutting conditions to process
responses of interest. However. such information is generally in the form of average measured
forces and associated empirical predicting equations for specific cutter geometry and
workpiece pairs. From this information, it is difficult to generalize and mechanistically
explain the force system and its specific impact on cutter deflection and breakage.
Furthermore, the extrapolation of this information to the development and interpretation of
forces during special cuts such as cornering, exit and entry, and forging cuts is difficult. Yet
such cuts are of particular importance to the process planner since they exaggerate the
problems of deflection and breakage.
Martellotti [3] and Tlusty and MacNeil [4] have contributed to a fundamental
understanding of the end milling process through studies of the cutting mechanisms and total
force system. Martellotti developed the mathematical equations for cutter path, chip
thickness, etc. for both conventional and climb milling. In a study on the dynamics of the
forces in end milling with respect to adaptive control, Tlusty and MacNeil developed a
mechanistic model of the end milling process. This work showed that the force variations
during steady state machining vary as a function of the cutting conditions, and that the force
levels may change rapidly during transient cuts such as the cutter entering the workpiece.
The time and expense involved in developing large cutting force data bases experimentally
suggests that a mechanistic force prediction model could be useful in generating such
information, particularly where special cuts are involved. The ability to develop in-
stantaneous force characteristics makes such an approach even more attractive. To be of
practical significance, however, such a model must not only be verified experimentally but it
must be easy to establish and implement.
This paper presents a mechanistic model for the prediction of the force system in end
milling. A model-building procedure based on data obtained from statistically designed
experiments for rectangular cut cross-sections is explained and the model is then extended to
predict force system characteristics for cornering cuts. The results of a validation experiment
are presented and an analysis of force characteristics during cornering is presented. The
model is implemented via a computer program which has extensive tabular and graphical
output.

MECHANISTIC FORCE MODEL DEVELOPMENT


Model formulation
It was an initial goal of this research to develop a model for the prediction of the force
system in end milling based solely on the mechanics of chip formation. Such a model can be
based on the assumption of Shaw [5] that three-dimensional cutting operations can be
thought of as an aggregation of orthogonal cuts. Based on Stabler's chip flow rule and the
concept that cutting forces on disc-like elements which comprise the end mill can be
Prediction of Cutting Forces in End Milling 9

aggregated to give the total cutting force, the cutting force equations of Usui et al. [6-], and
chip thickness calculations of Martellotti [3] can be employed to develop an analytical force
prediction model. The energy model of Usui et al. calculates shear energy using the dynamic
shear stress of the work material and the shear angle. The shear and friction angles are used
with the input cutter geometry to determine the friction and torque cutting forces.
While the above approach may be sound in principle, it suffers from the fact that the
quality of the force predictions rely heavilyon the quality of the input information on shear
angle and friction angle. The general lack of this information in the literature and the
sensitivity of these parameters suggests that a mechanistic model conditioned by experimen-
tal average force data may be of greater practical significance.
An alternative approach to the development of a purely analytical force system prediction
model would be to combine the chip thickness equations of Martellotti with empirical
equations which relate cutting forces to chip load to yield to mechanistic force model.
Average cutting force data from a few statistically designed experiments could then be used to
"condition" the mechanistic model to a particular cutting situation, e.g. work material and
tool geometry. This approach is developed in this paper. In this work, the assumption is made
that the cutting system is rigid, i.e. no cutter or workpiece deflection. Within the framework of
this model formulation, these assumptions can be relaxed. This is the subject of continuing
work to be reported at a later date. This model can be employed to obtain approximate cutter
deflection characteristics by applying the resulting force distribution to the cutter via a simple
deflection equation [7].
Chip ioad geometry
An element central to the prediction of cutting forces is the chip load on the cutter.
Martellotti has presented a detailed analysis of the mathematics of the milling process and
this work provides the basis for the chip load calculations. Martellotti showed that the true
path of a cutter tooth is trochoidal and that the chip length in conventional milling is longer
than in climb milling. A number of chip thickness formulae are derived by Martellotti and the
most basic equation is
tc = fsin/3 (1)
where tc is the instantaneous chip thickness, f is the feed (in/tooth) and 13 is the angular
position of a tooth in the cut. This equation for chip thickness is commonly used in the
analysis of the milling process. More exact chip thickness equations can be used but the chip
load calculations made with these equations are only slightly more accurate.
A complete representation of the chip load on the end mill at any instant is obtained by
considering thin, disc-like sections along the axis of the cutter. The location of each flute on
each disk is determined and for each flute engaged in the cut, the chip thickness x the
thickness of the disk yields the chip load. As the angular position of the cutter is incremented,
the chip load is recomputed. Down milling is usually used in aerospace applications and is
considered in this paper. Figure 1 shows the cut geometry and co-ordinate system for dowaa
milling. Figure 2 shows a three-dimensional view of an end mill with the chip load elements
on the flutes of the cutter. Two flutes of the cutter are engaged with the workpiece.

End Mill
I Y ~ Too,h

Wo kplece '~ Tooth

FIG. 1. Cut geometry and co-ordinate system for down rrulling.


I0 W.A. KLINE, R. E. DEVoR and J. R. LU,~DBEaG

+ +Z
Rototion of / +Y Tooth

_l i

Axiol / l'm@" ~r Detod


Depth of C i<

~.. ' ~ Th,s Flule


~ ~ ~Not Engoged

FIG. 2. End mill with chip load elements.

F o r c e relations
It has be~n previously shown [4] that force predictions can be made by considering the
tangential cutting force to be proportional to the chip load and the radial force to be
proportional to the tangential force,
DFTAN = K ' r D= t, (2)
DFRAD = K a DFTAN (3)
where D F T A N is the tangential force on a flute, D F R A D is the radial force on a flute, D z is the
width of cut or the thickness of the axial disks, t, is the chip thickness from equation (1) and
K~, K a are constants estimated from data.
It has been shown in [8] that the specific cutting force, K'r, varies with the chip thickness,
K ' T = C ( t , ) t'. (4)
Substituting into (2),
DFTAN = C D z f e* l (sin fl)e+ l (5)
In [8], it is shown that for a common value of P, say, P = -0.3, that
(sin fl)P+ 1 ~ sin ft. (6)
U~g this approximation, equation (5) may be rewritten as
DFTAN = K r D z f s i n fl, (7)
where
K r = C ( f ) p. (8)
The approximation in equation (6) and the force equation, equation (7), are commonly used
in the literature to predict milling forces [4, 8, 10]. From equation (8), K T should vary with
feed rate; however when K r is obtained from measured force data, it is found to also vary with
radial and axial depth of cut. Equations (3) and (7) can be generahzed for the end milling
process for down milling with an N/fluted cutter and ~'h=helix angle. For this situation, the
angular spacing between flutes on the cutter is,
= 360~/NI. (9)
The angular position of the cutter is denoted by 0(j),
O(j) = j ( y / N a ) , j = 1, 2 . . . . . N . (10)
where Nsis the number of angular increments. O(j)is also used to denote the angular position
Prediction of Cutting Forces in End Milling 11

at the bottom (z = O) of flute no, I on the cutter. This flute is arbitrarily selected. Combining
these elements, a generalized expression for the chip thickness in down end milling may be
written,
to(i,j, k) = f s i n [[3(i,/, k)] (11)
where
fl(i,j,k) = [ - 0 ( j ) + y(k - 1)] + {[(i - I)D. + D:/2] tan (~,~),'RAD},
for the ith axial disk element, t h e j t h angular position of the cutter, and the kth flute. In the
expression for fl, the first term locates the bottom of the kth flute and the second wraps
the angle back along the flute due to the helix angle when moving up the axis of the cutter.
General expressions for the tangential and radial cutting forces may now be written,
DFTAN(ij,k) = K r D:fsin [fl(ij,k)] (12)
DFRAD(ij,k ) = K R DFTAN(ij, k) (13)
for ~ex ~< fl(ij,k) <<,~ . where ~,x is the angle at which the cutter exits the cut and ~ . is the
angle at which the cutter enters the cut. The angle at exit is approximately zero, =~x = 0, and
an expression for ~,. is given in equation (14).
%. = cos- t [1 - (RD/RAD)]. (14)

The tangential and radial elements are resolved into the external X. Y coordinate system by
equation (15) and (16),
NI
DFX(ij) = ~. ( - D F R A D ( i j , k ) s i n [fl(ij,k)] + DFTAN(ij,k)cos[fl(Lj.k)]) (15)
k=l

Nl
DFY(ij) = ~ (DFRAD(ij,k)cos [fl(ij,k)] + DFTAN(ij,k) sin [fl~i,j, k)]) (16)
k=l

where DFX (i,j) is the X force on the cutter on the ith disk element and jth angular position
and DFY(i,j) is the Y force on the cutter on the ith disk elements. Figure 3 shows a three-
dimensional representation of the end mill and the incremental force components [equations
(12) and (13)] acting along the flutes of the cutter. The total X and Y forces on the cutter at the
jth angular position are obtained by summing equations (15) and (16) over all the disk
elements,
N~
FX(j) = ~ DFX(ij) (17)
i-I

FKI. 3. End mill with incremental force components.


12 W.A. KLINE,R. E. DEVoRand J. R. LINDBERG

N:
FY(j) = ~, DFY(i,j) (18)
1=1

where FX[j)is the total X force on the cutter at thejth angular position, F Y0")is the total Y
force on the cutter at thejth angular position, and N_ is the number of axial disk elements.
The total torque force on the cutter is obtained by summing equation (12) over both flutes
and axial disks,
Nt N:
FT(j) = ~ ~ DFTAN(ij,k), (19)
k=l i=l

where FT(j) is the torque force on the cutter at the jth angular position.
The calculation of the chip load and forces on the cutter which is done by numerical
integration in this paper may also be integrated in closed form as in [4] and [9]. The
numerical integration method provides for a more general analysis of milling. This approach
provides for the analysis of milling forces with,
(1) More exact chip thickness calculations.
(2) Analytical cutting force equations.
(3) Cutter runout.
(4) Variable helix angle.
For these situations, a closed form solution is difficult to obtain.

MECHANISTIC MODEL BUILDING PROCEDURE


Determination of K T and KR
In the above model formulation, the constant K'r represents the specific cutting energy for
a particular cut. The K a value indicates the ratio of tangential to radial cutting forces.
Although tables of specific cutting energy for various workpiece materials and machining
conditions are available, the values for this parameter when derived from measured force
data are found to vary considerably over the cutting conditions, i.e. as feed rate, axial depth,
and radial depth vary. Therefore, empirical models were developed to predict K T and K Ras a
function of the f~drate, axial depth, and radial depth. Given a model to predict K r and K R
values, the calculations for instantaneous chip thickness and flute locations can be combined
with the empirical force predicting equations to yield the mechanistic force model.
For a particular cut geometry (axial depth, radial depth, and feedrate), the values for K r
and K R may be obtained by expressing the average forces FX and FY in terms of X and Y
forces as given in equations (17) and (18) and then summing over the angular position O(j) for
j = 1,2 . . . . , N a,

F)t" = ~ FX(j,I/N,~ (20)

FY = [~,=, FY(j)]/N o (21)

where FX is the average X force, F Y is the average Y force and N o is the number of angular
increments. Both FX(j)and F Y(j)can be expressed solely as function of K r. K R,.£ D:. and fl
from equations (9)-(18). Therefore. average X and Y forces are given by.
No N: N!
FY = ~., ~_. ~, { K R K r D j s i n [fl(i. j, k)] cos [fl(i. j. k)] + KrD..fsin2[fl(i.j. k)]~;/No(22)
j=l i=l k=l

Nr N: Nt

FX = ~ ~. ~_, { - KaKTD=fsin 2 [fl(i. /. k)] + K.rD:.fcos [[3(i. j. k)] sin [flli. j. k)]:./N o
;=l i=, k=~ ~23)
Prediction of Cutting Forces in End Milling 13

i Obtom Meosured Force DO~O


FOr Motet,ol, Cutter end
Ronge of Cutting Cot~dlhons

I
Solve for K T ond K R for eociq I
Meosured Force Test
t

Develop Emplricol MOdelS


For K ,[ o n 0 K R

I
Use Emptricol dolues of K T 0nd K~, tOI
I Predict Cuthn 9 Forces Oslr'g the
J Mechomshc Model
I
FIG. 4. Flowchart of mechanistic modeling procedure.

for 0t,x ~< fl(ij,k) <, ~e,.


Given average measured forces FX and F Y, equations (22) and (23) may be solved for K Tand
K~
The entire mechanistic force modeling procedure is represented graphically in Fig. 4. The
spirit of this approach is, given empirical data on average forces from statistically designed
experiments for rectangular cut cross-sections, the mechanistic force model can be employed
to study the force system in more detail. In particular, the model may be used to study
instantaneous force distributions, cutter deflection characteristics, the effects of the force
system on cutter breakage and/or surface roughness and surface accuracy considerations.
Equations (9)-(23) provide the basic equations necessary to implement a mechanistic
model to predict cutting forces via a computer program. The computer program should have
two modes of operations, one to solve for K T and K Rand the other to predict cutting forces.
The outputs of the program may include as much information as necessary for a particular
application.

Illustration of model building and model ol~tput


It was shown in [8] that the specific cutting energy varies only with the chip thickness.
However, when K T and Kg a r e obtained from force tests performed with a sample of
industrial tooling with forces measured with an industrial dynamometer, these parameters
vary considerably with the cutting conditions. Table I shows a sample of measured average
X and Y force data for 4340 steel at 320 BHN take~from [1]. The force data were measured
with a Macotech~ dynamometer which is a common industrial dynamometer for constraint
adaptive control. The milling cutters were supplied by various aerospace companies. All
cutters had been used in production and re-sharpened for the force tests. The procedure
described above was used to solve for KT and K R for each test. and these values are listed in
Table I. The strong correlation of K r with feed is expected from equation (8). Figure 5 shows
In (K T) plotted vs In ( f ) for all 30 force tests studied. A linear relationship is obtained, but the
wide variation about this line suggests that K r may be correlated to other variables such as
radial and axial depth of cut.
Similarly, a wide variation is seen in the K R values. The value of K Ris strongly influenced
by tool wear and cutting edge geometry [10] so that extremely large K R values of greater
than 1.0 may be due to improper re-sharpening.
14 W . A . KLINE, R. E. DEVOR and J. R. LINDBErG

TABLE I. ACTUAL AND PREDICTED X AND Y FORCES AND g t aN[) K r XALt l~s FOR 4340 STI¢EL

Actual Predicted
RD AD Feed FX FY FX FY KT
(in.) (in.I (in/tooth) (Ib) (Ib) (lb) (Ib} (psi × l06j KR

0.1 1.0 0.0005 24 93 27 89 0.957 1.233


0.1 1.0 0.0050 173 235 175 232 0.386 0.553
0.5 1.0 0.0005 - l0 429 - 7 388 1.2 l0 0.667
0.5 1.0 0.0050 190 1454 203 1484 0.448 0.467
1.0 1.0 0.0005 -321 629 -413 675 1.258 0.511

1.0 1.0 0.0050 - 1539 3124 - 1440 2880 0.623 0.496


0.1 2.0 0.0005 58 150 55 151 0.910 0.985
O.1 2.0 0.0050 345 432 364 440 0.383 0.511
0.5 2.0 0.0005 -41 862 - 11 800 1.190 0.706
0.5 2.0 0.0050 628 3408 482 3436 0.338 0.408

1.0 2.0 0.0005 -851 1361 -927 1452 1.360 0.626


1.0 2.0 0.0050 -3712 7148 -3687 7067 0.704 0.516

Constants: diameter = 1 in., helix = 30 °, flute length = 2 in., speed = 50 sfpm.

The correlation o f K T and K s with the cutting conditions is undesirable, but the accurate
prediction of cutting forces using these methods for industrial data requires that these
correlations be taken into account. To use the mechanistic model for prediction purposes,
second order polynomial models [equation (24)] are used to correlate K r and K R to radial
and axial depth of cut and feed.

K r = bo + bl RD + b 2 A D + b a f + b12 RD AD
+ b t 3 R D f + b 2 3 A D f + btt R D 2 + b22 AD 2 + b 3 3 f 2. (24)

Both polynomial models provided good fits to the K r and K s data with multiple correlation
coefficients of 0.984 for the K r model and 0.936 for the K a model. These models are then used
to predict K r and K a for any set of machining conditions within the range of the data base.
Table l also shows a comparison between measured forces and predicted forces from the
mechanistic model. The correspondence between measured and predicted forces is quite
good. Over the entire range of cutting conditions, the percentage errors range from 5 to 10%.
The mechanistic end mill computer program that has been developed provides in both
tabular and graphical form a number force system, characteristics including:

].4

Log e f

FIG. 5. Plot of K r vs feed for 4340 steel.


Prediction of Cutting Forces in End Milling 15

TaBLe 2. CUrnNG COr,~ITtONS FOR FIO. 6 (a-c)


(~rom [7])
RD AD Feed
Cut (in.) (in.) (in/tooth)

1 0.25 0.5 0.0225


2 0.25 1.5 0.0092
3 0.75 0.5 0.0082
4 0.75 1.5 0.0022

1. Force profiles. FX(j), FY(j), and FT(j), as a function of angular rotation O(j) through
the cut (see Fig. 6a).
2. Force center profiles. Points of action along the axis of the cutter of FX(j), F Y(j), and
FR(j) as a function of angular rotation 0(j) through the cut (see Fig. 6b). The X and Y force
centers CFX and CFY are the points of action of the X and Y forces along the cutter axis
necessary to produce the same moment about the cutter holder as the resolved elemental X

o'" ,'~ 9'0 1~5 l,o


Angle- Degrees

FIG. 6(a). Force profiles for cut 3 in Table 2.

1.5 l ~ l

. . . . . AD/2

0
45 90 155 180
Angle- Degrees
FIG. 6(b). Force center profiles for cutting conditions in Table 2.

, O
....... __ (ID¢:

~_. . . . . . . . / 1 ~ 7 ~ S °
. . . . . .

1.5
/:; lITrr
lO 0,5
-:-;-2' 2 0
Culler Axis

FIG. 6(C). Y force distribution for cut 2 in Table 2.


16 W.A. KUNE, R. E. DEVoR and J. R. LINDBERG

and Y forces distributed along the axis of the cutter. The resultant force and force center are
obtained by vector and moment addition of the X and Y forces and moments.
3. Force distributions. The distribution of forces DFX(i,j) and DFY(i,j) along the axis of
the cutter, i = 1. . . . . N,, at each angle O(j) (see Fig. 6c).
4. Average, minimum and maximum FX, FY, and FT forces.
5. Maximum torsional and bending stresses for each angle through the cut.
6. Cutter deflection profiles. Deflection at the bottom of the end mill in the X and Y
directions as a function of the angular rotation 0(j). Cutter deflection is approximated by
considering the end mill as a cantilever beam with moment of inertia as calculated in [1].
Figure 7 shows the input and typical output information from the computer program in
tabular form. The program also contains an analytical force prediction model [ 11 ] which can
be implemented with input values for shear angle, friction angle, and work material
properties.

C O R N E R I N G CUT ANALYSIS
Statement of the problem
An important application of the end milling process is the machining of aircraft structural
components such as wing and fuselage sections. These structures have numerous pockets and
associated thin-walled flanges which greatly reduce their weight while maintaining the
necessary strength and rigidity. In operations, the end mill cutter moves along one side of the
pocket into the corner where the cutter changes direction and then exits along the next side of
the pocket. The pocket is commonly roughed out with a large diameter cutter, e.g. 2 in.
diameter, and finishing operations are performed with a smaller diameter cutter, e.g. 1 in.
diameter. As the cutter enters the corner on the finishing cut, the radial depth of cut increases
due to the rough corner radius as shown in Fig. 8. As the cutter moves into the corner, cutting
forces increase. Since axial depth must be maintained, only feedrate can be adjusted to avoid
excessive forces which may lead to large deflections and cutter breakage. The selection of feed
for the worst-case cutting conditions, as is often done in this type of transient cutting
situation, is not economical in terms of the entire finishing operation. If the force increase in
the corner can be precisely predicted and related to feedrate, higher feeds may be used out of
the corner and a proper reduction of feed can be made as the cutter moves into the corner.
Rather than establishing such information solely through costly experimentation, the
mechanistic force system model can be used to predict such cornering force characteristics.
To predict the force profile during cornering operations, the mechanistic model is

Rt¢$¢R¢$¢R$¢$¢$$¢¢$¢¢¢$¢¢¢$¢$R¢$$¢¢¢¢¢¢¢¢¢$¢¢¢¢*$¢¢*¢¢¢$*¢¢¢¢¢¢¢¢
END MILL FORCE MODEL - SUNMARY OF I N I T I A L CONDITIONS

NOBEL ENPIR
NODE EQUIV
TYPE CUT = FULL CHIP THICKNESS APPROX
MORK M A I L = .7075E~04 HARDNESS .1690E÷03
DRAFT SLOPE = O* RAMP SLOPE : O.
FEED(IPT) .5000E-D2 RPM .5290E÷03
RADIAL D.C. = .2000E÷O0 AXIAL D,C, ,IO00E÷01
DIRNETER ,7500E$00 NUMBER TEETH .4000E~01
FLUTE LENGTH = o1750ET01 NOSE RADIUS = O.
HELIX A N G L E .3000E÷02 RADIAL RAKE .BOOOE÷01
F X AVE = O. FY AVE = O.
ROTATION ANGLE = .8990E.02 INCREMENTIN A .5000E+OI
INCREMENT IN Z = .2041E-01 INIT DISTANCE = O.
SRIRStSi$$$tSfSRRtSRRi$1tR~i$$1$S$1ZiRS~$~$$¢*¢¢1¢1¢¢¢¢S*¢¢SRS$~

•••••••¢••••••••••••$••••••••i••••••••••¢$¢••••$¢••••i••••¢¢•$••¢•$••¢•i•••••••••••••$••••••••••••
ANGLE = O.O FORCE ELEMENTS = 34 DIST(IN) = .4334E-01 TIME(SEC)= O,

FLUTE LOCATIONS : .9900E÷00 .2569Et01 .4140E÷01 .5710E÷01

FORCES : IO = .2226E~03 X = .9816E~02 Y = .2202E÷03 Z = O.

FORCE CENTERS : X = .IODOE~01 Y = ,9678E÷00

RESULTANT FORCE : FORCE = .2410E÷03 ANGLE= .[151E÷O! CENTER = .gB73E÷O0

STRESSES ! X = .6030E#04 Y = .I212ET05 TORSION = .2374E÷04


A O O R 8 8 8 f 8 8 8 j 8 O 8 8 $ i 8 R t s 8 8 ~ R l 8 i i 8 R $ ~ 8 8 8 $ s t s 8 s I I ~ s 8 $ 8 s ~ t z ~ t ~ t I ~ 1 1 ¢ ~ ~ ~ $ ~

FiG. 7. Mechanistic model computer printout


Prediction of Cutting Forces in End Milling 17

WorkOiece

Cutler ~l
Feed

Roughing
Cutler
Radius "

ImhoI
Radial
Depth

Culler Diameter r ......~ ~

FIG. 8. Cut geometry and co-ordinate system for cornering cuts.

employed by considering a succession of rectangular cut cross-sections of incrementally


increasing radial depth. As the cutter moves through the corner, the radial depth of cut is
computed based on the initial radial depth of cut, cutter diameter, rough corner radius, and
location in the corner. K r and K R values at each radial depth are predicted from the models
expressing K r and K R as functions of radial and axial depth and feedrate. These models were
developed from the baseline data from rectangular cut cross-section force tests.

Model ouput and verification results


To verify the ability of the mechanistic model to predict cutting forces during cornering
cuts, data from a series of cornering tests were compared with model predictions developed
from a separate data base of rectangular cut cross-sections obtained under similar machining
conditions. The cornering tests were performed on a Cincinnati 3-axis, single-spindle milling
machine equipped with a Cincinnati Acramatic numerical control unit. Cutting forces were
measured with a Macotech~ force sensing unit. The work material for the tests was Ti 6AI-
4V annealed to 302 BHN, and the rough corner radius for all tests was 1 in. A 4-flute, 1 in.
diameter cutter with a 2 in. flute length was used for the finishing cuts. The independent
variables for the experiment were feed (0.002, 0.004, 0.006 in/tooth), axial depth of cut 11.0,
1.5 in. ), and initial radial depth of cut (0.000, 0.030 in.). The K r and K Rmodels used to predict
forces from the mechanistic model were developed from a data base of 18 tests cutting the
same material over a similar range of axial depths, radial depths, and feedrates.
Figure 9(a-d) show representative results for the model validation experiment. The solid
lines in these figures represent the model predicted average forces while the dashed lines
represent the actual average forces measured. For all four test conditions, the correspondence
between model predicted and the actual forces is quite good. With the exception of Fig. 9(b)
for the Y-direction force and Fig. 9(a) for the X-direction force, the model predicts both the
level and increasing trend of the forces within 5-200/0 over the full distance of the cut into the
corner.
For the case in Fig. 9(b), the model appears to over-predict the forces near the maximum
radial depth, i.e. center of the comer. This phenomenon was observed in a fc~ other
validation tests, primarily for the higher feedrates. This departure of predicted from ,tc~u,d
forces can be attributed to the fact that the N/C machine used for the tests deceler:~tc~ .~ the
18 W A KUNE, R. E. DEVoa and J. R. LI.NDHERG

3O00

Indlal RO : D O r a
AD : I O,n
2000 Feed = 0 . 0 0 2 ~pl
- - Model Predicled
"G ......... Mocolech
aid
I000

Uu Fy

-i000
-0.6 -0.'5 -0.4 -0'3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.i
(a} Distance From Corner (in)

3000 , , ,
Initial RD = 0 , 0 ,n
A D : 1.0 ~n
Feed : 0 0 0 6 ~pt t
2000 Model Pred~cled /
_ - . . . . . Macotech / . ,

i000 Fy o.--'" \

0 Fx ~ ~ . ,'

-i000 ' J J. -0.'2


-06 -o.5 -0,4 -03 -0,1 0 0.1
(b) Distance From Corner ( i n )

3000
Iqit,al RD : 0 , 0 m
AD : 1 5 m
Feed : 0 0 0 2 ~pl
2000
Model P r e d < t e d
........ Mocotech
/D
v
LO00
Lc

IOOC ~ ~ i i , J
-06 -0 5 -04 -0.3 -02 -G 1 0 O l
(c) D,stonce From Corner (,n)

3000
Inmal RD : O O m .
~ D : 15,n /'I
Feed : 0 . 0 0 6 ,pt -~'17.
2000
~ - - Model Pred,cled /.~ [~
........ Mocotech -~/ J~

looo

-i000
-0.6 -0.5 -0,4 -0.3 -0,2 -0,1 0 0.1
(d) Distance From Corner (in.)

FIG. 9. Cutting force profiles for concerning tests on Ti-OAI-4V.


Prediction of Cutting Forces in End Milling 19

center of the corner is approached. For the smaller feedrates (0.002 in/tooth), this
phenomenon was not as obvious.
Overall, the validation experiments indicate that:
(1) The magnitude of predicted forces correspond well with the actual test results
indicating not only that the model mechanisms provide a good approximation to the actual
cutting mechanism but also that the data base used to "fit" the mechanistic force model is
quite compatible with the actual testing environment.
(2) The model simulation of movement into the corner as a series of rectangular cut cross-
sections with increasing radial depth represents the cornering cut phenomenon quite well.
Cornering cut force system characteristics
To better understand the nature of end milling forces during cornering cuts, several
cornering cuts were simulated over a range of axial depths (0.75 and 1.50 in.) and feedrates
(0.005 and 0.008 in/tooth). The force predictions were developed via the mechanistic model
based on the data from rectangular cut cross-section tests on 4340 steel at 320 BHN (see
Table l). Figure lO(a-d) show graphs of force as a function of distance from the corner. In
Figure 10, the solid lines represent average forces in the X and Y directions while the dashed
lines represent the maximum forces encountered by the cutter.
In Fig. 10, all force profiles have the same general trend, increasing more rapidly early in
the cut, then increasing approximately linearly until near the corner where the rate of increase
in force decreases slightly to the corner. As the cutter turns 9 0 to exit the corner, the cut
cross-section is drastically reduced and the force falls off immediately. Both the average and
maximum forces show these characteristic patterns.
As the axial depth is varied (for fixed radial depth and feedrate), the relationship between
average and maximum force changes significantly. For large axial depth, 1.5 in. (Fig. 10c, d ).
the average and maximum forces vary slightly (less than 10°~) while for small axial depths,
0.75 in. (Fig. 10a, b), the maximum force is as much as 50% larger than the average force. As
the axial depth increases, more flutes are engaged in the cut at any one time and the forces
tend to stabilize over the rotation of the cutter. Since cutter breakage will tend to be a
function of the maximum force experienced, it will be important to consider this aspect of the
force system.
For any feedrate, the Fig. 10 results show that a doubling of the axial depth (from 0.75 to
1.5 in.) approximately doubles the average or maximum forces experienced. For Fig. 10(d), a
maximum or average force of about 6500 lb (in the Y-direction)is predicted by the model.
For this condition, the cutter is likely to have failed by shank breakage. As feedrate is
doubled, the maximum and average forces increase, again by about a factor of two.
The ability, through the mechanistic model, to predict forces during cornering cuts as a
function of both cut geometry and feedrate suggests that the model could be used to aid the
process planner in determining how the process might be controlled to avoid large increases
in forces. Where force levels must be maintained at or below a certain value to avoid excessive
deflection or breakage, feedrate is commonly used as the controlling variable.
The results of Fig. 11 were generated from mechanistic model predictions and illustrate the
trajectory of required feedrate reduction as the center of the corner is approached to maintain
a constant average Y-direction force level. For these results, a criterion of F Y = 1000 Ib has
been arbitrarily chosen as an upper limit for force. This constraint may represent a surface
accuracy constraint. The curves were generated by solving for the radial depth at several
points into the corner and at each point using this radial depth and the axial depth to iterate
over feedrate to find the feedrate which produces a Y-direction average force of 1000 lb.
In Fig. 11, the point of required feedrate reduction is indicated for varying entry feedrates
and two different axial depths. For a light entry feedrate (0.002 in/tooth), no reduction is
required for an axial depth of 0.75 in. to stay under FY = 1000 lb. At this same feedrate.
however, if axial depth is 1.50 in., feedrate reduction must begin at -0.195 in. from the corner
to avoid exceeding the force limit. For higher entry feedrates, reduction must start much
sooner and continue steadily to the center of the corner. In either case, Fig. 11 shows the
nature of the rate at which feed must be reduced to maintain constant force.
20 W.A. KLINE, R. E. D E V o r a n d J. R. LIn'DaERG

7000 ~' , ~ ~ r

6000 IndroI RD : 0 0 3 ~n
AD : 0 7 5 in
5000 Feed : 0 0 0 5 ,pi
Moxlmum Force
"~ 4 0 0 0 Average Force

3ooo

u._ 2000

1ooo ...~.~I

qooo ~ i i i k i
I0.6 105 I04 605 -0.2 -O 1 0 O. ]

(a) Dislonce from Corner (irO

7000
Initial RO : 0 . 0 3 in
6ooo AD : 0 . 7 5 113
Feed : 0 . 0 0 8 ,pt
5000
Maximum FOrce
~4000 ~ Average Force
Z
3000 _ ~-~-I

.ooo >-S>q I
,ooo

1 I I I I ~1 I
-1000- 0.6 -0.5 -04 -03 -0.2 -0 1 0 O1
(b) DIslonce from Corner (in)

7000 , ,

6000 Inlllal RD : Q 0 3 in
AD : 1.50 m.
Feed : 0 . 0 0 5 ipt
5000
Max,mum Force
4000 Average Force

3000

L~ 2000

i000
o i__.
-i000 , ~ i ;
-0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -03 -02 -01 0 0.1
(c) Dislonce from Corner (qn)

7000 ~ , ~ , .......
ImhoI RD : 0,03 m
6000 AD : 1 5 0 , n . / I
Feed : 0 , 0 0 8 ip¿ /,~" I
5000 .... Max,mum Force , / / z I
oooo ~- ~vero~oFOr%// I
=~3ooo / F~,7 II
2000

1000 .,,~ ~ .,.,~

-1000 I
-06 -015 -014 -0'.3 -012 -0.1 0 0.1
(d) Disiance from Corner (In)

FIG. lO. P r e d i c t e d f o r c e p r o f i l e s for c o r n e r i n g tests on 4 3 4 0 steel.


P r e d i c t i o n of C u t t i n g F o r c e s in E n d Milling 2l

024
022
r
Feed Rote Tro~ectory
o2o O~ . " fo, ~ : ! 0 0 0 Ibs
'~ and AD:O75~n
.o18 \ ~-Feed Re~e Tro]ecIory
016 \ for F~ : l O 0 0 Ibs
014 ~ & " and ~D : 1501n
,~ / ~ Inmol RD : 0 0 3 ~n
~, .012 Ok/~ ¢~k 0 Model Generated
.OlO Entry F e e d _ ~ ~ Dot<]
Z 008 o.o~s,pt - -~--~
006 Entry Feed \
.004 0.005 ip, . . . . . ~,~ ~-....~
.002 Entry Feed . ~ ~ ' ~ _
0.002 ~pt
0 . 06 I 0 .5 I Ol 4 I 03 -02 Ol 0 01
Distance from Center of Corner fin)

FIG. 11. F e e d rate reduction trajectories to maintain F}


= 1000 lb.

In practice, results similar to Fig. 11 could be used to indicate a safe corner cutting feedrate
in terms of either a maximum force or cutter breakage constraint. In the case of a shank
breakage constraint, the feedrate reduction trajectory will not take the same pattern as in Fig.
11 since experimental results [-1] have indicated that for fixed axial depth, the breakage force
increases as radial depth increases.
The above results are meant to be indicative of the type of information which can be
generated from the mechanistic model given a range of cutting conditions encountered and
some experimental results for average forces. Tables and ..'or graphs may be generated on the
computer to aid the process planner in the safe but economic selection of machining
conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

This paper presents the development and use of a mechanistic model for the prediction of
force system characteristics in the end milling process. The model has application to the study
of many important problems surrounding the end milling process including cutter and
workpiece deflection, cutter breakage, and the selection of efficient machining conditions
particularly for special cuts including cornering, ramping, exit and entry, and forgings. The
model can be employed for data base enhancement and can serve as an important tool in the
study of process dynamics and adaptive control. The model may be of particular value in the
analysis of problematic end milling operations such as those encountered in the machining of
aerospace structures.
Specifically, the paper presents the following:
(1) The development of the model including the geometry of the chip load calculations and
the relationship between chip load and cutting forces.
(2) A model building procedure for the development of models based on average force data
for a given cutter geometry and workpiece material. The model was verified via a set of force
tests for rectangular cut cross-sections.
(3) The implementation of the mechanistic model via a computer program which produces
a number of force system characteristics in tabular and graphical form. These include force
distributions over the axial depth of cut, force as a function of the rotation of the cutter, center
of force as a function of the rotation of the cutter and average, maximum, and minimum
forces. The computer program also outputs stress and deflection information.
(4) The mechanistic force system model applied to the analysis of cornering cuts typical of
those encountered in the machining of airframe structures. Cornering cut force profile
predictions were verified based on experimental data from cornering cuts and the
characteristics of cornering cut forces were examined as a function of axial depth of cut and
feedrate. Model generated data were presented to illustrate how the mechanistic model ma~
be employed to indicate safe operating feedrates durin~ cornering cuts.
22 W.A. KLINE, R. E. DI~Voa and J. R. LINDBERG

Acknowledgements--The authors wish to acknowledge collaboration with Dr. W. J. Zdeblick of Metcut Research
Associates, Inc. in the development and execution of this work. Computer funds were provided by the University of
Illinois Research Board.

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Soc. mech. Engrs. 100, 222 (1979).
[7] R.E. DEVoR, W. A. KLINEand W. J. ZDEBLICIGA mechanistic model for the force system in end milling with
application to machining airframe structures, Proc. 8th Am. Metal~'orkm9 Res. Co~!£ 8. 297 (1980)
[8] A. J. P. SABaERWAL,Chip section and cutting force during the milling operation, Ann. CIRP, 10, (1961/62)
[9] F. KOENnGSaERGERand A. J. P. SAaaERwAL,An investigation into the cutting force pulsations during milling
operations. Int. J. Mech. Tool Des. Res. I, 15 (1961).
[lO] P. E GYGAX, Experimental full cut milling dynamics, Ann. CIRP 29, 61 (1980).
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and cornering cuts, M.S. Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (1980)

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