PR Table Egg Production - Beta - 355638 PDF

OFFICE OF THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
Dear Reader:
This third edition of the publication, The Philippines

Recommends for Table Egg Production, provides farmers,
extension workers, instructors, researchers, and students the
latest information on various aspects of layer production. It
also tackles problems and constraints as well as prospects and
opportunities of the layer industry.
We hope you will find this volume a useful reference

material.
Sincerely yours,
PATRICIO S. FAYLON
Executive Director
PCARRD
The Philippines
Recommends for
Table Egg Production
PCARRD Philippines Recommends Series No. 23-B
PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY

AND NATURAL RESOURCES RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT (PCARRD)
Department of Science and Technology (DOST)
Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines

2008
First Edition 1977
Second Edition 1989 (Revised)
Third Edition 2008 (Revised)
ISSN 0115-7833
Bibliographic Citation:
The Table Egg Production Committee 2007. The

Philippines recommends for table
egg production. Los Baños, Laguna:
PCARRD, 2008. 81p. (Philippines
Recommends Series No. 23-B/2008,
Revised Edition)
Philippine Copyright © by PCARRD, 2008.
ii
Foreword
P oultry is one of the major sources of meat and eggs which are
important food items that supply the needed protein in the human
diet. It accounted for 14.61% of the total agricultural production in
2006. Its production grossed about P110.7 B which registered at
4.18% increase over the previous year's level.
In 2006, chicken egg production marked an increase of 3.11%.
Likewise, gross earnings from chicken eggs increased by 11.03%. This
was due to the high inventory of chicken layers and better egg-laying
efficiency ratio in the second and third quarters of the year.
Fifty percent of the total layer population in 2006 was
concentrated in Southern Tagalog with 6.808 M (30.42%) and
Central Luzon with 4.384 M (19.59%) layers. The high chicken
population in these regions can be attributed to their proximity to
Metro Manila, considered as a major market center, and accessibility
to sources of production inputs like hatcheries, feedmills, and financial
institutions.
This volume is the third revision of the Philippines Recommends
for Table Egg Production which was first printed in 1977 and last
revised in 1989. It contains a package of recommendations and
information for those interested in starting a table egg enterprise or
for improving an existing one. It is hoped that chicken layer growers,
extension workers, instructors, researchers, and students would find
this volume a useful reference material.
PATRICIO S. FAYLON
Executive Director
PCARRD
iii
Acknowledgment
T he Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural

Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) acknowledges
the cooperation and assistance extended by the following persons,
institutions, and agencies for the third revision of the Philippines
Recommends for Table Egg Production:
• The 2007 technical committee members for drafting this

revised edition;
• The committee members of the Philippines Recommends for
Table Egg Production, 1977 (first edition) and 1989 (second
revision);
• Mr. Augustus Alexander A. de Villa and his family; Paradizoo
in Mendez, Cavite; and Conpac Agro Farm in Pila, Laguna for
the permission to use the photos taken from their farms in this
publication;
• Ms. Cristy M. Bueno for allowing us to take photos in her
layer farm;
• Staff of the Livestock Research Division (LRD), particularly
Mr. Eric E. Perez and Mr. Ricardo A. Mulimbayan, for their
assistance in taking some photographs used and for typing the
manuscript of this publication;
• Publication program staff of the Applied Communication
Division (ACD) under the leadership of Dr. Lily Ann D.
Lando; and
• To all those who in one way or another helped in the
preparation of this volume. Without them, the publication of
this third revision would not have been possible.
iv
Contents
Foreword iii
Acknowledgment iv
The Table Egg Production Committee, 2007 ix
Glossary of Terms x
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xii
The Egg Industry 1

Pointers in Starting a Poultry Farm for Table-Egg Production 5
Selection of Stock to Raise 7
Criteria in selecting egg-type strains to raise 7
Performance 7
Availability of stock and reliability of suppliers 9
Consumer preference 9
Housing and Housing Facilities 10
Brooding and growing houses 12
Laying house 13
Space requirements 14
Poultry house equipment and facilities 16
Brooder heaters 16
Brooder guards 16
Waterers 16
Feeders 16
Culling and holding equipment 17
Brooding 19
Guides for successful brooding 19
Sources of heat for artificial brooder 21
Brooder management 22
Brooding tips 22
Growing the Pullets 24
Light management of growing pullets 24
Monitoring body weights of pullets 25
Transfer of pullets to the laying house 25
Cannibalism among growing chickens 25
Management of the Laying Flock 27
Light management of layers 27

Management tips for the production of high-quality eggs 27
Minimizing feed wastage 27
Flock replacement program 29
Culling 29
Nutrition 31
Nutrient requirements of egg-type chickens 31
Non-nutritive feed additives 31
Feeding Management 37
Feeding starting and growing birds 37
Pre-lay calcium nutrition of pullets 37
Feeding pre-lay diet 38
Feeding layers 38
Feeding for egg size 39
Feeding layers to counteract heat stress 39
Phase feeding in laying birds 39
Feeding for egg shell quality 40
Feeding for the prevention of fatty liver syndrome 40
Feeding for the prevention of cage layer fatigue
and bone breakage 41
Disease Prevention and Control 42
Vaccination tips 42
Useful information on vaccines 45
Guidelines for the prevention of infectious diseases
in poultry farm 47
Some commercial disinfectants 49
Characteristics of an ideal disinfectant 59
Manure Management 61
Pointers in manure management 61
Fly Control 63
Rat Control 64
Marketing of Eggs 65
Survey prospective market outlet 65
Determine volume and quality requirement 65
Sell classified/graded eggs 66
Proper handling and storage 66
Form associations with other egg producers 67
Farm Records 68
Brooding/Rearing flock record 68
Laying flock record 69
vi
Economics 72
Profitability of table egg production 72
Efficiency of table egg production 73
Feasibility study of 6000-layer capacity farm 74
Scope and nature of the project 74
Technical and financial assumptions 74
Initial capital requirements and operating costs 74
Sourcing, timing, and costs of funds 76
Volume of production and revenues 76
Financial Statements 76
References 80
List of Tables
1 Chicken layer population by region, 1998–2006 2
2 Volume of egg production by region, 2000–2006 3
3 Sources of the available strains of egg-type chickens 8
4 Space requirements of egg-type chickens 15
5 Characteristics that would differentiate the good from a poor
layer 30
6 Nutrient recommendations for egg-type chickens 32
7 Recommended dietary trace minerals and vitamins for egg-type
chickens 33
8 Acceptable level of contaminants in poultry drinking water 33
9 Recommended vaccination and deworming program for egg-type
chickens 43
10 Common diseases of egg-type chicken and their prevention and
control 50
11 Common external and internal parasites of poultry 58
12 Disinfectants used in poultry farms 60
13 Technical and financial assumptions, 6,000-layer farm 75
14 Initial capital requirement, 6,000-layer farm 75
15 Working capital/operating expenses for a 6,000-layer farm 76
16 Amount of financing and amortization schedule, 6-year loan at
15% interest per year 77
17 Income/sales schedule, 6,000-layer farm 77
18 Projected income statement for 6000 RTLP 78
19 Projected cashflow for egg production of 6000 RTLP (30%
equity, 70% loan) 79
vii
List of Figures
1 Long and narrow layer house 10
2 Monitor type of roof 11
3 Slatted-type of floor for growing pullets 12
4 Layers raised in triple-deck cages in stair-step arrangement 14
5 Cup-type waterer 17
6 Linear feeders with automatic feeding device 18
7 Grading eggs according to standard sizes 28
8 Egg cooling room 28
9 Inflammation of the "Bursa of Fabricius" lesion typical in IBD
cases in layers 59
10 Pile of dried layer chicken manure 61
viii
The Table Egg Production Committee, 2007
CHAIR
Dr. Javier P. Mateo

Technical Director
Agri-Specialist, Inc.
MMLDC Bldg., Celery Rd., FTI Complex
Taguig, Metro Manila
MEMBERS
Dr. Reginaldo V. Abuyuan Dr. Ernesto A. Martin

Assistant Professor Professor
Central Luzon State University Central Luzon State University
Science City of Muñoz Science City of Muñoz
Nueva Ecija Nueva Ecija
Dr. Clarita T. Dagaas Dr. Edwin C. Villar

Associate Professor Director
Animal and Dairy Sciences Cluster Livestock Research Division
UPLB, College, Laguna PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna
Mr. Augustus Alexander A. de Villa Ms. Marites M. Ramil

Gen. Manager, Palindan Farm and Science Research Specialist
President, Batangas Egg Livestock Research Division
Producers Association PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna
San Jose, Batangas
Dr. Marilyn M. Elauria Mr. Joel Eneristo A. Joven

Associate Professor Science Research Specialist
Department of Agricultural Economics Applied Communication Division
College of Economics and Management PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna
UPLB, College, Laguna
ix
Glossary of Terms
Antibiotic – A dilute substance produced by microorganisms that

have the power to kill other organisms.
Bacteria – Microscopic organisms that are composed of a single
cell.
Brooder guard – Material which is placed around the brooder heat
source to prevent the chicks from staying too far from the heat
source.
Brooding – The process of providing heat to young chicks to keep
them warm and comfortable, may be with natural or artificial
lighting.
Cannibalism – A nasty behavior manifested by pecking on others’
toes, tails, and feathers.
Culling – The removal of unprofitable birds from the flock.
Disease – An impairment of the normal function of any body organ
or part of the bird.
Disinfectant – A substance that kills pathogenic organisms but not
necessarily spores and is usually applied to inanimate objects.
Hemagglutination – Agglutination of red blood cells.
Infection – The invasion of a pathogen into susceptible tissue
resulting in disease.
Infectious disease – A disease produced by the invasion of living
microscopic organisms.
Metabolizable energy – The energy of the food eaten less the energy
of the excrement derived from it, both fecal and urinary.
Morbidity – A sickness in a bird or flock caused by the disease.
Mortality – Death of birds in the flock.
Parasite – An organism that lives in or on another organism, from
which it derives its nourishment.
Pathogen – An organism capable of causing disease.
Pullet – Female fowl of less than 1 year old.
Strain – A family of any variety of poultry that possesses and
reproduces with marked regularity, common individual characters
which distinguish this from other families of the same variety.

Stress – Anything which affects the bird’s well-being and lowers its
resistance to disease.
Titer – A value placed on the potency of a biological agent; when
applied to the agglutination test, it is the weakest dilution at which
clumping of the antigen occurs.
Vaccine – A preparation of microorganism (killed, living attenuated,
or living totally virulent) which when placed in the body of the
bird produces or increases immunity to a certain disease.
Vent pasting – a condition where the chicks suffer from early
diarrhea.
Virus – An organism, ultramicroscopic in size, that multiplies only in
living cells. Some viruses are capable of causing disease.
xi
List of Abbreviations
and Acronyms
AE - Avian encephalomyelitis
BAS - Bureau of Agricultural Statistics
CLSU - Central Luzon State University
cm - Centimeter
CO2 - Carbon dioxide
CP - Crude protein
CRD - Chronic respiratory disease
EDS - Egg drop syndrome
ft - Foot/feet
HI - Hemagglutination inhibition
IB - Infectious bronchitis
IBD - Infectious bursal disease
ILT - Infectious laryngotracheitis
IU - International Unit
L - Liter
LPG - Liquefied petroleum gas
m - Meter
M - Million
mcg - Microgram
ME - Metabolizable energy
mg - Milligram
mm - Millimeter
ND - Newcastle disease
NDV - Newcastle disease virus
PHILSAN - Philippine Society of Animal Nutritionists
ppm - Parts per million
PS - Parental Stock
PVC - Poly vinyl carbonate
ROI - Return on investment
RTLP - Ready-to-lay pullet
UPLB - University of the Philippines Los Baños
xii
The Egg Industry
The layer business is doing very well. In 2006, gross earnings

from chicken eggs went up by 11.03% (P23.12 M) compared with
that of 2005 (P20.82 M) because of higher production and prices. The
price of chicken eggs moved up by 7.68% (P70/kg) in 2006 compared
with that of 2005 prices (P65.50/kg). During the last 2 years, the
demand for eggs has been very consistent. The price of eggs has been
very stable, resulting in the expansion of the layer business.
As of 2006, the number of chicken layers was 22.374 M (Table 1).
This number was 25.74% and 3.21% higher than the 2004 and 2005
chicken population, respectively. The compounded average rate of
increase during the last 8 years was 7.19%.
Fifty percent of the total layer population in 2006 was concentrated
in Southern Tagalog (Calabarzon and Mimaropa) with 6.808 M
(30.42%) and Central Luzon with 4.384 M (19.59%) layers. The
third and fourth regions with high layer populations were Central
Visayas with 2.059 M (9.20%) and Northern Mindanao with
2.053 M (9.18%). The rest of the regions with significant contribution
to 2006 chicken layer population were Bicol with 1.931 M
(8.63%); Southern Mindanao, 1.216 M (5.4%); Western Visayas,
1.124 M (5.02%); and Eastern Visayas, 1.123 M (5.02%).
The high chicken population in Southern Tagalog and Central
Luzon region can be attributed to their proximity to Metro Manila,
considered as a major market center, and accessibility to sources
of production inputs like hatcheries, feedmills, and financial
institutions.
The country produced 330,288 t of chicken eggs in 2006 (Table 2).
This volume was 9,944 t higher (3.10%) than the 2005 egg production.
During the year 2004, 2005, and 2006, egg production had the same
proportion as the layer population. The top producer in 2006 was
Calabarzon with 86,086 t (26.06%) followed by Central Luzon with
58,045 t (17.57%). The top five producing regions include Central
Visayas with 34,223 t (10.36%); Northern Mindanao, 28,371 t (8.58%);
and Bicol region, 23,117 t (6.99%). These top producing regions
contributed about 70% of the total volume of eggs produced in 2006.
The Philippine Egg Board was preoccupied during the last 4 years
The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production
Table 1. Chicken layer population by region, 1998–2006 (million head).a
Region 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Total 13.167 13.366 14.914 14.867 16.786 17.706 17.794 21.679 22.374
Metro Manila 0.823 0.241 0.483 0.515 0.494 - - 0.483 -

CAR (Cordillera AR) 0.015 0.025 0.029 0.029 0.035 0.042 0.059 0.051 0.058
Ilocos 0.113 0.123 0.148 0.152 0.133 0.160 0.202 0.279 0.400
Cagayan Valley 0.130 0.137 0.141 0.158 0.165 0.162 0.149 0.203 0.288
Central Luzon 2.506 3.042 3.656 3.269 3.291 3.081 3.190 3.654 4.384
Calabarzon 5.307 5.281 4.789 4.791 5.607 6.004 6.241 6.654 6.741
Mimaropa 0.018 0.026 0.025 0.024 0.027 0.035 0.037 0.052 0.067
Bicol 0.520 0.784 1.157 0.870 1.213 1.750 1.344 1.798 1.931
Western Visayas 0.705 0.769 0.906 0.984 0.935 1.205 1.067 1.258 1.124
Central Visayas 1.187 1.167 1.207 1.447 1.991 1.896 2.054 2.064 2.059
Eastern Visayas 0.037 0.040 0.037 0.066 0.049 0.041 0.042 0.100 1.123
Western Mindanao 0.240 0.238 0.298 0.298 0.301 0.297 0.381 0.369 0.573
Northern Mindanao 0.365 0.489 0.879 0.929 1.018 1.528 1.463 3.063 2.053
Southern Mindanao 0.827 0.626 0.837 1.013 1.099 1.120 1.202 1.266 1.216

Central Mindanao 0.236 0.232 0.223 0.226 0.323 0.305 0.282 0.322 0.295
CAR (Caraga AR) 0.118 0.125 0.093 0.087 0.091 0.058 0.065 0.061 0.060
ARMM 0.020 0.021 0.006 0.009 0.014 0.022 0.016 0.002 0.002
a
Bureau of Agricultural Statistics, 2007.
Table 2. Volume of egg production by region, 2000–2006 (tons).a
Region 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

PHILIPPINES 243,381 246,700 260,830 274,813 296,576 320,344 330,288
CAR 1,988 2,053 2,291 2,478 2,789 2,751 2,719

Ilocos 6,413 7,387 7,573 7,805 8,929 10,455 12,389
Cagayan Valley 8,590 9,097 9,041 9,262 9,820 9,372 10,015
Central Luzon 39,543 37,541 38,821 40,808 43,965 54,466 58,045
Calabarzon 67,818 68,933 74,160 77,861 81,799 86,954 86,086
Mimaropa 3,787 4,147 4,261 4,526 4,322 4,316 4,058
Bicol 17,432 16,118 17,082 19,361 22,244 22,967 23,117
Western Visayas 20,729 21,842 21,472 20,723 21,708 23,131 22,058
Central Visayas 22,478 23,472 25,767 28,996 32,723 33,492 34,223
Eastern Visayas 5,196 5,238 5,974 6,005 6,299 6,589 5,550
Zamboanga 7,317 7,300 7,412 7,528 7,933 8,261 8,487
Peninsula
Northern 17,459 16,335 17,493 19,510 22,543 24,394 28,371
Mindanao
Davao Region 14,942 16,734 18,370 19,171 19,510 21,008 21,642
Soccsksargen 4,811 5,451 5,885 5,630 6,332 6,677 7,486
Caraga 2,947 2,962 2,788 2,565 2,694 2,580 2,380
ARMM 1,931 2,090 2,440 2,584 2,966 2,931 3,662
a
Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (BAS), 2007.
promoting the consumption of eggs. There are regional egg producers’

associations organized nationwide under the federation for the purpose
of increasing the egg consumption.
The reported per capita consumption of eggs is about 72 pieces or
about 4.11 kg. If the per capita consumption of eggs is increased by
1 egg, this means 85 million additional eggs will be produced requiring
about 233,000 additional layers.
A steady growth in the chicken egg industry was recorded from
1998 to 2006 except in 2001 where slight drops in layer population
were noted. Despite significant technological advancement in the
egg industry, a number of production and marketing problems were
encountered i.e., high cost and shortage of feed ingredients like corn,
soybean meal, vitamins, and minerals; inadequate and high cost of
disease control and preventive measures; substandard management
practices; lack of liberal credit facilities; poor egg grading and
standardization system (Philippine Egg Board is now advocating
selling of eggs by kilo); high breakage of egg during transport due
to improper handling and poor facilities such as packaging material
coupled with poor road condition; lack of marketing information; and
lack of storage facilities to assure quality eggs.
The economic importance of the egg industry cannot be
overemphasized. It greatly helps in improving our country’s economy.
The egg industry needs support from the government to meet the
increasing demand for eggs and sustain profitable egg production
business.

Pointers in Starting a Poultry
Farm for Table-Egg Production
The success of an egg production enterprise depends not only on

the financial resources of the entrepreneur but also on the application
of technology during the various phases of production.
Consider the following points before engaging in table-egg
production:
• Personal qualifications and capabilities. The raisers should

have keen interest and technical know-how in egg production.
Skills in both production and business management are
required for a successful egg operation. Undergoing a
training course on table-egg production is recommended for
prospective raisers. The raiser should continuously evaluate
and adopt technological innovations to efficiently and
profitably improve his operation.
• Availability of resources. A raiser should establish the

farm in a zoning-approved area. Capital investments in land,
buildings and equipment, and a substantial operating capital
are requirements in engaging in an egg farming enterprise.
• Supply of good stocks. The chicks or ready-to-lay pullets

(RTLPs) should be bought from well-established and reliable
hatcheries, growers, or dealers.
• Constant supply of other farm inputs. The availability of

good quality feeds, feed supplements, biologics, vaccines, and
other farm inputs should be considered before putting up an
egg-farming project. There should also be a continuous supply
of fresh clean, potable water, electricity, and labor.
• Market assurance. An assurance that the market is capable

of absorbing sustain egg production is very essential.

• Site of the farm. The farm should be established in areas not
easily flooded during heavy rainfalls and not affected much
by typhoons. It should be as isolated as possible from other
farms and human settlement areas, and should be fenced for
biosecurity reason. The farm should have good transportation
facilities for easy delivery of raw materials to the farm and
eggs to the market.
• Waste management. Distance from residential areas must be

considered to minimize problems on pollution. Knowledge
on proper handling and disposal of poultry waste is a must.
Poultry waste can be considered an additional income rather
than a cost factor in egg production.

Selection of Stock to Raise
Raise egg-type pullets produced from egg production lines. In the

past years, almost all commercial egg-type pullets raised were pure
lines of Single Comb White Leghorn strain. Today, all commercial
egg-type chickens raised in the Philippines are imported stocks
popularly known as commercial egg-type strains. Grand parental or
parental stocks are imported as day-old chicks. Egg-type chickens
have comparatively small body size, lay a number of good quality
eggs, nervous in temperament, and are non-sitters. However, these are
efficient egg producers and have longer production cycle.
The predominant kind of commercial egg-type stocks being raised
in the Philippines are those that produce white-shelled eggs (light
hybrid) that practically came from the Single Comb White Leghorns.
The breeding scheme basically followed the four-way cross which is
similar to the production of commercial broiler strains.
Commercial strains of egg-type chickens marketed worldwide
are also commercially available in the country through franchised
companies. There are egg-type strains that produce brown-shelled
eggs (medium hybrid), which are more popular in other countries but
have not gained popularity in the Philippines.
Most of the egg-type strains of chickens available commercially
in the Philippines are distributed throughout the country thru their
franchised and sub-franchised breeder-hatchery farms (Table 3). Today,
contract growing of breeders are also being practiced by franchised
companies.

Criteria in Selecting Egg-Type Strains to Raise
Performance
Give primary consideration to the number, size, and quality of eggs

produced given certain amount of input. Choose strains which are
consistently producing higher number of good size and quality eggs.
Age at sexual maturity, feed efficiency, and livability should also be
considered.

Table 3. Sources of the available strains of egg-type chickens.
Strain Source(s) of Stock Characteristics/Traits
Babcock 300 Brookdale Farms Inc. Starts to lay at 18 weeks,
Km 102 McArthur Highway body weight of 1320 g,
Bo. Anupul, Bamban, Tarlac 50% production at 21 weeks
(145 days)
H & N “Super Nick” Tyson Agro Ventures, Inc. Starts to lay at 19 weeks, body
179 Mariano Ponce St., weight of 1358 g,
Caloocan City 50% production at 21 weeks
(145–150 days)
Brookdale Farms Inc.
Km 102 McArthur Highway
Bo. Anupul, Bamban, Tarlac
Hy-Line Universal Robina Corp. Starts to lay at 18 weeks,
Bo. Ugong, Pasig body weight of 1280 g, 50%
Metro Manila production at 20–21 weeks
Lohmann SL Tyson Agro Ventures, Inc. Starts to lay at 20 weeks,
179 Mariano Ponce St., body weight of 1390 g, 50%
Caloocan City production at 21–22 weeks
Hi-Sex White Console Farms Corp. Starts to lay at 19 weeks,
Brgy. Bulihan body weight of 1280 g, 50%
San Miguel, Bulacan production at 21 weeks
Starcross/Shaver 2000 Universal Robina Corp. Starts to lay at 18 weeks,
Bo. Ugong, Pasig body weight of 1320 g,
Metro Manila 50% production at 21 weeks
(147 days)
ISA White Agabao Livestock Farm Starts to lay at 18 weeks,
Barrio Balaybay body weight of 1660 g,
Castillejos, Zambales 50% production at 20 weeks
(141 days)
It will be difficult to make an objective comparison of the

performance of these strains under the prevailing environmental and
management conditions since no regular and comprehensive evaluation
of their performance is being made. Information acquired from
experienced raisers or those which are generated in one’s own farms
will certainly be of help in deciding which strain to raise.

Availability of Stock and Reliability of Suppliers
Buy day-old chicks or RTLPs from dependable breeder-hatchery

farms or dealers. Breeder-hatchery farms are usually located in Luzon
particularly around Metro Manila area. The prompt delivery of these
stocks is vital to the overall management of the farm.
Consumer Preference
Eggs are nutritious and considered as one of the cheapest source

of animal protein for the Filipino consumers. However, since demand
for egg is influenced by income, price, and consumer preference, the
raiser must consider his target market. For Filipinos belonging to
middle and high-income groups they may choose bigger size eggs
since they could afford the price so the raisers could choose the strains
that produce bigger eggs (late maturing). On the other hand, those with
lower income may opt for smaller eggs.

Housing and Housing Facilities
In the Philippines, the average climatic condition is characterized

by relatively high temperature and humidity. Adequate housing is
necessary to provide comfort to the birds for optimum growth and
egg production. The house should provide adequate protection
against direct sunlight, strong winds, and high temperature. It should
be properly ventilated to reduce humidity and ammonia inside the
house.
Under Philippine conditions, long and narrow types of houses
which are open on all sides (Fig. 1) are preferred because they provide
better ventilation and lighting. The width of the house should not be
more than 20–25 ft to provide free flow of air. Wider than this will not
provide ample ventilation during hot weather. The length of the house
often depends on the terrain of the land. The house should be oriented
more or less on an east-west direction to minimize direct exposure to
sunlight.
Fig. 1. Long and narrow layer house.
10 The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

The type of roof for small poultry housing units can either be gable
or shed type. For larger poultry houses, the monitor or semi-monitor
types of roofing are preferred because these provide outlet for warm
air resulting in better ventilation (Fig. 2). A good overhang must be
provided to protect the inner portion from rain and direct sunlight.
Fig. 2. Monitor type of roof.

Galvanized iron (GI), aluminum and poly vinyl carbonate (PVC)
sheets are the most commonly used roofing materials both for large-
and medium-sized poultry houses. Native roofing materials such as
cogon and nipa are often used in small poultry housing units because
these are cheap but are fire hazards. Aluminum, PVC, and GI sheets
are more durable than nipa and cogon, but more expensive.
Bamboo, poultry wire, and nets are satisfactory materials for
poultry house walls. Walls are necessary to protect the chickens from
predators, rats/rodents, and wild birds.
The height of the house also affects the temperature inside the
house especially during summer. Most open-sided houses have a stud
that is 8–10 ft (2.4–3 m) long. Stud represents the distance from the
roofline to the foundation. A high-rise type of houses for chickens
provides better ventilation and for easy drying of poultry manure.
Moreover, it is more convenient to collect and dispose the manure.

The slatted-type floor is commonly used for better disease-control
program. Bamboo slats are the commonly used material. However,
molded plastics are already available in the market.
Solid and adequate foundation to support the poultry building is a
must. Concrete post and other permanent and termite proof material
should be used.

Brooding and Growing Houses
The common practice in layers is to brood and grow the chicks in

separate houses. The chicks are kept in the brooding house until these
are 4–6 weeks of age and are transferred to a growing house. Presently,
the use of brood-grow houses is widely being practiced. When the
brood-grow system of housing is used, provide a house much larger
than that needed to brood the chicks. If brooding and growing of the
chicks will be done separately, the brooder house should be reasonably
isolated from the growing house for proper sanitation.
Use slatted floor house in growing egg-type pullets to provide
better ventilation and avoid accumulation of droppings on the floor
(Fig. 3). Slatted floor also minimizes the risk from intestinal infection.
Bamboo, lumber, and molded plastics are the commonly used slat-floor
materials for growing houses. The width of the slat materials should
be 2.5–5.0 cm with 2.0–2.5 cm space between the slats. Smoothen the
Fig. 3. Slatted-type of floor for growing pullets.

rough surfaces that are in direct contact with the birds to reduce the
incidence of bruises and breast blisters. Welded wire can also be used
as floor material but the incidence of breast blisters is usually high.
Welded wire should have 6.45 cm2 mesh.
Litter floor houses can also be used for brooding and growing egg-
type chickens. Rice hulls, sawdusts, woodshavings, peanut hulls, and
any of their combinations are the commonly used litter materials under
Philippine conditions. However, because of problems on the regularity
and adequacy of supply of litter materials together with sanitation
problem, this type of housing is not popularly used for raising egg-type
chickens.
Laying House
Layers can either be kept on litter floor pens, elevated slat-floor

pens, slat-litter floor pen combination, or in cages. Most poultry men
keep their layers in cages. The house is usually open on all sides for
better ventilation.
The time when pullets are transferred from the growing house to
the laying house just before the onset of egg production is generally
termed as “housing.” Normally, pullets are transferred from the
growing house to the laying house at about 14–16 weeks of age or
3–4 weeks before the onset of egg production. Pullets should be
handled carefully at "housing" time to prevent internal egg breakage
during catching and transporting and too much stress. Moreover,
pullets must be given enough time to adjust to their new housing
condition.
Use of cages for layers has become very popular. Most laying
cages have similar height (16 in) at the shortest distance, but the width
of the cages is highly variable (8 in, 10 in or 12 in) with a depth of
about 18 in. For example, a cage with floor dimensions of 31 cm x
41 cm can accommodate one layer, while a 60 cm x 90 cm colony can
accommodate 10 layers at any given time. When laying cages are
reversed, some indications of improvement in egg production have
been found regardless of the floor space of the birds. A reversed cage,
which is 41 cm across the front and 31 cm deep, can accommodate four
pullets. With the hot climate in the Philippines 3–4 birds/cage give
good performance.
Cages could either be single, multiple, or colony, which are
categorized according to the number of birds in a cage. Multiple-

bird cages can hold 2–10 pullets. Colony cages hold 20–30 pullets.
Smaller floor space than required may be allowed for as long as the
birds are debeaked and ventilated properly.
Cages can likewise be arranged so as to conserve space thereby
reduce cost and accommodate more birds in a given area. Cage
arrangement is classified as single deck, double deck, triple deck, four
deck, or flat deck. Single deck arrangement is practical only in areas
with hot climate. The double-, triple-, and four-deck types could either
have vertical, stair-steps (Fig. 4), or offset arrangement.
Space Requirements
The requirements of growing egg-type pullets for floor space,

feeder space, and waterer increase with age. Older birds require
more space than young ones. It is wise to plan for the minimum
requirements of the oldest birds that will be kept in the house.
During the first 5–6 weeks of age, 14 birds can be
accommodated in 1 m2 area. This is approximately equivalent to
about 700 cm2/bird. Mortality is likely to increase if this floor space
requirement is reduced.
Egg-type pullets, if raised up to 16 weeks of age in a litter floor
type of growing house, require about 9 m2 floor space/100 birds or an
equivalent of 11 birds/m2. If raised in the house up to 22 weeks of
age, about seven birds can be accommodated per square meter floor
Fig. 4. Layers raised in triple-deck cages in stair-step arrangement.

area or an equivalent of 15 m2 floor space area for every 100 birds.
If the growing house is a combination of slat and litter floor, provide
7 m2 floor area/100 birds. Space requirements of egg-type chickens
are presented in Table 4.
As chicks grow older, increase their feeding and drinking space
allowances. During the first 2 weeks, two fountain-type gallon-size
waterers can serve the requirements of 100 pullets. Provide chicks
with larger waterers such as troughs or pans 3–5 weeks of age. Larger
waterers should provide approximately 1.5 cm watering space per
chick until the birds are 6 weeks of age.
Use flat containers, inverted chick box lid, or similar trays as
feeders during the first few days of brooding. These feeders can
provide adequate feeding space for approximately 100 chicks.
Thereafter, provide each chick with 5 cm feeding space using the
tube feeders. If round pans are used provide a feeder space of at least
4 cm/bird.
Table 4. Space requirements of egg-type chickens.
Floor Area
Stage (m2/100 birds) Feeder Waterer
Brooding 7.0 1 feeder (flat 2 fountain-type (gallon-

(0–4 weeks) container, inverted size) waterers/
chick box lid, or 100 chicks during the
similar trays) per first 2 weeks,
100 chicks during 1.5 cm/bird thereafter
the first few days,
then 5 cm/bird
thereafter
Growing 6.5 cm/bird 2.0 cm/bird

(7–16 weeks)
Litter floor 14.0
All slat floor 6.0
Slat-litter floor 7.0
Cages 4.0
Laying 6.5 cm/bird 2.0 cm/bird
(Beyond
16 weeks)
Cages Dimension No. of layers/cage
Multiple 60 cm x 90 cm 10
Colony 91 cm x 122 cm 20

Poultry House Equipment and Facilities
Brooder Heaters
Brooders/heaters are those devices that provide the necessary heat

to keep the growing chicks warm. Under Philippine conditions, the
hover type of brooder is the most commonly used. The more popular
methods of heating brooders are through the use of conventional gas
(natural or LPG) hoover type heater, infrared heat bulb, conventional
kerosene, or conventional electric. Burned charcoal, rice hull, and
sawdust can also be used as heat sources, however, when using these
fuel materials be sure that the brooder floor is protected to prevent
fire.
Brooder Guards
Brooder guards are enclosures on the brooder heat source that

prevent the chicks from moving too far away from the source of heat.
These can be made up of flexible solid materials such as plain G.I.
sheets, ‘lawanit’, plywood, hard cardboard, and other similar materials.
Wire mesh can also be used as brooder guard material particularly
during hot weather.
Waterers
Pan and jar types of waterer are the most practical drinking
equipment for young chicks. Each waterer should hold approximately
3.6 L (1 gal) water. Using several small jar-type waterers are better
than few large type ones. From 3 weeks of age up to sexual maturity,
waterers or the watering systems can either be one of the following:
automatic trough with either suspension valve or float valve, hanging
waterers, cup waterers, and basin waterers with drinking guards. For
layer houses, the nipple type, cup waterers, or linear type waterers are
commonly used (Fig. 5).
Feeders
Provide young chicks up to 1 week of age with flat container

feeders with shallow edges. Chick box lids or plastic feeders could
serve this purpose. Thereafter up to the end of the brooding period,

Fig. 5. Cup-type waterer.
shallow but larger conventional trough feeders, tube feeders, linear

feeders (Fig. 6) or automatic feeders should be provided.
Culling and Holding Equipment
Use holding crate/coops in transferring birds (RTLP) from one

house to another or from one brood-grow house to the laying house.
Catching panel can be used to corner the birds to facilitate catching.
Catching hook can be used to catch birds individually.

Fig. 6. Linear feeders with automatic feeding device.

Brooding
Brooding is the process of providing supplemental heat to the

chicks from hatching up to the time that the chicks have grown
sufficient feathers and have developed its thermoregulatory system to
control their own body temperature. The brooding period covers the
first 4–6 weeks of the chicks’ life.
During this period, optimum heat should be provided to the chicks
to prevent them from chilling, which may predispose them to disease
and eventually death. The use of a hover system or other brooding
devices such as curtains and paper matting in slatted floor should be
used to supply proper temperature. Vaccinations against respiratory
diseases (ND and IB) and debeaking are usually done during this
period.
Guides for Successful Brooding
1. Start with healthy and good quality chicks. Healthy chicks have
dry, fluffy feathers, bright eyes, well-healed navels, no deformities,
and active appearance.
2. Provide proper temperature. Maintain proper temperature in the
brooder. The brooder should be heated few hours before the arrival
of the chicks.
The following set of temperature is ideal for brooding:
Age of Chicks Brooding

(weeks) Temperature (oC)
Day 1–2 34–36

Day 3–7 30–33
Week 2 28–29
Week 3 26–27
Week 4 20–25
Week 5 Below 20
The behavior of the chicks in the brooder can be used as

a guide in determining the right brooding temperature. If the
temperature is lower than what the chicks need, the chicks huddle
to each other, or stay together near the source of heat, and produce
unusual chirping sound. If the temperature is too high, the chicks
spread their wings, pant and stay away from heat source. If
condition is too drafty, the chicks tend to move away from the
source of strong wind. When the chicks are evenly distributed
inside the brooder and doing varied activities such as feeding,
drinking, sleeping, and playing, the brooding temperature could
be presumed adequate.
3. Good quality feed. Provide sufficient well-balanced chick starter
ration at day 1–6 weeks of age. Feeds should be provided at all
times.
4. Fresh and clean drinking water. Provide fresh and clean water
immediately upon arrival of the chicks in the farm. Drinking water
must be available in the brooder 1–2 hours before the chicks’
arrival. This allows time for the brooder heat to warm the water.
Preferably, the water should contain 5% sugar during their first
3 hours to supply immediate source of energy and to minimize
dehydration. Provide ordinary water after 6 hours. Chicks that
are weak should be given few drops of water orally. Fresh and
clean drinking water must be available at all times. Supplements
containing vitamins, minerals, and antibiotics may be added to the
drinking water during the first 3–5 days, especially if the chicks are
stressed.
5. Proper ventilation. A constant flow of fresh air in the brooder
compartment is necessary. The chick is a fast-growing, rapid-
breathing animal which requires ample amount of oxygen.
Regulating the amount of air in the brooder is very important;
chicks may suffer seriously when confined and compelled to
breathe stale air (CO2). Therefore, the brooder house must have
sufficient ventilation. Sufficient ventilation facilitates removal of
carbon dioxide, ammonia, and excess moisture from the brooder
compartment.
A brooder house with wire mesh or slat walls provides
adequate openings for the passage of fresh air. However, curtains
that can be raised or lowered when needed must also be made
available to maintain proper ventilation, to avoid draft, and to help
maintain the desired temperature in the brooder.

6. Adequate floor space. The minimum brooding space requirement
is 0.5–0.75 ft2/bird. Increase the floor space area as the birds grow
older.
7. Adequate lighting facilities. The first week is the most critical
period during brooding. Provide a continuous 24-hour light in the
brooder house during the first 2 days that will encourage the birds
to keep close to the source of heat, feed, and water. Thereafter,
reduce the intensity of light in the brooder just enough for the
chicks to see the feeder and waterer at night.
8. Proper sanitation. Cleanliness and dryness of the brooding
quarters prevent contamination of the chicks from parasites and
disease organisms. Clean and disinfect the brooder house properly
after every bath and at least a week before arrival of chicks.
Change the paper matting regularly to maintain cleanliness and
dryness in the brooder house.
9. Adequate protection. The brooder house must be constructed to
provide sufficient protection to the chicks from rats, dogs, snakes,
cats, and other animals that could unduly disturb or kill the chicks.
Enclose the brooder house with materials that are sturdy enough to
prevent entry of these predators.
Sources of Heat for Artificial Brooder
1. Electricity. In electrically operated brooders, the desired

temperature is easily attained and the danger from fire is less. An
electric-hover type brooder has built-in resistant coil that provides
heat. The temperature is automatically controlled by a thermostat.
However, in adopting electrically operated brooders, consider the
cost of operation and the reliability of power source.
2. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). This can be used in areas where
other fuel sources are expensive or not available at all. LPG-fueled
heaters are popularly used in large-scale poultry farms. These are
found to effectively and efficiently provide heat for larger number
of chicks at a relatively lower cost.
3. Charcoal. This is commonly used in areas where other fuel
sources are expensive and not available because it is relatively
cheap and readily available.

Brooder Management
The brooding house must be ready, and properly cleaned and

disinfected prior to the arrival of chicks. Dry run the brooder 24 hours
before the arrival of the chicks to stabilize the desired temperature.
The temperature should be 32o–36oC at the edge of the hover. Lower
the temperature gradually by approximately 3oC each week until the
room temperature is reached when the chicks feel comfortable without
additional heat. All equipment such as waterers and feeders must be
ready. Paper mattings must also be set prior to arrival of the chicks.
For litter or slatted floors/houses, locally available litter material such
as rice hull is commonly used.
Use brooder guards. Aluminum sheets, plain GI sheets, 'lawanit,'
and hard cardboards could be used as brooder guards. Place the guard
90–120 cm from the edge of the hover to keep the chicks close to the
heat source for the first few days. Expand the area enclosed by the
brooder guard as needed to provide the chicks with adequate floor
space.
For heaters which are provided with hover, adjust hover height to
the existing temperature and needs of the birds. Maintain a minimum
of 12–16 cm clearance above the back of the birds.
For heaters without hover, adjust the amount of heat by regulating
the inflow of air or by adjusting the amount of fuel.
Brooding Tips
1. Clean and disinfect thoroughly the brooding house. Be ready for

brooding operation at least 1 week before the chicks’ arrival.
2. Enclose the brooder house with curtains made up of either empty
feed bags, jute cloth, or any available similar material to avoid
draft.
3. Spread out five layers of newspapers or similar materials on the
floor to serve as bedding and feeder during the first 2–3 days.
However, providing a chick feeder on top of the paper mats is
ideal.
4. Use chick guard to keep the chicks close to the source of heat.
5. Place only good and healthy chicks in the brooder house upon
arrival.
6. Check the chicks regularly. Chicks which could not find their way
to the feeders should be assisted to learn how to eat.

7. Remove paper mattings after 3–5 days of brooding depending on
weather condition.
8. Provide more and larger feeders and waterers as the flock grows to
provide the required feeding and drinking space allowances.
9. Cull and properly dispose weak, deformed, and sickly chicks.
10. Consult a veterinarian if mortality exceeds 1% at first week and
morbidity exceeds 5%.
11. Burn or bury immediately dead birds. Dead birds serve as sources
of diseases that can be spread by different carriers.

Growing the Pullets
The growing period of pullets begins from the end of brooding up

to time these are ready to lay their eggs. This period usually starts at
6 weeks and ends at about 16 weeks of age.
The laying performance of the pullets is greatly influenced by the
kind of management the birds received during the pre-laying period.
Therefore, good management during the growing period is essential to
ensure the production of good quality ready-to-lay pullets. Mistakes
made during the growing phase cannot be corrected during the laying
period.
Light Management of Growing Pullets
Do not increase length of light exposure of pullets during the

growing period. Length of light exposure could remain constant
or decreasing but should not be increasing. Pullets tend to come to
production at a younger age if grown under natural daylength during
January to June, when daylength hours are increasing. During July
to December, when daylength hours are decreasing, the start of egg
laying is delayed. Increasing hours of light during the growing period
will make pullets mature earlier and lay more small eggs during egg
production. Furthermore, early maturing pullets lay eggs at a lower
rate and shorter period after they begin their productive cycle. Pullets
which start laying at 18 weeks of age produce small eggs and have
shorter productive life compared with those which mature at a later
age. Consequently, early maturing pullets are prone to prolapse
formation.
To alter the age of pullets at sexual maturity, lighting program must
be adopted to regulate and delay the onset of egg production. Under
local conditions, with the open-sided type of housing, the commonly
adopted lighting program is the so-called step-down-step-up system.
This is providing natural daylight during the growing period and
adding/giving artificial light at the onset of egg production. To delay
sexual maturity and egg production, light hours must be less than
the threshold photoperiod of 11–12 hours. This threshold period is
important in developing any satisfactory growing program.
Monitoring Body Weights of Pullets
Body weights should be monitored weekly throughout the growing

period and until after peak of egg production to establish mean flock
weights. Weigh a few head of birds at random to represent the entire
flock. For a flock size of 1,000 and below, 10% of the flock should be
weighed; for 1,500–3,000, 5–6%; and above 3,500, 3%.
Transfer of Pullets to the Laying House
The transfer of pullets to the laying house should be done

1 month before the onset of egg production (14–16 weeks). The birds
should not be allowed to lay eggs in the rearing house to avoid the
development of egg-eating habit. Transferring the birds at the onset
of egg production adversely affects the laying performance and may
cause egg bound condition or internal egg breakage.
Handle the birds carefully during the transfer. Preferably transfer
them during fair weather and at night when the birds are calm and
easier to handle.
The age at which the first egg is laid depends upon the breed or
strain and the management. In general, however, egg-type breeds come
into production when these are about 18–20 weeks old.
Cannibalism Among Growing Chickens
Cannibalism is a bad habit prevalent among chickens of all ages. It

usually starts from toe and feather pecking which may result in serious
wounding and death of birds.
The possible causes of cannibalism are:
• imbalanced rations;
• overcrowding and insufficient feeding and drinking spaces;
• extended period without feed and water;
• poor ventilation; and
• excessive heat and too much light in the growing house.

There are strains of chickens that are more prone to cannibalism
than others. Cannibalism can be minimized through the following:
1. Give rations containing the right quantity and quality of protein

recommended for the different ages of birds.
2. Provide birds with adequate floor, feed, and drinking
spaces. Follow the recommended space allowances. Avoid
overcrowding or overstocking of birds.
3. Maintain the right temperature and proper ventilation in the
growing house.
4. Provide adequate and uniform light in the pen.
5. Practice debeaking.
Separate injured birds and treat the wound with pine tar or any
antipeck preparations. Prevent cannibalism thru debeaking, which
is usually done within 9 days of age. Debeaking is widely practiced
as an efficient precaution to cannibalism and feather pecking. It is
usually done by trimming the upper and the lower mandibles using an
electrically controlled cauterizing blade. To debeak, cut the upper beak
from 1/3 to 1/2 of its length starting from the tip. The tip of the lower
beak should also be cut, but it should be slightly longer than the upper
beak.

Management of the Laying Flock
Light Management of Layers
Increase the length of light when the pullets attained its minimum
body weight. Minimum body weight would depend on the strain of
layers used as presented in Table 3. Provide a total of 16 hours light
to get the maximum response from the lighting program. During the
laying period, the length of the light may be increased, but it should
never be reduced. From the 13 hours of light day before the pullets
reach sexual maturity, provide a 30-minute light increment per week
until 16 hours of light per day is achieved.

Management Tips for the Production of High-Quality Eggs
1. Keep nests, cages, and egg roll out as clean as possible to avoid
stains on the eggs.
2. Clean egg trays and other containers daily.
3. Collect eggs at least three times daily or as often as possible. In a
litter type of poultry house, collect eggs as frequent as possible to
avoid contamination and possible breakage.
4. Classify eggs according to standard size immediately after
collection (Fig. 7). Separate good eggs from dirty, soiled, and
cracked eggs. Soiled eggs should be cleaned first before placing
them in the egg room.
5. Keep eggs in cool storage room preferably at 10o–15.6oC with
relative humidity of about 70% (Fig. 8). In the absence of cold
storage room, dispose the eggs soon after collection or within
3 days after collection to maintain freshness.
Minimizing Feed Wastage
1. The feeders should not be filled more than 1/3 of its depth to
prevent feed wastage.
2. Use the right size of feeder for the age of the chickens. Each
feeder should have a lid guard about 1–2 cm to prevent the feed
from being scratched out or beaked out onto the floor.
Fig. 7. Grading eggs according to
standard sizes.
Fig. 8. Egg cooling room.

3. Avoid water spillage on the feed to prevent mold formation that
may lead to feed spoilage. Check waterers regularly for possible
leaks or overflow.
4. Construct layer house in such a way that it will minimize or
prevent the entry of birds and rodents.
Flock Replacement Program
Normally, layers are kept for egg production for one laying cycle,
which is 80 weeks. However, with good management, profitability
of birds can be extended for more than one laying cycle or until
100 weeks. Reduction of about 20% in egg production is incurred
annually after the first laying year. Start a new batch of pullets
5–6 months before the scheduled disposal of old flock to effect
continuity of egg production. This flock replacement program can be
modified or adjusted to fit existing conditions.
Culling
Culling is the removal of unprofitable/unproductive birds from

the flock. Undesirable birds are those that are sick, nonlaying, and
poor producers. Missexed chicks or male chicks that happen to be in
the flock should also be removed or culled. Culling of nonproductive
layers should be conducted continually.
There are certain visible characters that can be used as guides in
determining the good and the poor layers (Table 5).
Catch and handle the birds gently during culling to avoid
excitement of the other birds. Excitement may lead to broken yolk or
broken egg within the oviduct of the chicken. As much as possible,
culling should be done in the afternoon after 3:00 p.m. when most of
the birds have laid eggs.

Table 5. Characteristics that would differentiate the good from a poor layer.
Physical Good Layer Poor or Nonlaying
Characteristics (Keep) (Cull)
Comb, wattles, and Fully developed, bright red, Small, pale, shrunken, dry,
earlobes and shiny and scaly
Eyes Bright Dull
Vent Large, moist, dilated, almost Small, dry, constricted, round
oval-shaped
Pubic bone spread Spread apart, two or more Close together, less than two
(two small bones fingers can be placed fingers can be placed between
extending along the between them them
sides of the vent)
Abdomen/abdominal Soft and pliable, expanded Hard and full, contracted
span (distance about three to four fingers about one to two fingers in
between the end of in width width
keel or breast bone
and the end of pubic
bones)
Pigmentation (yellow Bleached or white after Remains yellow even after
beak and shanks) several months of production several months in the laying
pen

Nutrition
Nutrition is a major factor in the success of an egg production

enterprise. The birds require adequate amount of well-balanced
nutrients to achieve this end. One of the biggest challenge to this is
the environment where the chickens are reared. In the Philippines,
where most egg-type birds are reared in open-sided houses, the high
ambient temperature and humidity are the greatest factors limiting
nutrient intake of the birds. As such, feed formulations should consider
this constraint, along with the cost of diets, in order to attain optimum
economic performance of egg-type birds.
Nutrient Requirements of Egg-type Chickens
The egg-type chickens require optimal energy and nutrients

for maintenance and production during the development and egg
production stages. During the development stage, it is important that
the birds are fed properly to attain the required weight at a certain age,
with proper body structure and composition at time of sexual maturity.
Birds that are poorly developed do not perform well during the egg
production period. Likewise, laying chickens should be provided
nutrients to support maximum number and quality of eggs and prevent
any nutritionally related metabolic problems that will affect the birds’
performance. The recommended nutrient requirements for egg-type
chickens are shown in Tables 6 and 7.
Likewise, water should be made available at all times. The water
requirement of the birds should meet specifications for water quality
in poultry in terms of microbial count, acidity and hardness, and
amount of naturally occurring chemicals (Table 8).
Non-nutritive Feed Additives
A number of non-nutritive feed additives are recommended for

inclusion in the birds’ diet. These additives promote health, feed
efficiency, feed stability, and product quality. The common non-
nutritive preparations include the following:

Table 6. Nutrient recommendations for egg-type chickens.a
Starter (0-6 weeks) Grower (6-12 weeks) Developer (12-18 weeks) Layer I (18-42 weeks) Layer II (42 – cull)
Nutrient Unit
Low Medium High Low Medium High Low Medium High Low Medium High Low Medium High
ME:Protein 143 143 143 172 172 172 189 189 189 160 160 160 170 170 170
ratio
Energy, ME Kcal/kg 2750 2800 2850 2700 2750 2800 2650 2700 2750 2700 2750 2800 2700 2750 2800
Crude protein % 19.20 19.60 19.90 15.70 16.00 16.30 14.00 14.30 14.50 16.90 17.20 17.50 15.90 16.20 16.50
Calcium % 0.96 0.98 1.00 0.95 0.98 1.00 0.90 0.95 0.95 3.45 3.50 3.58 3.66 3.70 3.80
Phosphorus, % 0.47 0.48 0.49 0.43 0.44 0.45 0.43 0.44 0.45 0.42 0.43 0.44 0.40 0.41 0.42
avail
Salt (NaCl) % 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30
Linoleic acid % 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35
Amino acids
Lysine % 0.88 0.90 0.91 0.68 0.69 0.70 0.69 0.70 0.70 0.73 0.80 0.80 0.77 0.78 0.80
Methionine % 0.36 0.36 0.37 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.33 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.36 0.36 0.32 0.32 0.33
Met+Cys % 0.69 0.70 0.71 0.57 0.58 0.59 0.57 0.58 0.58 0.66 0.69 0.69 0.64 0.65 0.66
Threonine % 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.54 0.55 0.56 0.55 0.56 0.56 0.58 0.61 0.61 0.53 0.54 0.55
Tryptophan % 0.19 0.20 0.20 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.19
Amino Acid:ME
Lysine g/Mcal 3.20 3.21 3.19 2.52 2.51 2.50 2.60 2.59 2.59 2.70 2.84 2.86 2.85 2.84 2.86
Methionine g/Mcal 1.31 1.29 1.30 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.25 1.26 1.26 1.26 1.27 1.29 1.19 1.16 1.18
Met+Cys g/Mcal 2.51 2.50 2.49 2.11 2.11 2.11 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.44 2.47 2.46 2.37 2.36 2.36

Threonine g/Mcal 2.40 2.39 2.39 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.08 2.07 2.07 2.15 2.15 2.18 1.96 1.96 1.96
Tryptophan g/Mcal 0.69 0.71 0.70 0.59 0.62 0.61 0.57 0.59 0.59 0.70 0.69 0.68 0.70 0.69 0.68
Amino acid:
Lysine
Lysine % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Methionine % 41 40 41 47 48 49 48 49 49 47 45 45 42 41 41
Met+Cys % 78 78 78 84 84 84 83 83 83 90 87 86 83 83 83
Threonine % 75 74 75 79 80 80 80 80 80 79 76 76 69 69 69
Tryptophan % 22 22 22 24 25 24 22 23 23 26 24 24 25 24 24
a
PHILSAN, 2003.
Table 7. Recommended dietary trace minerals and vitamins for egg-type chickens.a
18 Weeks
0–6 6–12 12–18
Nutrient Unit to First
Weeks Weeks Weeks
Egg
Trace minerals
Manganese mg 60.0 30.0 30.0 30.0
Zinc mg 40.0 35.0 35.0 35.0
Iron mg 80.0 60.0 60.0 60.0
Copper mg 5.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
Iodine mg 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35
Selenium mg 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
Fat soluble vitamins
A IU 1,500 1,500.0 1,500.0 1,500.0
D3 ICU 200.0 200.0 200.0 300.0
E IU 10.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
K mg 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Water soluble vitamins
Riboflavin mg 3.6 1.8 1.8 2.2
Panthothenic acid mg 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
Niacin mg 27.0 11.0 11.0 11.0
B12 mg 0.009 0.003 0.003 0.004
Choline mg 1,300 900.0 500.0 500.0
Biotin mg 0.15 0.10 0.10 0.10
Folic acid mg 0.55 0.25 0.25 0.25
Thiamine mg 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.8
Pyridoxine mg 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
a
NRC, 1994.
Table 8. Acceptable level of contaminants in poultry drinking water. a

Contaminants or Level Considered Maximum
Remarks
Characteristics of H2O Average Acceptable Level
Total bacteria 0/ml 100/ml 0/ml is desirable
Coliform bacteria 0/ml 50/ml 0/ml is desirable
Nitrogen Compounds
Nitrate 10 mg/L 25 mg/L Levels from 3 to 20 mg/L may
affect performance
Nitrite 0.40 mg/L 4 mg/L
Acidity and Hardness
pH 6.8–7.5 A pH of less than 6.0 is not
desirable. Levels below 6.3
may degrade performance
Total hardness 60–180 Hardness levels less than
60 are unusually soft, those
above 180 are very hard

Table 8. (Continued).
Contaminants or Level Considered Maximum
Remarks
Characteristics of H2O Average Acceptable Level
Naturally Occurring
Chemicals
Calcium 60 mg/L - Levels as low as 14 mg/L
may be detrimental if the
sodium level is higher than
50 mg/L.
Chloride 14 mg/L 250 mg/L
Copper 0.002 mg/L 0.60 mg/L Higher levels produce a bitter
flavor.
Iron 0.20 mg/L 0.30 mg/L Higher levels produce bad
odor and taste.
Lead - 0.02 mg/L Higher levels are toxic.
Magnesium 14 mg/L 125 mg/L Higher levels have laxative

effect. Levels greater than
50 mg/L may affect
performance if the sulfate
level is high.
Sodium 32 mg/L Levels above 50 mg/L may
affect performance if the
sulfate or chloride is high.
Sulfate 125 mg/L 250 mg/L Higher levels have laxative
effect. Levels above 50 mg/L
may affect performance if
magnesium and chloride
levels are high.
Zinc - 1.5 mg/L Higher levels are toxic.
a
Schwartz, D. L.; Waggoner, R. et al.
• Acidifiers – preparations (formic, acetic, propionic, lactic,

butyric, sorbic, fumaric, and citric acid) that reduce the pH
of the gut (gastro-ileal region) thereby reducing undesirable
microbes such as E. coli and Salmonella and consequently
minimizing the proliferation and/or colonization of potentially
pathogenic bacteria.
• Antioxidants – preparations (natural or synthetic tocopherols

and lecithin, butylated hydroxytoluene; santoquin) that protect
feed components which are sensitive to oxidation such as
unsaturated fatty acids in fats and oils, vitamin A, carotene,
and carotenoids.
• Mycotoxin binders - inert chemical/biological substances

(Hydrated Sodium Calcium Alumino Silicate, HSCAS);
sodium bentonite; activated charcoal) capable of stable
adsorption of mycotoxins present in the feed/ground raw
materials without undergoing any change, thereby rendering
the mycotoxins biologically unavailable to the host.
• Pigmenters – enhances coloration of egg yolk, especially

when diets are devoid of natural source of xanthophylls.
• Enzymes – feed enzymes for specific or particular

substrate can be used to enhance digestibility of phytate
phosphorus (plant feedstuffs), galactomannans (e.g., copra),
oligosaccharides (e.g., soybean meal), beta-glucans (barley),
arabinoxylan (wheat), proteins and fats. Enzyme cocktails or
mixed enzymes can also be used; current applications of feed
enzymes, in general, include reducing apparent metabolizable
energy and crude protein specifications, reducing amount of
inorganic phosphorus supplement, improving performance and
lowering feed cost.
• Antimold – prevent mold development especially when mixed

diets are stored for relatively long period, especially under
high moisture and humid conditions.
• Antibiotics - substances (bacitracin, virginiamycin,

oxytetracycline, lincomycin, penicillin, chlortetracycline)
which are produced by living microorganisms and have
bacteriostatic or bactericidal properties; antibiotics are
administered to reduce incidence of subclinical levels of
bacterial infections of the digestive and respiratory tracts
and thus often credited with improving rate of gain and feed
efficiency.
• Probiotics – cultures of live organisms used to displace

harmful bacteria to establish a healthy gut microflora;
probiotics change the types and numbers of the gut microflora;
the effectiveness of probiotics in poultry depends on the
hygiene and standard of the operation and the general health
of the flock.
• Prebiotics – composed of small fragments of carbohydrates

(oligosaccharides) used to manipulate the gut ecosystem; the

carbohydrates can selectively stimulate some or all of the
beneficial organisms in the gut, bringing about changes in the
microbial balance which in turn affects the host in a beneficial
way; these preparations stimulate the growth of Bifidobacteria
and other health promoting bacteria, such as Lactobacilli;
the commercially available prebiotic products are mainly
oligosaccharides or galactose, fructose, or mannose.
• Nutraceuticals – substances which are produced in a purified

or extracted form and administered orally to animals to provide
agents required for normal body structure and function. It
is administered to improve the health and well-being of
animals.
• Growth hormone additive releasing factors – a preparation

(Advanced Cysteamine Complex) which function as
performance enhancer by depleting the growth hormone
inhibitor factor thereby increasing the available endogenous
growth hormone. This improves gastrointestinal development
and stimulation of immune cells. It also has anti-oxidative
function.
• Emulsifiers – substances (phospholipids; lysophospholipids)

used to enhance digestibility of nutrients that are water
insoluble like fat and fat soluble vitamins through the process
of emulsification; recommended for use when diets contain
supplemental fat, especially in young birds.

Feeding Management
Feeding Starting and Growing Birds
Water must be provided to the chicks immediately upon arrival to

prevent dehydration. It is best to teach the chicks to drink first before
they eat. For the first six weeks of brooding, chicks must be fed ad
libitum.
Chicks should be given feed without delay upon their arrival in
the farm. This practice allows proper gut development, promote better
health and growth of the birds. Feed offered should be restricted in
the first day until the third day in order to prevent vent pasting. Vent
pasting is a condition wherein the chick suffers from early diarrhea.
This can be avoided by providing some cracked corn or wheat, as
part of their first feed.
The birds should be offered starter diet from day 1 to 6 weeks of
age, grower diet from 6 to 12 weeks of age and developer diet from
12 to 17–18 weeks. Weight of birds should be monitored regularly
starting at 5 weeks of age and continued weekly until after peak. Values
obtained for body weight should be compared with the standard. If the
flock is below the target weight, it should be provided with the higher
nutrient feed formulation until the target weight for age is reached.
Excessive weight gain at 12–18 weeks of age of the birds should be
avoided; if it does happen, feed should be restricted. It is important
that the pullets be fed to attain high uniformity of weight or size,
body composition, and skeletal development at about point of lay
(15 weeks), which are requisites to optimal number and size of eggs.

Pre-lay Calcium Nutrition of Pullets
Proper development of the medullary bone is a fundamental

aspect of pullet nutrition. The build up of medullary bone reserve
is sensitive to dietary calcium level during the growing stage.
The bone serves as calcium source during the laying period when
dietary calcium level is low, especially during the period of shell
formation. It is recommended that grower/developer diet with 1%

calcium should not be used after the appearance of first egg from
the flock and to .50% egg production at the very latest.
Feeding Pre-lay Diet
Pre-lay diet is used primarily to condition calcium metabolism

of the pullets. It is also used to manipulate body size. It is fed from
16–18 weeks of age. Characteristically, the diet contains 17% CP,
2850 kcal ME/kg and 2.0% calcium. Feeding the pre-lay diet is
intended to provide good start when egg production begins. The birds
should have the desired weight, body composition and bone structure.
Also, they should have deposit of labile fat which is important during
heat stress when limited energy intake occur. High fat and high energy
diet is useful during the pre-lay stage. Also increase linoleic acid
(>1%), protein/amino acids (especially methionine) at pre-lay diet for
early egg size is recommended.
Feeding Layers
The current practice of feeding layers is phase feeding using layer

rations I and II. Layer ration I is usually fed to layers at the start of
egg laying up to 5–6 months of the laying period. It contains higher
CP (17–18%) with 3.0–3.5% Ca. On the other hand, layer ration II
is usually fed after the first 6 months or when the layers have reached
post peak production. It contains lower CP (16–17%) but higher Ca
(3.5–5.0%). Egg size increases as layers mature, which require higher
amount of Ca for bigger egg size.
The laying egg-type chicken should be fed to receive the following
daily amount of nutrients: 17 g crude protein, 280 kcal metabolizable
energy, 640 mg methionine + cystine, 720 mg lysine, 3.5 g calcium,
0.40 g available phosphorus, and 0.18 g sodium. A ration of
100 g/bird with a dietary specifications for layer I will suffice for
these requirements.
With early small egg size being undesirable for market, a pre-pause
feeding program can be practiced. This is done by withdrawing feed or
feeding low nutrient dense diet at the time of sexual maturity (at 1%
egg production) to effect a “pause” in the normal maturation and at
the same time stimulate greater egg size when production resumes after
about 10–14 days after applying the program.

Feeding for Egg Size
When egg size is a primary factor for the market, dietary

manipulations should be practiced to enhance egg size. Egg size
is influenced by the birds’ intake of energy, protein, linoleic acid,
and amino acids particularly methionine as well as isoleucine and
threonine. In general, an increase in one or more of these dietary
factors above the recommended intake will tend to increase early
egg size provided that other nutrients that affect egg size are
provided in adequate amounts.
Feeding Layers to Counteract Heat Stress
Heat stress reduces feed intake of the birds and consequently

decreases the amount of nutrients for egg production. To alleviate
the problem, a number of nutritional approaches and feeding
management can be adopted. A high energy diet is recommended.
Vegetable oil should be a part of the diet; such ingredient produces
less heat increment and also increases palatability of the diet.
Stimulate feed intake by feeding more times each day to increase
feeding activity. Feed the birds during cooler times of the day (early day
feeding or midnight feeding) when temperature is lowest and
birds are more inclined to eat. Wet feeding can also be practiced but
care must be taken that rancidity does not occur. Also, use of crumbles
is recommended.
Increasing synthetic methionine and lysine in the diet is
recommended to maintain total daily intake of approximately 360 mg
and 720 mg, respectively. Excess in dietary crude protein should
be avoided since such causes extra heat production which will add
stress to the birds.
The addition of sodium bicarbonate to the diet or drinking water,
increased levels of vitamin A, D3 and E, adding 200 mg vitamin C/kg
diet, and maintaining electrolyte balance of 250 mEq/kg diet are also
recommended to alleviate heat stress problem.
Phase Feeding in Laying Birds
Phase feeding is performed by reducing the protein and amino acid

levels in the diet as the bird progresses through a laying cycle. This
practice is based on the fact that as birds get older, their feed intake

increases while their egg production decreases. As such, it should be
economical to reduce nutrient concentration in the diet. Phase feeding
at the later part of egg production is beneficial as reduced feed cost
is realized and shell quality is improved. As a guide, phase feeding
should be practiced by reducing dietary crude protein as follows: at
less than 80% egg production give 16 g CP/day, at less than 70%
egg production give 15 g CP/day. Change in dietary protein density
should be done gradually in order not to affect production and egg size.
Dietary methionine level should be considered during phase feeding
since this amino acid has the greatest effect on egg size.
Phase feeding is also applied with dietary phosphorus. From
0.40% available phosphorus at peak of production, this should be
reduced to 0.30% at end of lay to improve shell quality.
Feeding for Egg Shell Quality
Laying chickens should be fed oyster shell or limestone grits as part

of their diet to improve shell quality. Feeding of limestone or oyster
shell on a continuous free-choice basis or on top of a diet containing
the full calcium requirement is not recommended as this cause
chalky deposits and rough ends on shells. Excessive calcium intake
of laying birds causes excretion of calcium as calcium phosphate.
This leads to phosphorus deficiency resulting in no medullary bone
being redeposited between successive periods of calcification. There
should be adequate amounts of phosphorus and vitamin D3. The
amount of salt in water should also be considered. Egg shell
quality is reduced by 10% with saline water and this is increased by
two-folds with 250 mg salt/L. Saline water limits bicarbonate ions to
the shell gland. Adding 1 g vitamin C/L drinking water will alleviate
shell quality problems.
Feeding for the Prevention of Fatty Liver Syndrome
Fatty liver syndrome is an alteration of liver function which causes

fat deposits in liver tissues. This is due to the imbalance of protein
intake such as low protein high energy diet. The fatty liver syndrome
can be prevented by adding mixture of lipotrophic factors to the diet,
notably 60 mg copper sulfate, 500 mg choline, 3 mg vitamin B12, and
500 mg methionine/kg diet. Increasing crude protein by 1–2% is one
of the most effective way of alleviating the condition. Also, providing

more fat than carbohydrates as energy source causes less stress on the
part of the liver to synthesize fat required for egg production.
Feeding for the Prevention of Cage Layer

Fatigue and Bone Breakage
Both cage layer fatigue and bone breakage are related to problems
in bone metabolism, commonly encountered in hens held in cages with
high egg production. The former occurs in young layers and the latter
in old layers. Birds suffering from cage layer fatigue become lame and
are reluctant to stand in the cage. This is observed around the time of
peak egg production. The same manifestations can be seen in old hens
and worst with bone breakages. Impaired calcification of the skeleton
and restricted activity of the birds in cages are largely responsible for
the problem. These can be minimized by ensuring adequate levels
of calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D3. Giving high calcium diet to
the pullets should coincide with the observation of secondary sexual
characteristics, especially comb development which usually precedes
first oviposition by 14–16 days. Adding 300 ppm fluorine to the water
also improves bone strength in young birds.

Disease Prevention and Control
The most economical and ideal method to minimize losses due

to diseases is thru prevention. This could be achieved by proper
management, proper feeding and housing, strict sanitation, and
effective vaccination program. However, even if all the precautionary
measures are observed, there are times when communicable diseases
still strike in the farm. When disease outbreaks occur, consult a
veterinarian immediately.
Use of drugs and antibiotics without proper and immediate disease
diagnosis will not only be a waste of money but will also aggravate the
condition of the birds and control measures will be more difficult. In
addition, problems regarding antibiotic resistance of disease causing
organisms may be attributed to such careless use of antimicrobial
agents. Therefore, the use of the right kind and dosage of medicines
and prompt treatment are necessary to control any disease condition.
To sustain protection, vaccination program/schedule must be
strictly followed. It must also be done systematically to minimize post
vaccination reactions. Vaccination itself is a stress. Reactions ranging
from decreases in feed intake or egg production to increase in mortality
rate may occur. To avoid severe vaccination reaction, handling stress
should be minimized, dosages should be accurate, and proper route of
administration should be followed. Antibiotic, vitamin, and mineral
supplementation should be given to birds for at least 2 days before and
3 days after each vaccination.
A recommended vaccination and deworming program for egg-type
chickens is shown in Table 9.
Vaccination Tips
1. Follow strictly the Newcastle disease (ND) vaccination program.

Outbreaks of disease occur due to the failure to vaccinate the birds
at the right age.
2. Purchase vaccines from reliable sources. Check the expiration
date. Never use expired vaccines. Vaccines should always be kept
at refrigeration temperature (2o–8oC). Potency of vaccine kept at
room temperature is lost even in a few hours. In transport, make
Table 9. Recommended vaccination and deworming program for egg-type chickens.
Age Type of Medication Preferred Route of Administration Remarks
Day-old Marek’s vaccine Intramuscular/subcutaneous/coarse Usually done by big hatchery operators.

spray/ in ovo system
10 days ND or avian pest vaccine, B1B1 or Intranasal/intraocular Chicks from nonvaccinated parents should be
B1 type vaccinated as early as 3 days.
14 days Infectious bursal disease (Gumboro Drinking water In areas where the disease is rampant
disease)
28–30 days ND or avian pest vaccine, La Sota Intramuscular Check immune response 10–14 days after
strain or equivalent vaccination by H.I. test. This is usually done in
most diagnostic laboratories. Repeat vaccination if
protection is low.
6–8 weeks Fowl pox vaccine Wing web In areas where fowl pox is common; vaccination
may be done to birds as early as 3 weeks of age
using one prong of applicator. Check evidence of

“take” 3 days after vaccination. Repeat vaccination
if response is poor or no signs of reactions occur.
8–12 weeks Infectious Coryza vaccine Subcutaneous Administration is under the skin at the back of the
(Inactivated Vaccine) neck. Booster can be given 4 weeks before point of
lay.
10 weeks ND vaccine, La Sota strain or Intramuscular Check immune response 10–14 days post-
equivalent vaccination. Repeat vaccination if titer or protection
is low.
Age Type of Medication Preferred Route of Administration Remarks
14 weeks Dewormer Drinking water Droppings of sample birds should first be examined
for worm eggs. If negative, dewormer may not be
given.
14-15 weeks Egg Drop Syndrome vaccine Subcutaneous Administration is under the skin at the lower neck
(Inactivated and oil adjuvanted region.
vaccine)
16 weeks ND vaccine, La Sota strain or Intramuscular Check immune response 10 – 14 days post-
equivalent* vaccination. Repeat vaccinations when immune
response is low. Single dose of oil adjuvant ND
vaccine can protect the birds in 18 months.
18 weeks Insecticides Spray Spray only when there are lice and mites infestation.
Transfer pullets to cages 24 hours after delousing.
Repeat spraying 2 weeks later.
18 weeks Dewormer Drinking water Administer only if pooled samples of droppings are
positive for worm eggs.

30 weeks Dewormer Drinking water Administer only if pooled samples of droppings are
positive for worm eggs.
32 weeks ND vaccine, La Sota strain or Intramuscular Egg production may drop after each vaccination, but
equivalent oil based vaccine this is better than dead birds.
* Repeat vaccination for ND (La Sota strain) every 3–4 months thereafter to insure consistent protection. At 16 weeks of age, a single dose of oil adjuvant ND vaccines can provide
protection for 18 months or longer, therefore, ND vaccination program must be adjusted. Oil adjuvant ND vaccine is more expensive than other preparation but it gives less stress
to the birds.
sure that vaccines are in proper containers (e.g., cooler boxes) that
could hold enough ice to maintain the desired temperature.
3. Follow strictly the vaccination direction. Vaccine intended for
intranasal route should not be administered intramuscularly or vice
versa.
4. Do not vaccinate when there is a disease outbreak on the farm such
as chronic respiratory disease (CRD), fowl fox, infectious coryza,
or coccidiosis. The immune response is slow and birds may die of
the reaction to vaccination.
5. Check immune response titer 10–14 days after each vaccination
with ND by Hemagglutination Inhibition (H.I.) test. H.I. test is
conducted in most diagnostic laboratories. Revaccinate birds
if titer is low or zero. This test is the best way to determine
if the birds are adequately protected or not. Some vaccines
may be ineffective due to mishandling, improper storage, or to
expiration.
6. Administer vaccines within 1 hour after reconstitution. If used
after 1 hour, the desired protection may not be attained.
7. Immediately burn empty vials or bottles of leftover reconstituted
vaccine after using. Vaccines are attenuated (not dead) organisms
and may revert to virulent form under natural condition if spread
on the ground.
8. Avoid unnecessary stress on the birds particularly at vaccination
time. Weak birds may develop vaccination reaction and are easily
susceptible to other diseases.
9. Add antistress supplements (multivitamin-antibiotic-mineral
preparations) to the feed or drinking water at least 2 days before
and 3 days after each ND vaccination. Vaccination and handling
cause too much stress on birds.
10. Consult a veterinarian immediately if a disease outbreak strikes the
farm.
Useful Information on Vaccines
There are some important factors that raisers need to know about
vaccine use. These are:
• Vaccines do not provide a foolproof assurance of immunity

(protection) against a disease. Although a degree of protection
is actually conferred, the possibility exists that immunity can

be overwhelmed by massive exposure to virulent field strain
or different strain of the causative organism. There is no
substitute for strict sanitation and good management.
• Vaccines do not confer instant protection. Immunity develops
gradually and birds are not adequately protected until about
2 weeks after effective vaccination. During the first week after
vaccination, birds can contract diseases with relative ease due
to vaccination stress.
• The level of immunity or protection provided by vaccination
depends upon several factors, namely: potency of the vaccine,
amount administered, route of vaccination, and capability of
vaccinated birds to respond to the vaccination.
Vaccines are quite fragile. Their potency can deteriorate
with improper storage, mishandling, and or misuse. Live
virus vaccine can be easily destroyed by heat, inert materials
and chemicals such as disinfectants, antiseptics, detergents,
chlorine, iron, zinc, and copper. To conserve the potency
of vaccine, all mixed and unreconstituted vaccines should
be stored at refrigeration temperature until ready to use. All
vaccination equipment should be thoroughly cleaned before
using them. If vaccination is to be done in the drinking water,
excessively chlorinated water should be avoided. Use clean
rainwater or deep-well water instead and add 1 kg skim milk
powder/100 L drinking water to act as binders to organic/
inorganic matter in the water that could adversely affect the
potency of the vaccine. If water is too hot, add few chunks of
ice.
Weaker vaccines (B1B1 type) are safer to use for young
chicks. With older birds, stronger vaccine may be used like
La Sota strain.
Administering vaccines at doses lower than the
manufacturer’s recommended level can result in inadequate
protection. This could happen if the birds are not water-
starved before the vaccine is mixed with drinking water and
if the dispenser is held too close to the eyes or nostril such
that a whole drop is not formed in case of the drop method
(intranasal, intraocular, or intracloacal).
The route of administration also influences the level
of immunity. It is generally regarded that vaccination via

drinking water or aerosol is less reliable than intramuscular,
intranasal, or wing web administration.
The bird itself has a bearing on the outcome of vaccination.
Birds may not respond well to vaccination for some reasons
like when circulating antibodies (defense mechanism) for the
particular disease is very high. Such high antibody level can
be due to recovery from natural infection, recent vaccination,
or maternal antibody transfer to chicks.
• The duration of protection/immunity from vaccination varies
with the type of vaccine and the level of immunity conferred
by such vaccination. Many poultry vaccines have to be
administered repeatedly to maintain immunity in the flock
throughout its productive life. For example, freeze dried
preparation of ND vaccine gives protection usually for only
3–4 months and revaccination is a must, while oil adjuvant
ND vaccine confers immunity for 18 months or longer.
• Vaccination is a pre-exposure method of disease control. It
is not intended to cure birds that have already been exposed
to the disease. Vaccination of sick birds may just aggravate
the condition. Vaccination itself may be regarded as a mild
form of infection since vaccines are made up of the same
organisms that cause the infection though in altered, modified,
or inactivated form. When a flock has started to show signs of
infection, the choice of whether to vaccinate the entire flock
or not calls for a critical evaluation which should be done by
experienced veterinarian. There is no treatment or cure for
viral diseases like ND, fowl pox, and others.
Guidelines for the Prevention of Infectious

Diseases in Poultry Farm
Here are some necessary precautions to prevent disease infection

in the farm:
• Raise only healthy and vigorous stocks. Immediately cull

sickly birds and disposed them by burning.
• Provide birds with nutritionally balanced ration and cool, fresh,
clean drinking water at all times.
• Group birds of the same age and those given the same vaccines
in the same pen.
• Have a sound vaccination and flock health program. Follow
strictly the vaccination schedules. Avian pest or Newcastle
disease outbreak is the most common cause of bankruptcy in
poultry production. This usually occurs in farms which do not
vaccinate birds regularly as scheduled. The other devastating
viral diseases are Gumboro disease, infectious bronchitis, and
Marek’s disease.
• Maintain clean surroundings in the farm. Provide comfortable
housing. Avoid overcrowding.
• Clean and disinfect building and all equipment thoroughly
after each use. Use broad spectrum disinfectants. Spray
insecticides in poultry houses, grounds, and surroundings to
control ants, beetles, roaches, and other insects which serve
as mechanical transmitters or carriers of disease organisms.
If possible, do the said activity in newly vacated building 30
days before using it again.
• Dispose dead birds properly by burning, boiling, or burying.
• As much as possible, only flockmen should go inside the
laying houses. Flockmen should avoid contact with possible
disease carriers like gamecocks, native chickens, and other
fowls to prevent introduction of virulent virus into the farms.
Visitors, delivery trucks, or pets like dogs and cats should stay
off the production area.
• Buildings and the whole farm itself must be fenced as part
of the biosecurity measure to prevent entry of stray animals,
scavengers, and wild birds. Stray animals and wild birds serve
as carriers of some poultry diseases and nuisance to the general
comfort of the flock.
• Provide birds with comfortable quarters. Overcrowding, lack
of feeding and watering spaces may predispose the chickens
to diseases.
• Provide poultry houses with adequate light. Light stimulates
feeding and sexual maturation.
• Provide birds with adequate and clean drinking water. If
possible, flush the water system of the whole production
area with chlorine 1–2 weeks prior to the start of production
cycle.
• If possible, practice all-in-all-out method of operation and
allow 30-days rest period between batches.

• Purchase stocks from reputable hatcheries. Well-established
hatcheries usually have better management and health
practices that help in better quality production.
• Quarantine new stock for at least 2 weeks if other flocks are
being kept in the farm.
• Control external parasites like lice and mites using insecticide
sprays, dip, or dust. Drain farm of stagnant pools and damp
areas to deprive blood sucking insects of breeding and hiding
places. Maintain clean surroundings to control flies, beetles,
roaches, and the like.
• Maintain good production and health records.
Common diseases of egg-type chickens and their prevention and

control are shown in Table 10 and 11.
Some Commercial Disinfectants
Disinfectants
(Brand Name) Manufacturer
1. Aldekol DES 03 Metrovet

2. Bayer-Antec Farm Fluid Bayer Philippines, Inc.
3. Biocid-30TM Pfizer, Inc.
4. Discan Gromax Inc.
5. DSC 1000 Bayer Philippines, Inc.
6. Ioguard Zuellig Agrochem Corporation
7. Metaseptol J.M. Mendoza Enterprises, Inc.
8. Microban UNIVET
9. Microbe Fighter Robichem
10. Nactofel SANOFI (Merial)
11. Omnicide Schering-Plough
12. Sectifort B3 J.M. Mendoza Enterprises, Inc.
13. Tek-Trol J.M. Mendoza Enterprises, Inc.
14. Virkon-S Bayer Philippines, Inc.
15. Virakil Ceva Sante Animale

Table 10. Common diseases of egg-type chickens and their prevention and control.
Causes and
Diseases Symptoms/Lesions Prevention
Transmission
I. Viral Diseases
Newcastle Newcastle
disease (ND) or disease virus
avian pest (NDV)
An acute, rapidly Direct contact with Sharp drop in feed Vaccination of

spreading infected birds intake, high morbidity healthy unaffected
respiratory flocks with live
disease Contaminated farm In chicks – gasping, attenuated, virus
characterized by equipment, feed, or coughing and rattling, vaccines. Follow
harsh breathing, water incoordination, strictly vaccination
coughing, spasm, trembling, program
sneezing, with or Farm visitors with twisted necks,
without nervous contaminated paralysis, coma, Disinfect all
manifestations shoes, clothing, high mortality, rapid watering and
and the like spread. Nervousness feeding equipment
and respiratory
Wild birds difficulty. Isolate immediately
sick birds from
Vehicles In adults – coughing healthy ones
and rattling,
Air borne respiratory symptoms Minimize secondary
may go unnoticed, complications by
few birds show stimulating appetite
nervous signs, with wet mashes,
occasional paralysis, pellets, and high
egg production drops level antibiotic-
to zero in matter of vitamin-mineral
days, soft shelled, mixture in the
poor quality egg drinking water or
produced. feed of unaffected
flocks
Fowl pox Fowl pox virus
A viral infection Direct contact with Wartlike lesions Vaccination with

characterized infected birds appear on the skin, fowl pox vaccine
by formation of comb, wattles, eyes,
wartlike lesions Flies and earlobes Vaccination of
on the skin, comb, mosquitoes are all chickens in
wattles, eyes, vectors. Infected Thick, yellow, cheesy the flock with
earlobes, mosquitoes may lesions in the mouth fowl pox vaccine
and diphtheria- remain carriers for and throat causing immediately after
like dead tissue several months difficulty in breathing signs of infections
(cankers) or are noticed
cheesy lesions on

Causes and
Diseases Transmission Symptoms/Lesions Prevention
the internal wet Loss of appetite Proper drainage to

surfaces of the control mosquitoes
mouth, tongue, Unthriftiness
esophagus, and Strict sanitation
nasal passages Drop in egg
production
Impaired fertility
Marek’s disease Herpes virus
(skin leukosis,
fowl paralysis)
A highly Air borne Mortality may reach Vaccination of day-

infectious disease 30% old chicks
characterized by Shoes, clothing,
enlargement of feed bags, Paralysis of wings All-in-all-out
the nerves and equipment and legs operation
tumors on visceral
organs, skin, and Feather follicles Tumors in any internal Disinfection of
muscle organ poultry house and
equipment
Swollen hair follicles
Infectious IBD virus

bursal disease
(IBD) (Gumboro
disease)
A viral disease Dirty equipment Nervous signs, Vaccination

affecting chicks and poultry houses. listlessness,
20–60 days old. It sleepiness, Strict management
is characterized Viruses can survive dehydration, whitish
by edema and outside the host for diarrhea, pecking their All-in-all-out system
swelling of the several months own vent, morbidity of operation
cloacal bursa,
vent pecking, Mortality vary up to Disinfection of
prostration, and 30% poultry house
mortality (Fig. 9) and equipment

Causes and
Diseases Transmission Symptoms/Lesions Prevention
Infectious Herpes virus

Laryngotracheitis
(ILT)
A rapidly spreading Air borne Coughing, difficult Vaccination

respiratory disease breathing, clogged
affecting the upper Truck trachea and gasping Strict sanitation
respiratory tract
People Disinfection of
poultry house and
Equipment equipment. Most
ND vaccines are in
Birds combination with
laryngo-tracheitis
Rodents vaccine
Infectious IB virus
bronchitis (IB)
A viral disease Air borne In chicks – wheezing, Vaccination.

characterized sneezing, gasping,
by high mortality Equipment watery eyes, swollen Some ND vaccines
in young chicks sinuses, mortality up are in combination
and drop in egg People to 50%. with IB vaccines
production in Strict sanitation
adults Birds In adults – severe drop
in egg production. Disinfection of
Feed bags Return to normal takes poultry house and
several weeks. Eggs equipment
misshapen, wrinkled,
porous, and chalky
Avian AE virus
encephalomyelitis
(AE, Tremor)
A viral disease of Feces Nervous signs Vaccination

young chicks including paralysis of breeders
1–3 weeks old Egg to chicks and layers for
Quivering commercial
replacement
Chicks lie on their
sides
High mortality

Causes and
Diseases Symptoms Prevention
Transmission
Egg Drop EDS virus
Syndrome (Adenovirus)
(EDS, EDS 76)
Viral disease Infected eggs Affected birds are Vaccination and

during the point of apparently healthy implementation
lay characterized Feces of proper hygiene
by production of Loss of shell-pigments and sanitation in
abnormal eggs Fomites (trays, of colored eggs the farm as well as
(shell-less, soft- crates, trucks) followed by laying of during collection
shelled) by birds shell-less or soft- and transport of
that is apparently shelled eggs eggs
healthy
10–40% drop in egg
production due to
shell-less eggs
Diarrhea and transient

dullness of birds
Histopathological
lesions of the pouch
shell glands
II. Bacterial Diseases

Chronic Bacterium
respiratory Mycoplasma
disease (CRD) gallinarum
A lingering Egg transmitted In young birds Use of high levels

disease affecting – chronic respiratory of antibiotics in
the respiratory Air borne symptoms such as feed and water
tract and air sacs. sniffing, coughing,
It is characterized Direct contact with gasping, frequent Rigid sanitation
by poor growth, carrier birds nasal discharge,
inferior carcass swelling of the face, Good sanitation
quality, poor feed At time of lowered and frothy breathing
conversion, and resistance such as Disinfection of
decreased egg stress period poultry house and
production equipment
Contaminated
feed, water, and
farm

Causes and
Transmission
Feed bags, trucks, In mature birds
and the like – rapid spread, loss of
weight, decreased egg
Poor management production, and poor
and unhygienic hatchability
conditions
Depression, inactive
Infectious coryza Bacterium

(colds) Haemophilus
gallinarum
An acute or Direct contact with Sneezing Vaccination of

chronic disease infected birds healthy birds
characterized by Swollen sinuses below
swelling of the Contaminated the eyes Avoid
face and wattles, feeds, water, or air overcrowding
watery discharge borne dust Watery discharge from
from the nose or the eyes and nostrils, Antibiotic therapy
eyes. This disease Sudden change in later becoming sticky, – erythromycin in
affects birds of all temperature thick, and feed or drinking
ages odorous; difficult water
Unsanitary housing breathing
conditions Strict sanitation
Feed intake and disinfection
decreases
Egg production drops
Pullorum disease Bacterium

(bacillary white Salmonella
diarrhea) pullorum
An acute disease Egg borne In chicks – acute Strict sanitation

of 1–3 week-old septicemia, sudden
chicks and pullets Improperly cleaned death, huddle Isolate sick birds
causing high incubators together, appear
mortality chilled, diarrhea, Avoid stress
Contaminated white, sticky, and conditions
equipment foamy dropping, pasty
vents, birds have
Contact with newly peculiar chirp, labored
hatched infected breathing
chicks

Causes and
Diseases
Transmission Symptoms Prevention
Stress conditions Marked loss of Treatment – use

may “trigger” appetite of broad spectrum
infection if causal antibiotics,
organism is In adults – no nitrofurans, and
present in the symptoms as a rule sulfa drugs in the
environment are observed although feed or drinking
they harbor the water
organisms
Colibacillosis Bacterium
Escherichia coli
Fecal Poor growth Add furazoldone in

contamination the feed
Poor feed intake
Egg shell borne High mortality Broad spectrum
antibiotics
Air borne dust May produce deadly
toxins Strict sanitation
Egg to chicks and disinfection
Contaminated feed
and water
Fowl cholera Bacterium

Pasteurella
multocida
Acute or chronic Contaminated feed Acute – sudden death, Sulfonamides

disease, rapid and drinking water greenish diarrhea, and
mortality usually high mortality Antibiotic-
affecting 12–18 People, clothing, streptomycin
weeks old birds footwear, and the Chronic – swollen
like wattles with cheesy Strict sanitation
hard deposit, and disinfection
lameness, and
respiratory distress

Causes and
Diseases
Transmission Symptoms Prevention
III. Fungal or Mycotic Diseases
Aspergillosis Fungus Lung infection Remove moldy

(brooder Aspergillus Numerous nodules in feed and litters
pneumonia) fumigatus lung tissues
Thorough cleaning
A fungal disease Air borne; common Loss of appetite, of feeders and
with high morbidity in hatcheries and sleepiness, gasping waterers
and mortality brooder houses and sometimes
rates in young convulsion, and death Disinfection
birds affecting the Moldy feeds
respiratory system Sneezing, coughing,
Contaminated other respiratory signs
drinking water are absent in chronic
cases
Inhalation of fungal
spores No other signs except
for semi-blindness and
high mortality
Mycotoxicosis Fungus
(Aflatoxicosis) Aspergillus flavus
and A. parasiticus
A disease caused Moldy feed, corn, Loss of appetite Remove moldy

by ingestion of rice, peanut, and Depression feed, rice,
aflatoxin produced other cereals Loss of condition soybean, corn,
by Aspergillus and other cereals
flavus and A. Stuntedness
parasiticus Death Thorough cleaning
of feeders
IV. Parasitic Diseases
Protozoan
Coccidiosis Coccidia
Eimeria tenella, E.
necatrix, and other
species
An intestinal Contaminated Chicks sleepy and Observe strict

parasitic disease feeds, water, soil, huddle together sanitation
affecting young litter, footwears, or with wings dropped,
and adult birds. farm equipment feathers ruffled, All farm visitors
May occur in depression and workers
clinical and Droppings – loose and should clean and
subclinical forms mixed with mucus or disinfect footwears
destroying blood before entering the
intestinal wall. farm

Causes and
Transmission
Flies, beetles, ants, Paleness Frequent change

and the like in litter
Loss of appetite and
Carriers such as weight
rats, mice, and wild
birds Poor feed conversion,
unthriftiness
Drop in egg
production
High mortality in
severe infection
Leucocyto- Blood parasite Anemia or paleness, Sulfamonome-

zoonosis (avian Leucocytozoon weakness, depression thoxine-
malaria) caulleryi pyrimethamine
Greenish diarrhea combination
A parasitic disease Transmitted by in the feed or
of chickens tiny blood sucking Loss of appetite drinking water
caused by a blood insects (biting
parasite that midges). Death due to internal Spray
invade, multiply, It is most prevalent hemorrhage and red insecticides,
and destroy cells during wet season. blood cell destruction provide good
of various internal drainages
organs and red Haemorrhagic spots in
blood cells skeletal and visceral
organs

Table 11. Common external and internal parasites of poultry.
Parasite and Means Treatment

Where Found Symptoms
of Transmission and Prevention
Helminths
Large roundworms Small intestine Setback in Piperazine

(Ascaridia galli) weight gains; compounds,
Feces, flies, ants, loss of egg Destomycin
beetles production;
death in heavy
infections,
paleness
Cecal worm Ceca Unthriftiness, Hyromycin B

(Heterakis gallinae) weakness, Phenothiazine
Feces, flies, ants, emaciation;
beetles ceca inflamed,
thickened
Gizzard worm Gizzard Impaired No treatment; avoid

(Acuraria sp.) digestion due to exposure to insect
Grasshopper, beetles, gizzard damage vectors (beetles,
weevils, other insects weevils, roaches,
(ants, and the like)
Tapeworm (Raillietina Small intestine Loss of appetite; Hexachlorophene
spp., Hymenolepis loss of weight, Dichlorophene
spp.) eventual Butynorate
Earthworms, slugs, emaciation, Control insect
land snails, flies, and diarrhea, vectors
other insects decrease egg
production
Arthropods Usually affect Irritation of skin Insecticides spray,

older birds; lice Scab formation dip, or dust
Louse infestation are found in fluff, Birds become
(Pediculosis) breast, under droopy Repeat application
wings, and on Feathers ruffled at 10 days interval
Body louse back, shaft of Poor weight gain during the first two
(Menacanthus feathers, wing Drop in egg applications, then
stramineus), feather production every 6–12 months
Fluff louse Increased thereafter when
(Goniocotes gallinae), susceptibility needed
Shaft louse to diseases
(Menopon gallinae), Some mortality in
Wing louse heavy infestation
(Lipeurus caponis), or young birds
Brown louse Poor hatchability
(Goniodes dissimilis), Anemia,
Large chicken louse emaciation
(Goniodes gigas)

Fig. 9. Inflammation of the "Bursa of Fabricius" lesion typical in IBD
cases in layers.
Characteristics of an Ideal Disinfectant
Disinfectants are essential in keeping the farm clean and face for
diseases. Here are the characteristics of ideal disinfectants:
• Highly germicidal (bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa).

• Nontoxic to man and animal.
• Effective in the presence of small amounts of organic
matters.
• Noncorroding and nonstaining.
• Does not leave undesirable residues that could be harmful to
human and animals during production
• Soluble in water.
• Capable of penetrating materials and crevices.
• Unassociated with pungent odors.
• Readily available and inexpensive.
Disinfectants for poultry farms are shown in Table 12.

Table 12. Disinfectants used in poultry farms.
Disinfectants Strengths Application Remarks
Alcohol 70% Skin and instrument Most effective at 70%

disinfectant
Creosol 2–4 ml/100 Footbath, pens More bactericidal and less
(Cresylic acid) ml finished in housing unit toxic than phenol.
Saponated solution or or vehicles. Readily absorbed in
creosol solution 2–4% (1 cup Disinfection milk, meat, and eggs.
(Lysol) to 1 gal water of surgical Mixes are best in soft
makes 4% instruments water. Saponated creosol
solution) are readily soluble, soap
dissolves grease, both
have good penetration.
Possibly best universal
farm disinfectants
Creosole Undiluted Some bacterial Mixture of phenols from
action wood tar. Two to three
times as effective as
phenol. Poorly soluble
in water.
Halogens
Iodophores 2–3% Fogging and Non-toxic but maybe
concentration spraying of corrosive to metals.
buildings Effective against virus,
bacteria, and fungi.
Footbaths Ineffective with organic
matter, changes color
when activity is lost.
Chlorine 0.10 ppm Water sanitation Effective against bacteria,
concentration virus, protozoa, and
fungi
In combination, for Usually in combination with
building sanitation other agents
Decreases activity in
alkaline pH
Soda ash 5% (1 lb–3 gal Same as salt soda Most effective in hot
water) solution. May be used in
placed of lye.
Glutaraldehyde 0.25–0.5% Fogging and for Non-corrosive but irritant
concentration instruments, plastic to skin
and rubber material Decreases activity in the
disinfection presence of organic
matter
Soaps and Liberal amount Skin disinfectant. Remove dirt and infectious
detergents Disinfectant for agents. Low toxicity.
feed and water Low antiseptic action.
utensils and hands Usually in combination
with other agents

Manure Management
Manure handling is the least preferred activity in the farm. It needs

a great deal of time. Manure management, as opposed to manure
disposal, is probably the most overlooked of all potentially profitable
farming activities both from the standpoint of proper utilization and
pollution control.
Pointers in Manure Management
Here are some tips in manure management:
• Keep manure dry (Fig. 10) to minimize odor, multiplication

of flies, and for better market price. Both fishpond and
crop farmers prefer and pay better price for well-dried manure.
The usual practice among farmers is to let the manure pile up
under slat cages and collect it after each month. However,
frequent removal of manure is recommended to get rid of
fly eggs or larvae. In big commercial farms, manure is
automatically collected each day.
Fig. 10. Pile of dried layer chicken manure.

• Manure is bought as fertilizer to improve the productivity of
fishponds and or crop farms. Therefore, do not mix manure
with other materials like chemicals that might have harmful
effect both to fish or plant. Poultry waste is the most common
organic fertilizer used in ‘bangus’ fishponds.
• Clean layer houses as often as possible for effective parasite
and disease control and for better manure management. Do
not use insecticides in the manure pile. Useful insects that
help control flies will also be killed and it will take time to
re-establish them.

Fly Control
Flies are always a nuisance on the poultry farm. Besides being

carriers of diseases, these also spread internal parasites (worms) in
the flock, thus, they are hazard to the health of the chickens.
Keeping chicken manure always dry significantly helps control
flies population. Once the manure gets wet, the fly maggots tend to
thrive in the wet part. If possible, regular disposal of manure must be
done or application of caustic soda. Caustic soda kills maggot and
dries up the area. As a precaution, caustic-soda-treated manure should
not be mixed with fecal materials that are intended as fertilizer.

Rat Control
Tremendous economic losses are incurred due to rats and mice.

These pests eat and destroy feeds; damage the feed bag, waterer, and
feeder; kill chicks; steal eggs; transmit and spread diseases; lower egg
production by frightening the layers; damage the building and start
fires by nibbling insulation of electric wires.
Each rat produces three to six litters or seven to eight offsprings a
year. Rats can be controlled in many ways. Prebaiting and poisoning
are perhaps the best. Any combination of the following methods can
control rat infestation: prebaiting and poisoning, gassing, trapping,
use of cats, rat-proof building, and clean ground and surroundings.
Remove unnecessary materials like pile of wood, empty cans, old
cartoons, boxes, and the like which serve as hiding and breeding
places.
Many rat poison brands are available in the market, but be sure to
use them properly and with extra care. Always follow carefully the
manufacturer’s instructions printed on the label. Birds in production
should always be kept away from poisons for it could also cause
unwanted mortalities in the flock.
Rat-proofing ensures that rats have no place to hide. Grain and
feed room should be rat-proofed for it is the usual place where rat
problems are encountered. Trappings can also be used but it is more
effective to maintain sanitation and cleanliness in the farm.

Marketing of Eggs
The chicken egg industry in the Philippines provides stable

source of income for egg producers and traders alike. Farm prices of
eggs are usually dictated by supply and demand situation. However,
since bulk of the egg supply goes to the retail market, retailers have
the power to dictate the price despite declines in farm or wholesale
prices. It is very important that the producer must have a well-planned
marketing scheme since the market is highly price sensitive. There are
several alternative ways of marketing eggs to maximize income. These
include: surveying the prospective outlets; determining the required
volume and quality (size) of shelled eggs; selling classified or graded
eggs (maintain good quality eggs); practice proper handling (sanitation)
of shelled eggs; forming associations with other egg producers in the
area to strengthen selling power; and maintaining good rapport with
customers.
Survey Prospective Market Outlet
It is advantageous to know the prospective market outlet so as not

to create over supply in the area. Marketing of eggs is dependent on
middlemen. These are intermediaries who facilitate the flow of eggs
between the farm and the final consumers. Egg usually pass through
three levels of middlemen namely; assembler-wholesaler, wholesaler-
retailer, and retailer. Duplicating market functions due to overlapping
of activities done by different intermediaries results in additional
cost of retail egg prices. The middleman has the option to penetrate
and make marketing arrangement with local institutional buyers i.e.,
bakeries, groceries, food chains, and other egg users in the area.
However, the required volume must be regularly sustained.
Determine Volume and Quality Requirement
A beginner in egg farming must first know his target share in

the existing egg market. The quality of egg most demanded must be
available in right quantity. Supply and availability of egg is one of the
requirements of regular customers.
Sell Classified/Graded Eggs
Eggs from a flock of chicken vary in size due to various factors

such as size and age of layers, strain, nutrition, and environmental
factors, among others. Egg producers earn more by selling the eggs
on classified sizes. Chicken will produce more large-sized eggs
(44–45%) and extra large (25%) which command higher price than
medium and small sizes. Selling assorted/unclassified eggs can
be advantageous to producers only at the early laying stage (first
3 months of lay).
Proper grading or classification can attract all types of consumers.
This would also enable the consumer to make purchasing decisions
on the egg sizes at hand and not on the assortment offered by the
producers and others.
In terms of size, eggs are classified in the following categories:
Size Weight Range

(grams/egg)
Jumbo 70 and above

Extra large 65 – 70
Large 60 – 65
Medium 55 – 60
Small 50 – 55
Pullets 45 – 50
Peewee 40 – 45
First egg Below 40
Proper Handling and Storage
Eggs are highly perishable commodities. Proper handling must be

done starting from egg collection to egg sorting, packaging, and selling.
Flock man and egg handlers must be informed of the importance of egg
sanitation and proper care of eggs to minimize spoilage and losses. Egg
trays or baskets (containers) must be cleaned and washed to remove
debris of spoiled or cracked eggs before using them again. Eggs must
not be stored in hot areas or exposed in dusty surroundings. Selling of
eggs must be done daily and regularly. Clean eggs stay fresh longer
and command better price.

Form Associations with Other Egg Producers
Small egg producers usually have lower bargaining power due to

small volume of eggs they handle. It is advantageous for them to form
an association and agree on common prices. One price in an area will
not give any choice to middlemen, except to buy the eggs to recover
his cost. Price must be fair enough (quality and size of egg) to provide
margins for the middlemen.
The association would also enable the producers to go into
“contract-to-buy” scheme with dealers. This would assure egg supply
through programmed production to the dealer who usually makes
agreements with his outlets. A buyer does not normally go into
contract with single small producers, as supply may not be regular and
continuous.

Farm Records
A good record system enables an alert manager to spot and correct

production problems at the early stage. Records must be simple and
easily understood by the farm worker for ease of recording.
Records of egg production, feed consumption, and mortality must
be kept on a daily basis. Daily records should be summarized at the
end of the week. Analysis of these records should be done at the end of
each month. Certain calculations are necessary at this time to evaluate
the farm's performance.
The usefulness of records depends not only on how the flock
man or farm worker update and accurately fill-up the information
needed in the farm record but also, how the recorded information are
summarized. Evaluation is usually done at the end of each month.
Therefore, the summary must be ready the second day of each
month.
Flock production records are essential parts of a good flock
management.
Production record is essential in the overall farm operation because
of the following benefits/uses:
• It helps increase the efficiency of handling farm resources.

• It is a vital tool for planning and budgeting.
• It readily shows the financial status of the farm.
• It provides materials for making credit statements for financing
institutions.
• It helps the farmer make reasonable decisions on immediate
and future management operations like pricing and adjustment
of operation.
• It facilitates easy preparation of income tax return.
Brooding/Rearing Flock Record
This pertains to the record of flock performance from first day of

brooding until sexual maturity. Certain standards must be included
at a weekly interval to serve as guide for the poultry man to make

regular comparison (between actual and standard) and make necessary
management actions/changes if the flock performance falls below
acceptable level. Degree of flock uniformity at sexual maturity affects
the egg production pattern and production curve. The record must
include the following:
• number of chicks started, date started, initial body weights,

strain, and source;
• volume of feed consumed by type of ration (daily and total);
• depletion (mortality, culls, missed sex chicks);
• vaccination and drugs used, debeaking/redebeaking, and other
management changes; and
• number of stock sold and transferred, body weights.
Laying Flock Record
Adequate performance record of caged layers must be kept

from start of lay to end of egg production cycle. This will provide
information on the flock’s performance and basis for comparison and
adjustment later. Graphing the egg production figures gives a better
picture of the laying performance of the flock. The laying record
must include the following:
• details (date, strains, etc.) and number of RTLP housed and

average body weights;
• feed consumption (daily and total);
• depletion (culls, death, injured, etc.), daily and total;
• egg production and grades (daily and total); and
• details of management changes, vaccination and drugs used.
Other necessary records are financial record and inventory of

the poultry enterprise. The analysis of the above records will show
the poultrymen progress and profitability of the flock. It will further
indicate which part of management may need adjustments for the
future flocks.
A simplified brooding and rearing period (Form 1) and flock
performance record (Form 2) have been developed for easy and
accurate recording.

Form 1. BROODING/REARING RECORD
Chicks Received: _____________ Date: __________ Batch No. ______

Chicks Loaded: _______________ Strain: __________ House No. _____
WK.
- day
- day
- day
- day
- day
- day
- day
ITEM Total Weekly
No.
Death Bags
1 Mortality
Bags Feed Consumed
Mortality
2 Bags Feed Consumed
Mortality
Mortality
Mortality
Mortality
Mortality
Mortality
Mortality
Mortality
Bags Feed Consumed
MEDICATION Total Mortality
Date Kind Quantity Remarks Total Bags Feed Consumed
Total Bags Feed Remaining
Total Kg Feed Fed
Feed = Kg Feed
Conversion Dozen Eggs
Sold
SALES REMARKS
Date Quantity Sold Unit Price Total Value (P)
Eggs (No.) Culls Eggs Culls Eggs Culls
No. Total Wt.

Form 2. FLOCK PERFORMANCE RECORD
Date Transferred ___________________________ Age in Wks ________________

Month of _______________________ Strain__________________ Ave. Body Wt. at Transfer ____________
Month of Production (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.) ___________________ Last Vaccination ______________
DATE NO. OF LAYERS EGGS LAID FEED CONSUMED MORTALITY CULLED TRANSFERRED REMARKS
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
TOTAL
1. Hen-day eggs per bird per month __________________________________
2. Hen-housed eggs per bird per month ________________________________
3. Amount of feed to produce a dozen eggs _____________________________
4. Age at 5% hen-day egg production _________________________________
5. Age at 50% hen-day egg production ________________________________
Economics
Profitability of Table Egg Production
One measure of success of any business is its profitability.

Profitability is a measure of the ability of the farm business to generate
surplus revenue or net farm income per unit of investment. The
financial portion of farm business analysis is designed to measure
profitability. The income statement (or profit and loss statement,
also called costs and returns analysis) is the primary data source for
measuring the profitability of the business.
Profitability analysis starts with the summary of farm revenue and
expenses for a given period. The difference between total revenue and
total expenses is called net farm profit or net farm income. Net farm
income is the amount the owner/farmer gets from his capital, labor,
and management after paying all farm operating expenses. A positive
difference between farm revenue and expenses indicates profit while a
negative value indicates there was a loss for the period.
Net Farm Income = Total Returns - Total Costs
If the farmer is more interested on how much cash is left after

paying all the farm operating expenses, the relevant measures of
income are net cash income and returns above cash costs. The net cash
income is derived by deducting the total cash costs from the total cash
income while returns above cash costs refers to the difference between
total returns and total cash costs.
Net Cash Income = Total Cash Income - Total Cash Costs

Returns Above Cash Costs = Total Returns - Total Cash Costs
The Percent Return on Investment (%ROI) is commonly used to

assess the farm profitability. Percent return on investment is the rate
of return on capital invested. The farm is making money if the percent
return on investment is greater than the opportunity cost of money or
the loan interest rate.

The percent return on investment is the net profit as a percent of
total capital investment. Total capital investment includes the fixed
investment and the working capital. It is computed as:
Net profit
% Return on Investment = x 100
Capital investment
A 10% ROI means that for every one peso investment in the
business, 10% or P0.10 of net profit/income was generated during the
accounting/cropping period. The higher the % ROI, the more profitable
the farm business is.
Efficiency of Table Egg Production
Efficiency refers to the degree by which resources are used to attain

desired results without undue wastage. A farm is considered efficient
if it is able to produce maximum output from a given set of inputs or
produce a given level of output at the minimum level of inputs or
costs.
The most important reason for keeping livestock on the farm is to
convert feed, a relatively low value product into livestock and livestock
products, both of which are comparatively high value products. For
table egg production, the following are the commonly used efficiency
indicators:
• Feed conversion measures the quantity of feeds used to

produce a dozen eggs obtained by dividing the total amount of
feed consumed (in kilograms) by the number of eggs produced
(in dozens).
• Feed cost per dozen of eggs produced measures the value
or cost of feeds used or consumed to produce a dozen of egg
obtained by multiplying the feed conversion by the cost of
feed per kilogram.
• The effectiveness of feed conversion is measured by the egg
returns received per peso cost of feed used. Returns per P100
worth of feed consumed refers to the value of eggs produced
per P100 cost of feed used.

• Cost per unit of egg is computed by dividing the total cost of
production by the total eggs produced.
Feasibility Study of 6000 – Layer Capacity Farm
A feasibility study examines the practicality or chances for success

of a business project or undertaking. Its purpose is to find out whether
or not a project is feasible, and if found feasible, to determine the
degree of profitability. The feasibility study serves as a basis for
selecting a good venture. The proponent who intends to invest money
in the venture wants to minimize the risk of failure. In compliance
with the requirements of financial institutions, the feasibility study will
serve as a basis for deciding whether to grant financing. This will show
the financier the venture’s chances of succeeding, and whether it will
be profitable enough to give adequate returns (if one should invest in
the form of equity) or to amortize loan (if he should extend credit).
Scope and Nature of the Project
The proposed project will involve egg production from RTLP.

Although the egg production project can start from the day-old-
chicks, for beginners, it is recommended to start with RTLP since this
would require lesser initial capital investment, simpler management
practices and returns or egg sales can be immediately generated. The
size of the project can vary depending on the financial capability of
the investor/owner. However, an economical farm size for beginner is
6,000 layers.
Technical and Financial Assumptions
Table 13 shows the technical and financial assumptions used in the

feasibility study. Prices used are current prices as of June 2007.
Initial Capital Requirements and Operating Costs
The breakdown of the capital expenditures that will be incurred

in this project is presented in Table 14. The cost of housing, cages,
tools, and equipment amounts to P1,590,000 at P265/layer and the
cost of the ready-to-lay-pullets is P870,000 at the current market price

Table 13. Technical and financial assumptions, 6,000-layer farm.
Item Value Unit
Number of layers 6000 RTLP
Cost of RTLP 145 pesos/bird
Layer mortality (9%/yr) 540 birds/year
Production period of layers 80 weeks
Feed consumption/bird 105 grams/day
Cost of feeds/kg 15 pesos/kg
Biologics, medicines and supplements 3% of feed cost
Utilities 1000 pesos/month
No. of permanent laborers 1
Salary of laborer 6000 pesos/month
Land rental/hectare 10,000 pesos/year
Housing, cages and equipment cost (4 birds/cage) 265 pesos/bird
Life span 10 years
Salvage value 20% of original cost
Repairs and maintenance/yr 1% Year 2–4
5% Year 5–10
Egg production per day (75%) 4500 eggs/day
% of broken eggs/day (2.5%) 112.5 eggs/day
Selling price of egg 3.5 pesos/egg
Selling price of broken eggs 2 pesos/egg
Selling price of culled layer 66 pesos/bird
# of empty feed bags/week 92 bags/week
Selling price of feed bags 5 pesos/bag
Manure production ( 25% of feed consumed) 165 kg/day
Selling price of manure 15 pesos/bag of 25 kg
Table 14. Initial capital requirement, 6,000-layer farm.

Item Amount (P)
1. Housing, cages and equipment cost 1,590,000
2. Ready to lay pullets 870,000
3. Working capital requirement (1.5 months) 447,008
Total 2,907,008

of P145/bird. The total initial capital investment that will be needed
is P2,907,008, which also includes the working capital for one-and-
a-half month operation. This amount of working capital is needed for
operation during the first 1.5 months before sales can be generated.
Working capital includes the cost of feeds, biologics, medicines and
supplements, and direct labor (Table 15).
Table 15. Working capital/operating expenses for a 6,000-layer farm.
Item Quantity Unit P/Unit P/Day P/Mo.
Feed 630 kg 15 9,450.00 283,500.00
Biologics 3% 283.50 8,505.00
Labor 1 laborer 6000 6,000.00
Total 298,005.00
Sourcing, Timing, and Costs of Funds
Financial requirement can be arranged with the bank. Financing

scheme will be 70:30, 70% of the total investment (or P2,034,008) will
be sourced from the bank while the remaining 30% will be the equity
participation of the owner. The proposed 70% loan can be applied at
the Land Bank of the Philippines with an existing interest rate of 15%
per year and 6 years maturity. Table 16 shows the yearly amortization
schedule broken down into interest and principal payments.
Volume of Production and Revenues
Revenues from the layer farm will basically come from the sales
of eggs assuming a 75% egg production per day, sales of empty bags
and manure, and sales of culled layers after a 2-year production period.
The quantity/volume and price for each revenue source are shown in
Table 17.
Financial Statements
Table 18 presents the projected income statement showing a %

ROI per year ranging from 18% for year 1 to 31% for year 6. Results
show that the business is profitable since the % ROI is greater than
the cost of money (15% per year). Moreover, the projected cash flow
(Table 19) shows an IRR of 44%, with a payback period of 3 years.
This means that the project has an average earning capacity of 44%
per year during the entire project period of 6 years.

Table 16. Amount of financing and amortization schedule, 6-year loan at 15% interest per year.
Item Year 0 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6

Balance 2,034,905.25 1,802,443.97 1,535,113.50 1,227,683.45 874,138.90 467,562.67
Rate 1.00 1.15 1.32 1.52 1.75 2.01
Principal 232,461.28 267,330.47 307,430.04 353,544.55 406,576.23 467,562.67
Interest 305,235.79 270,366.60 230,267.02 184,152.52 131,120.84 70,134.40
Amortization 537,697.07 537,697.07 537,697.07 537,697.07 537,697.07 537,697.07
Table 17. Income/sales schedule, 6,000-layer farm.

Item Quantity Unit P/Unit P/Day P/Week Year 1 Year 2
Sales of good eggs 4387.5 pcs 3.5 15,356.25 107,493.75 4,568,484.38 4,157,320.78
Sales of rejects 112.5 pcs 2 225.00 1,575.00 66,937.50 60,913.13
Feed bags 92.0 bags 5 460.00 19,550.00 17,790.50
Manure 6.6 bags 15 99.00 99.00 4,207.50 3,828.83

Culled layers 4920.0 heads 66 324,720.00
Total 4,659,179.38 4,564,573.23

Table 18. Projected Income Statement for 6000 RTLP.
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6
Income from sales of good eggs 4,568,484.38 4,157,320.78 4,568,484.38 4,157,320.78 4,568,484.38 4,157,320.78
Income from sales of rejects/ broken eggs 66,937.50 60,913.13 66,937.50 60,913.13 66,937.50 60,913.13
Income from sales of manure 19,550.00 17,790.50 19,550.00 17,790.50 19,550.00 17,790.50
Income from sales of feed bags 4,207.50 3,828.83 4,207.50 3,828.83 4,207.50 3,828.83
Income from sales of culled layers - 324,720.00 - 324,720.00 - 324,720.00
Gross Sales 4,659,179.38 4,564,573.23 4,659,179.38 4,564,573.23 4,659,179.38 4,564,573.23
Less: Cost of Goods Sold
- Feeds 3,402,000.00 3,095,820.00 3,402,000.00 3,095,820.00 3,402,000.00 3,095,820.00
- Biologics, medicines and supplement 103,477.50 94,164.53 103,477.50 94,164.53 103,477.50 94,164.53
- Direct Labor 72,000.00 72,000.00 72,000.00 72,000.00 72,000.00 72,000.00
Total Cost of Goods Sold 3,577,477.50 3,261,984.52 3,577,477.50 3,261,984.52 3,577,477.50 3,261,984.52
Gross Income from Sales 1,081,701.88 1,302,588.71 1,081,701.88 1,302,588.71 1,081,701.88 1,302,588.71
Less: Operating Expenses
- Repairs and maintenance - 14,256.00 12,984.00 11,712.00 52,200.00 45,840.00
- Depreciation (10 yr life span, straight line) 143,100.00 143,100.00 143,100.00 143,100.00 143,100.00 143,100.00
- Utilities (water and electricity) 12,000.00 12,000.00 12,000.00 12,000.00 12,000.00 12,000.00
- Land rental 10,000.00 10,000.00 10,000.00 10,000.00 10,000.00 10,000.00
Total Operating Expenses 165,100.00 179,356.00 178,084.00 176,812.00 217,300.00 210,940.00

Net Profit (before interest) 916,601.88 1,123,232.71 903,617.88 1,125,776.71 864,401.88 1,091,648.71
Less: interest expense 305,235.79 270,366.60 230,267.02 184,152.52 131,120.84 70,134.40
Net Profit (before tax) 611,366.09 852,866.11 673,350.85 941,624.19 733,281.04 1,021,514.31
%ROI 0.18 0.25 0.20 0.28 0.22 0.31
Table 19. Projected cashflow for egg production of 6000 RTLP (30% equity, 70% loan).
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6
After financing
INFLOWS
Gross income from sales 4,659,179.38 4,564,573.23 4,659,179.38 4,564,573.23 4,659,179.38 4,564,573.23
Residual/Book value of depreciable assets 916,800.00
Loan
Total Cash Inflows 4,659,179.38 4,564,573.23 4,659,179.38 4,564,573.23 4,659,179.38 5,481,373.23
OUTFLOWS
Capital Investment 870,000.00 870,000.00
Production Cost 3,577,477.50 3,261,984.52 3,577,477.50 3,261,984.52 3,577,477.50 3,261,984.52
Operating Expenses (less: depreciation) 22,000.00 36,256.00 34,984.00 33,712.00 74,200.00 67,840.00
Loan amortization:
- Principal 232,461.28 267,330.47 307,430.04 353,544.55 406,576.23 467,562.67
- Interest 305,235.79 270,366.60 230,267.02 184,152.52 131,120.84 70,134.40
Total Outflows (after financing) 4,137,174.57 3,835,937.59 5,020,158.57 3,833,393.59 5,059,374.57 3,867,521.59
NET CASHFLOW (after financing) 522,004.81 728,635.64 (360,979.19) 731,179.64 (400,195.19) 1,613,851.64
NPV (after financing) 812,217.71

Payback (after financing) 3 years
IRR (after financing) 44%
References
Alders, R.; Dos Anjos, F.; Bagud, B.; Fumo, A.; Mata, B.; Young,
M. Controlling Newcastle disease in village chickens: A training
manual. Canberra, Australia: ACIAR, 2002.
Gapuz, R.B. Poultry management in the Philippines. Manila:
Philippine Education Co., 1990.
Kahn, C.M. The Merck veterinary manual. 8th Edition, Whitehouse
Station, New Jersey, USA: Merck and Company, Inc., 2005.
Lesson, S. Feeding program for egg-strain pullets up to maturity.
Poultry Nutrition and Management. Technical Report Series.
Singapore: American Soybean Association International
Marketing-Southeast Asia, 2006. pp. 56–75.
_______. Feeding program for laying hens. Poultry Nutrition and
Management. Technical Report Series. Singapore: American
Soybean Association International Marketing-Southeast Asia,
2006. pp. 76–87.
Monoget, L.; Fedida, D.; Borne, P.M.; Comte, S.; Jacquinet, C.
Rationale antibiotheraphy in poultry farming. France: CEVA Sante
Animale, [n.d.].
National Research Council. Nutrient requirements of poultry. 8th
Edition. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences,
1994.
North, M.O.; Bell, D.B. Commercial chicken production Manual. 4th
Edition. Westport, Connecticut: AVI Publ. Company, Inc., 1990.
Philippine Society of Animal Nutritionists. Feed reference
standards. Manila, Philippines: PhilSAN, 2003.
Rosal, Ma. I. Philippine veterinary drug directory. San Juan, Metro
Manila: Medicom Pacific, Inc., 2001.
Schwartz, D.L. “Water Quality,” VSE, 81c, Penn. State Univ.
– (Mimeographed).
Swayne, D.E.; Glisson, J.R.; Jackwood, M.W.; Pearson, J.E.; Reed,
W.M. A laboratory manual for the isolation and identification of
avian pathogens. 4th Edition. PA: American Association of Avian
Pathologist, University of Pennsylvania, 1998.

Waggoner, R.; Good, R.; Good, R. “Water quality and poultry
performance.” Proceedings AVMA Annual Conference, July
984.
8 The PhiliPPines Recommends foR Table egg PRoducTion

PR Table Egg Production - Beta - 355638 PDF

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

PR Table Egg Production - Beta - 355638 PDF

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

OFFICE OF THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR

This third edition of the publication, The Philippines

We hope you will find this volume a useful reference

PCARRD Philippines Recommends Series No. 23-B

PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY

Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines

The Table Egg Production Committee 2007. The

Philippine Copyright © by PCARRD, 2008.

T he Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural

• The 2007 technical committee members for drafting this

The Egg Industry 1

Dr. Javier P. Mateo

Dr. Reginaldo V. Abuyuan Dr. Ernesto A. Martin

Dr. Clarita T. Dagaas Dr. Edwin C. Villar

Mr. Augustus Alexander A. de Villa Ms. Marites M. Ramil

Dr. Marilyn M. Elauria Mr. Joel Eneristo A. Joven

Antibiotic – A dilute substance produced by microorganisms that

The layer business is doing very well. In 2006, gross earnings

Metro Manila 0.823 0.241 0.483 0.515 0.494 - - 0.483 -

 The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

Region 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

CAR 1,988 2,053 2,291 2,478 2,789 2,751 2,719

promoting the consumption of eggs. There are regional egg producers’

The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production 

The success of an egg production enterprise depends not only on

• Personal qualifications and capabilities. The raisers should

• Availability of resources. A raiser should establish the

• Supply of good stocks. The chicks or ready-to-lay pullets

• Constant supply of other farm inputs. The availability of

• Market assurance. An assurance that the market is capable

 The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

• Waste management. Distance from residential areas must be

 The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

Raise egg-type pullets produced from egg production lines. In the

Give primary consideration to the number, size, and quality of eggs

 The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

It will be difficult to make an objective comparison of the

 The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

Buy day-old chicks or RTLPs from dependable breeder-hatchery

Eggs are nutritious and considered as one of the cheapest source

 The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

In the Philippines, the average climatic condition is characterized

Fig. 1. Long and narrow layer house.

10 The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

Fig. 2. Monitor type of roof.

11 The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

The common practice in layers is to brood and grow the chicks in

Fig. 3. Slatted-type of floor for growing pullets.

12 The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

Layers can either be kept on litter floor pens, elevated slat-floor

13 The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

The requirements of growing egg-type pullets for floor space,

Fig. 4. Layers raised in triple-deck cages in stair-step arrangement.

14 The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

Table 4. Space requirements of egg-type chickens.

Brooding 7.0 1 feeder (flat 2 fountain-type (gallon-

Growing 6.5 cm/bird 2.0 cm/bird

15 The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

Brooders/heaters are those devices that provide the necessary heat

Brooder guards are enclosures on the brooder heat source that

Provide young chicks up to 1 week of age with flat container

16 The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

shallow but larger conventional trough feeders, tube feeders, linear

The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production

The Philippines Recommends for Table Egg Production