Electricity Magnetism Optic and Heat With Answer

Chapter 1:
Electric Charge, Forces and Fields

Important Terms:
Electric Charge = It is a fundamental property of matter. It is a fundamentally associated
with atomic particles, the electron and the proton.
Law of Charges or Charge-Force Law = “Like charges repel each other, and unlike
charges attract each other”
Coulomb = The SI unit of charge which was named after the French physicist, Charles
A. Coulomb.
Net Charge = It has an excess of either positive or negative charges.
Conservation of Charge = The net charge of an isolated system remains constant.
Conductors = They are groups of substances that have the ability to transmit electric
charge. Valence electrons are loosely bound.
Insulators = They are poor electrical conductors.
Semiconductors = They are materials whose ability to transmit charge is much less than
that of metals but much greater than that of insulators.
Electroscope = A device that can be used to demonstrate the characteristics of electric

charge.
Electrostatic Charging = A process by which an insulator or an insulated conductor

receives a net charge.
Charging by Friction = The transfer of charge is due to the contact between the
materials and depends on the nature of the materials.
Charging by Contact or by Conduction = Refers to the flow of charge during the short
period of time the electrons are in motion.
Charging by Induction = Provide a path by which electrons can escape.
Polarization = Separation of charge.
Coulomb’s Law = Electric force is directly proportional to the product between two
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the charges.
Electric Field = A force per unit charge.
1
Electric Lines of Force = The convenient way of graphically representing the electric
field pattern in space through.
Electric Dipole = It consist of two separate electric charges
Gaussian Surface = Consider a single positive electric charge in an imaginary closed

surface surrounding it.
Gauss’s Law = The net number of electric field lines passing through an imaginary
closed surface is proportional to the amount of net charge enclosed within that surface.
Particles and electric charge
Particles Electric Mass(kg)

charge(C)
Electron(-) -1.602x10-19 9.109x10-31
Proton(+) +1.602x10-19 1.672x10-27
Neutron 0 1.674x10-27
Important Equations
Quantization of Electric Charge
Q = ne
Where: Q= charge(C or coulomb)

n = integral charge (coulomb / electron or C/e)
e= electron charge (e or electron)
Coulomb’s Law
𝒌𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝐅𝐞 =
𝒓𝟐
Where: k = proportionality constant, 9.00 x 109Nm2/C2

Fe = Electric Force, N
q = charge, C
r = distance between the charges, m
Electric Field
𝐅𝐨𝐧 𝐪𝐨
𝐄=
𝐪𝐨
Where: E = electric field, F/C

F = force, N
qo = charge, C
2
Electric Field Due to a Point Charge q
𝐤𝐪
𝐄=
𝐫𝟐

k = proportionality constant, 9.00 x 109Nm2/C2
q = charge, C
r = distance between the charges, m
Electric Field Between Two Closely Spaced Parallel Plates

𝟒𝛑𝐤𝐐
𝐄=
𝐀

Q = charge, C
A = area, m2
Example 1: If you shuffle across a carpeted floor on a dry day and acquire a net charge
of -2.0uC, will you have a deficiency or excess of electrons? How many missing or extra
electrons will you have?
Given: Required:
Q = -2.0 µC = -2.0 ×10-6 C (a) whether you have lost or gained
e = -1.602 ×10-19 C electrons
(b) number of missing or excess
electron
Solution:
(a) Since the sign of your net charge is negative and electrons carry a negative
charge, you have acquired an excess of electron.
Q −2.0 ×10−6 C
(b) n = = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐧
e −1.602× 10−19 C/electron
Example 2: Two point charges of -1.0x10-6 C and +2.0x10-6 C are separated by a

distance of 0.30m. What is the electrostatic force on each particle?
q1 = -1.0 µC q2 = +2.0µC
Given: Required:
q1 = -1.0x10-6 C F12 and F21

q2 = +2.0x10-6 C F3
r = 0.30 m
3
m2
(9.00 x 109 N. ) (1.0x10-6 C)(2.0x10-6 C)
a. F12 = F21 = Fe =
kq1 q 2
= C2 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝐍
r2 (0.3m)2
(b) A configuration of three charges is shown below. What is the electrostatic force on
q3?
(0,0.30m) q1 = +2.5µC
q3 = +3.0 µC
(0.40, 0)
(0,-0.30m) q2 = +2.5µC
m2
kq1 q 3 (9.00 x 109 N. -6 -6
2 ) (2.50 x10 C)(3.0x10 C)
F13 = F23 = Fe = = C = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝐍
r2 (0.5m)2
Force Fx Fy
0.27 N 4 3
(0.27 𝑁) = 0.22 N − 5 (0.27 𝑁) = −0.16 N
5
0.27 N 4 3
(0.27 𝑁) = 0.22 N (0.27 𝑁) = +0.16 N
5 5
∑Fx= 0.44 N ∑Fy= 0 N
R= √Fx2 +Fy2 =√0.442 +02 =0.44N

x .44
tan θ = = = undefined
y .0
F3 = 0.44 N ,due E
Example 3: What is the magnitude of the repulsive electrostatic force between two
protons in a nucleus? Take the distance between the centers of nuclear protons to be
3.0x10-15 m. If these protons were released from rest, how would the magnitude of their
initial acceleration compare to that of the acceleration due to the gravity of the earth’s
surface?
Given: Required:
15
r= 3.0×10 m (a) Fe = ?
q1= q2= +1.602 ×10-19C (b) a/g = ?
mp= 1.67× 10-27 kg
4
Solution:
m2
(9.00 x 109 N. 10-19 -19
kq1 q 2 2 ) (1.602 x C)(1.602 x 10 C)

a. Fe = = C =25.664 N
r2 2
(3.0×10-15 m)
b.
F 25.664 N
𝑎 = me = = 1.535 × 1028 m/s2
p 1.672×10-27 kg
a 1.535×1028 m/s2
= = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟔𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟕
g 9.81 m/s2
Example 4: Compare the magnitudes of the electric and gravitational forces between a
proton and an electron. Express your answer as a ratio of electric force to gravitational
force.
Given: Required:
Fe
qe = -1.60×10-19C (ratio of forces)=?
Fg
qp = +1.60×10-19C
me = 9.11 × 10-31 kg
mp = 1.67 × 10-27kg
Solution:
kqe qp Gme mp
Fe = 2 Fg =
r r2
m2
Fe kq e q p (9.00 x 109 N.
) (1.602 x 10−19 C)(1.602 x 10−19 C)
C2
= =
Fg Gme mp m2
(6.67 x 10−11 N. 2 ) ( 9.11 × 10−31 kg )(1.67 × 10−27 kg)
C
= 𝟐. 𝟐𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟗
Example 5: Two point charges are placed on the x- axis as shown. Find the location on
the axis where the electric field is zero.
q1 = +1.5 µC q2 = +2.0µC
x(m)
0 0.6
Given: Required:
d = 0.60m x = ? (location of zero E)

q1 = +1.50×10-6C
q2 = +2.0×10-6C
5
Solution:
q1 q2
=
x2 (0.6-x)2
1.5 2
=
x2 (0.6 − x)2
(0.6 − x)2 2
√ = √
x2 1.5
0.6 − x
= 1.15
x
0.6 − x = 1.15x
0.6 = 2.15x
0.6
x= = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖 𝐦
2.15
Example 6: What is the electric field at the origin for a 3- charge configuration?
Given: q1 = -1.0×10-6C
4.0m -1.5uC q2 = +2.0×10-6C
q3 = -1.5×10-6C
r1= 3.50 m
r2= 5.00 m
r3= 4.00 m
-5.0m 2uC 3.5m -1.0uC

Required: E=?
m2
(9.0×109 N. ) (-1.0×10-6 C)
kq1 C
E1 = 2 = = 7.35 × 102 N/C
r1 (3.50 m)2
9 m2
kq 2 (9.0 × 10 N. ) (+2.0 × 10−6 C)
C
𝐸2 = 2 = = 7.20 × 102 N/C
r2 (5.0 m)2
9 m2 −6
(9.0 × 10 N.
kq 3 C ) (−1.5 × 10 C)
𝐸3 = 2 = = 8.44 × 102 N/C
r3 (4.0 m)2
102 N
Ex = E1 + E2 = 7.35 × + 7.20 × 102 N/C = 1.46 × 103 N/C
C
Ey = E3 = 8.44 × 102 N/C
6
E = √(1.46 × 103 N/C) + (8.44 × 102 N/C) = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐍/𝐂
Example 7: Show that the electric field far from a dipole, on its perpendicular bisector
(the x axis) is given by kqd/x3.
Given: Required:
q1 = + q E=?
q2 = - q
Solution:
kqd kq (x) kqx

𝐸 = = 2∗ = 3
x3 x (x) x
x ≈d
𝐤𝐪𝐝 𝟏
𝐄= 𝟑
∝ 𝟑
𝐱 𝐱
Example 8: The electric field required to ionize air is about 1.0x104N/C when the field
reaches this value, the least bound electron begin leaving their molecules, eventually
creating lightning. Assume that this value of field E exist between a negatively charged
lower cloud surface and the positively charged ground. If we take the storm clouds to
squares 10 miles on each side, estimate the total negative charge on the lower cloud
surface.
Given: Required:
E = 1.0×104 N/C Q=?
d = 10 mi ≈1.6× 104 m
Solution:
4N 4 2
EA (1.0×10 C ) (1.6× 10 m)
Q= = = 𝟐𝟑 𝐂
4πk m2
4π(9.0×109 N. 2 )
C
7
Name:
Course/Year/Section:
Assignment No.:
1. What is the electrostatic force on q1 and q2 ?
(0,0.30m) q1 = +2.5µC
q3 = +3.0 µC
(0.40, 0)
(0,-0.30m) q2 = +2.5µC
m2
(9.00 x 109 N. ) (2.50 x10-6 C)(2.50x10-6 C)
F12 = F21 = Fe =
kq1 q 2
= C2
r2 (0.6m)2
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝐍 𝟓𝐩𝐭𝐬
Force Fx Fy
0.27 N 4 3
(0.27 𝑁) = 0.22 N (0.27 𝑁) = 0.16 N
5 5
0.16 N = 0𝑁 = +0.16 N
∑Fx= 0.22 N ∑Fy= 0.32 N
R= √Fx2 +Fy2 =√0.222 +0.322 =0.39N 𝟓𝐩𝐭𝐬

x .22
tan θ = = = 34.51 𝟓𝐩𝐭𝐬
y .32
𝐹1 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗 𝑵 , 𝑵𝟑𝟒. 𝟓𝟏𝑾
𝐹2 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗 𝑵 , 𝑺𝟑𝟒. 𝟓𝟏𝑾
2. Two charges are attracted by a force of 25 N when separated by 10cm. What is the force
between the charges when the distance between them is 50 cm?
m2
(9.00 x 109 N. ) q1 q 2
Fe =
kq1 q 2
= C2 = 𝟐𝟓𝐍
r2 (0.1m)2
𝟐𝟓𝐍(0.1m)2 −11
q1 q 2 = 9 m2 = 2.78𝑥10
9.00 x 10 N. 2
C
8
m2
(9.00 x 109 N. ) (2.78𝑥10−11 )
Fe =
kq1 q 2
= C2 = 𝟏𝐍 𝟏𝟎𝐩𝐭𝐬
r2 (0.5m)2
9
Chapter 2:
Electric Potential, Energy and Capacitance
Important Terms:
Electric Potential Energy = It is the work done on the charge.
Electric Potential Difference = It is the change in potential energy per unit positive test
charge
Volt = The Si unit of electric potential difference is the joule per coulomb, and renamed
in honor of an Italian Scientist, Alessandro Volta
Voltage = Potential Difference.
Electric Potential = It as the same as electric potential difference however it is not

measurable because of the choice of reference point
Equipotential Surfaces = A plane on which the value of the electric potential is

constant.
Electron Volt = The kinetic energy acquired by an electron accelerated through a

potential difference of exactly 1V.
Capacitor = A typical arrangement of conductors.
Capacitance = It expresses the charge stored per volt.
Farad = The combined unit of capacitance is the coulomb per volt which was named
after an English scientist, Michael Faraday.
Dielectric = A sheet of insulating material which is placed between the plates and serves
a several purpose.
Dielectric Constant = It is the characteristics of the capability of the chosen material.
Dielectric Permittivity = It is always greater than the permittivity of the vacuum by a

factor of K.
Equivalent Series Capacitance = The value of a single capacitor that could replace the
series combination.
Equivalent Parallel Capacitance = The value of a single capacitor that could replace the
parallel combination and holds the same total charge when connected to the battery.
10
Important Equations
Electric Potential Difference
𝚫𝐔𝐞 𝐖
𝚫𝐕 = =
𝐪𝐨 𝐪𝐨
Where: 𝚫V = electric potential difference, v

∆Ue = electric potential energy, J
= qoEd
E = electric field, N/C
q = charge, C
d = distance, m
W = work, J
qo = charge, C
Electric Potential Difference between Parallel Plates

𝚫V = Ed
Where: 𝚫V = electric potential difference, v

E = electric field, N/C
d = distance, m
Electric Potential Due to a Point Charge

𝐤𝐪
𝐕=
𝐫
Where: V = electric potential, v

r = distance, m
q = charge, C
Electric Potential Energy of a Configuration of Point Charges

U = U12 + U23 + U13 + ……..
Where: U = electric potential energy, J
Relationship between Potential and Electric Field

𝜟𝑽
𝑬 = −( )
𝜟𝒙
Where: E = electric field, N/C

𝚫V = electric potential difference, v
𝚫x = distance, m
Capacitance
Q = CV
11
Where: Q = Charge, C
C = Capacitance, f
V = voltage, v
Capacitance of a Parallel-Plate Capacitor

Є𝐨𝐀
𝐂=
𝐝
Where: C = capacitance
A = Area, m2
d = distance, m
Єo = permittivity of a vacuum, 8.85 x10-12C2/Nm2
Energy in a Charged Capacitor

𝐐𝐕 𝐐𝟐 𝐂𝐕 𝟐
𝐔𝐜 = = =
𝟐 𝟐𝐂 𝟐
Where: Uc = energy stored in a capacitor, J

Q = charge, C
V = voltage, v
C = capacitance, f
Dielectric Effect on Capacitance

C = KCo
Where: C = capacitance, f
K = dielectric constant
Equivalent Capacitance for Capacitors in Series

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + + … ..
𝑪𝒔 𝑪𝟏 𝑪 𝟐 𝑪𝟑
Where: Cs = equivalent capacitance connected in series
Equivalent Capacitance for Capacitors in Parallel

Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 + …
Where: Cp = equivalent capacitance connected in parallel
12
Example 1: A proton is moved from negative to the positive plate of a parallel- plate
arrangement. The plates are 1.50 cm apart, and the dielectric field is uniform with a
magnitude of 1500 N/C. (a) What is the proton’s potential energy charge? (b)What is the
potential difference between the plates? (c) Between the negative plate and a point
midway between the plates? (d) If the proton is released from rest at the positive plate,
what speed will it have just before it hits the negative plate?
Given: Required:
d= 1.5cm = 0.015m UPROTON = ?
E= 1500N/C ∆V = ?
ν=?
Solution:
1500N Nm J
𝑏. ∆V = Ed = ( ) (0.015m) = 22.5 = 22.5 = 22.5 V
C C C
U
a. ∆V =
q
22.5J
U = Vq = (1.602 x 10−19 C) = 3.62 x 10−18 J (Kinetic Energy)
C
1500N
𝑐. ∆VEd = ( ) (0.0075m) = 11.25J/C
C
U = Vq = 11.25J/C(1.602 x 10−19 C) = 1.81 x 10−18 J
1
𝑑. KE = mυ2
2
1
3.62 x 10−18 = (1.672 x 10−27 ) v 2
2
2(3.62 x 10-18)
𝑣= √ = 6.50 x104 m/s
1.672 x 10−27
Example 2: We want to accelerate an electron to one percent of the speed of light in a

space of 2.50mm between a pair of large horizontal, parallel plates. If the top plate is
positively charged, what voltage between the plates is required? What is the magnitude of
the electric field?
Given: Required:
c = 3.00 x 108m/s V=?
ν = 0.01 x 3.00 x 108m/s = 3.0 x 106m/s E =?
d = 2.5mm = 0.0025m
Solution:
1 2 1 106 m
𝑎. KE = mν = (9.109 x 10−31 kg) (3.0 x ) = 4.10 x10−18 J = U
2 2 s
13
∆𝑈 4.10𝑥10−18
∆𝑉 = = = 25.48𝐽/𝐶
𝑞𝑜 1.609𝑥10−19
𝑏. V = Ed;
V 25.48 J/C 10236𝑣
E= = = = 10236N/C
d 0.0025 m m
Example 3: In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, the electron in the orbit around the
proton can exists only in certain circular orbits. The smallest has a radius of 0.0529nm
and the next largest has a radius of 0.212nm, what is the potential difference between the
two orbits? Which orbit is at a higher potential?
Given: Required:
r1= 0.0529 nm= 5.29 x 10-11m a. V = ?
r2= 0.212nm = 2.12 x 10-10m b. ∆V =?
Solution:
kq 9.00 x 109Nm2/C2(1.609 x 10-19C)

V1 = = = 27.26 v
r 5.29x10-11
kq 9.00 x 109Nm2/C2(1.609 x 10-19C)

V2 = = = 6.8 v
r 2.12x10-10
∆V= V1 - V2 = 27.26 - 6.8 = 20.46v
Example 4: The water molecule is the foundation of life as we know it. Many of its
important properties are related to the fact that it is a polar molecule. Although the
molecule’s net charge is zero, it is separated into positive and negative regions. A very
simple picture of water molecule along with the charges is given in the diagram below.
The distance from each hydrogen atom to the oxygen atom is 9.60x10-11m and the angle
between the hydrogen-oxygen bond directions is 104o. What is the total electrostatic
energy of the water molecule?
H q1= 5.20x10-20 c
9.6x10-11 m
Given:
θ= 104o
O q3= -10.4x10-20 c d = 9.60x10-11m
104o
Required:
Utotal = ?
H q2=5.20x10-20 c
14
Solution:
1
104 2
ℎ
sin =
2 9.6x10-11m
h =2 (9.6x10-11m)sin 52 = 1.51x10-10m
UT = U12 + U13 + U23

9.00 x 109Nm2/C2(5.2x10-20C)(-10.4x10-20C)
U13 = U23 = = −5.09x10−19 J
9.6x10-11m
9.00 x 109Nm2/C2(5.2x10-20C)2
U12 = = 1.61x10−19 J
1.51x10-10m
Utotal = 2(−5.09x10−19 ) + 1.61x10−19 = −8.57x10−19 J
Example 5: Under normal atmospheric conditions, the Earth is electrically charged and
creates an approximately constant electric field of about 150 V/m pointing down near its
surface. (a)How far apart are two equi - potential surfaces that have a 1000-volt
difference between them? Which has a higher potential – the one farther from the Earth
or the one closer? (b)During an approaching lightning storm, the polarity changes and the
field can rise to many times the normal value, under these conditions, if the field is 900
V/m and points up, now how far apart are the two surfaces in (b)?
Given:
150 V/m = constant electric Field
V = 1000v
Solution:
∆V
E =
∆x
∆V 1000V
a. ∆x = = = 6.67m
E 150V/m
1000V
b. ∆x = = 1.11m
900V/m
Example 6: What would be the plate area if air-filled 1.0 farad parallel plate capacitor is
if the plate separation were 1.0 mm? Would it be realistic to consider building one?
Given: Required:
C = 1F A=?
d = 1mm= 0.001m
Solution:
∈O A Cd 1F (0.001m)
C = ; A = = = 1.13x108 m2
d ∈O 8.85x10-12C2/Nm2
15
Example 7: Following a heart attack, the heart sometimes beats in erratic (and a useless
fashion, called fibrillation). One way to get the heart back to its normal rhythm is to
shock it with electric energy supplied by an instrument called a cardiac defibrillator.
Experiment show that about 300 J of energy is required to produce the desired effect.
Typically, a defibrillator stores this energy in a capacitor charge by 5000 V power supply.
(a)What capacitance is required? (b)What is the charge on the capacitor plate?
Given: Required:
300J = U C=?
5000v= V Q=?
Solution:
2U 2(300J)
C = 2
= = 2.4 x 10−5 F = 24μF
V (5000𝑣)2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 = (24x10−6 C)(5000v) = 0.12C
Example 8: Consider a capacitor with dielectric underneath a computer key. It is

connected to a 12volt power supply, has normal plate separation of 3.00mm and a plate
area of 0.750cm2. What is the required dielectric constant if the capacitance is 1.10pF?
How much charge is stored on the plates under normal conditions? How much charge
flows onto the plates (that is, what is the change in charge) if they are compressed to a
separation of only 2.00mm?
Given: Required:
V = 12V K=?
d = 3mm = 0.003m Q=?
(1m)2
A = 0.75cm2 x (100cm)2 = 7.5x10−5 m2 ∆Q = ?
C = 1.1pF
d’ = 2mm
Solution:
∈0A 8.85x10-12C2/Nm2(7.5x10-5m2)
Co = = = 2.21x10−13 F
d 0.003m
C 1.1x10-12 F
K = = = 4.98
Co 2.21x10-13F
Q = CV = 1.1x10-12F(12V) = 1.32x10-11C
′
K∈0A 4.98(8.85x10-12C2/Nm2)(7.5x10-5m2)
C = = = 1.65x10−12 F
d' 0.002m
Q' = C'V = 1.65x10-12F(12V) = 1.98x10-11C
∆Q = Q'-Q = 1.98x10-11C - 1.32x10-11C = 6.60x10-12C
16
Example 9: You have two capacitors, one 2.50 F and the other one is 5.00 F. What are
the charges on each and the total charge stored if they are connected across a 12.0- volt
battery (a) in series and (b) in parallel.
Given: Required:
C1= 2.50 F Q1 =?
C2 = 5.00 F Q2 =?
V= 12.0V QT =?
Solution:
1 1 1 1 1 2+1
a. = + = + =
CS C1 C2 2.50 F 5.00 F 5.00 F
5
CS = F
3
5
Q = CV = F(12V) = 2.00x10-5C = Q1 = Q 2
3
Q 2.00x10-5C
V1 = = = 8V
C1 2.50 x10-6F
Q 2.00x10-5C
V2 = = = 4V
C2 5.00 x10-6F
b. CP = C1 + C2 = 2.50 F + 5.00 F = 7.5F
QT = CV = 7.5 x10-6F(12V) = 9.0x10-5C
VT = V1 = V2 = 12V
Q1 = C1V 1 = 2.50 F (12V) = 3.0x10-5 C
Q2 = C2 V2 = 5.00 F (12V) = 6x10-5 C
17
Example 10: Three Capacitors are connected in a circuit as shown below. What is the
voltage across the capacitor?
C2= 0.60 uF
12V
C3= 0.10 uF C1= 0.20 uF
Given: Required:
C1 = 0.20F V1 = ? & Q1 = ?
C2 = 0.60F V2 = ? & Q2 = ?
C3 = 0.10F V3 = ? & Q3 = ?
Solution:
CP = C1 + C3 = 0.20F +0.10F = 0.3F C2= 0.60 uF
1 1 1 1 1 1+2 12v
= + = + =
CT C2 CP 0.60F 0.3F 0.6F CP= 0.30 uF
0.6F
CT = = 0.2F
3
QT = CT VT = 0.2 x10-6F (12V)= 2.4x10-6C = Q2 = QP
Q2 2.4x10-6C
V2 = = = 4v
C2 0.60x10-6F
QP 2.4x10-6C
Vp = = = 8v = V1 = V3
CP 0.30x10-6F
Q1 = C1 V1 = 0.20x10-6F (8v) = 1.6x10-6C
Q3 = C3 V3 = 0.10x10-6F (8v) = 8x10-7C
18
Name:
Assignment No.:
1. What is the difference in potential between two points, one at 20 cm and the other
at 40cm from a charge of 5.5microcoulomb? Which point is at a higher potential?
kq 9.00 x 109Nm2/C2(5.5 x 10-6C)

V1 = = = 2.475x105 v 𝟓𝐩𝐭𝐬
r 0.2
kq 9.00 x 109Nm2/C2(5.5 x 10-6C)

V2 = = = 1.2375x105 v 𝟓𝐩𝐭𝐬
r 0.4
∆V= V1 - V2 = 2.475x105 - 1.2375x105 = 1.2375x105 v 𝟓𝐩𝐭𝐬
2. What is the equivalent capacitance of two capacitors, 0.40 microfarad and 0.60
microfarad when they are connected in series and in parallel?
1 1 1 1 1 0.6+0.4 1
a. = + = + = F=
CS C1 C2 0.4 F 0.6 F 0.24 0.24
𝟔
𝑪𝒔 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒F 𝟓𝐩𝐭𝐬
𝟐𝟓
b. CP = C1 + C2 = 0.4 F + 0.6 F = 1F 𝟓𝐩𝐭𝐬
19
Chapter 3:
Electric Current and Resistance
Important Terms:
Battery = It is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
Electrolyte = A solution that conducts electricity.
Circuit- Any complete loop consisting of wires and electrical devices.
Cathode = The electrode that has the larger number of excess electrons. It designated the
negative terminal of the battery.
Anode = It has still excess negative charge, has a smaller excess than the cathode. It is
the positive (+) terminal of the battery.
Electromotive force (emf) = The potential difference across the terminals of a battery
when it is not connected to a circuit.
Terminal voltage = The operating voltage of a battery.
Direct current = The flow of electrons is from negative (-) terminal to the positive(+)
terminal.
Complete Circuit = It forms from a battery or some other voltage source connected to a
continuous conducing path.
Conventional Current = The direction opposite to the electron flow.
Electric Current = The rate of flow of net charge.
Ampere = The unit of current is coulombs per second in honor of the French scientist,
Andre Ampere.
Drift Velocity = The net electron flow is characterized by an average velocity which is
smaller than the random velocities of the electron themselves.
Resistance = The ratio of the voltage to the resulting current.
Ohm’s Law = A resistor that has constant resistance.
Ohm = The combined unit of volts per ampere which was named in honor of a German
physicist, George Ohm.
20
Resistivity = It is the intrinsic atomic properties which acts as a constant of
proportionality for the relationship of resistance to length and area.
Conductivity = The reciprocal of resistivity.
Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity = It is a constant over a small temperature

range.
Superconductivity = The electrical resistance of metals and alloys generally decreases

with decreasing temperature.
Electric Power = The rate at which energy is delivered to the external circuit by the
battery.
Joule Heat (I2R) Loss = The thermal energy expended in a current – carrying resistor.
Kilowatt – Hour (KWH) = The thing that is being paid for electricity measurement.
Important Equations
Electric Current
𝒒
𝑰=
𝒕
Where: I = current, A
q = charge, C
t = time, s
Electric Resistance
𝑽
𝑹=
𝑰
Where: R = resistance, Ω
V = voltage, v
I = current, A
Resistivity
𝑹𝑨
𝝆=
𝑳
Where: ρ = resistivity, Ωm
R = resistance, Ω
A = area, m2
L = length, m
21
Conductivity
𝟏
𝝈=
𝝆
Where: σ = conductivity, per Ωm

ρ = resistivity, Ωm
Temperature Dependence of Resistance

𝑹𝒇 = 𝑹𝒊 (𝟏 + 𝜶∆𝑻)
∆𝑹 = 𝑹𝒊 𝜶∆𝑻
∆𝑹 = 𝑹𝒇 − 𝑹𝒊
Where: Rf = final resistance, Ω

Ro = initial resistance, Ω
T = temperature, oC
α = temperature coefficient of resistivity, per oC
Electric Power
𝑽𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑰𝑽 = = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
𝑹
Where: P = power, watts

R = resistance, Ω
V = voltage, v
I = current, A
Example 1: There is a steady current of 0.50A in a flashlight bulb for 2.0 min. How
much charge passes through the bulb during this time? How many electrons does this
represent?
Given: Required:
I = 0.5 A Q=?
t = 2mins = 120s n=?
Solution:
q
I =
t
q = It = 0.5A (120s) = 60C
Q 60C
n = = = 3.75x1020 e
e 1.602x10-19C
22
Example 2: When a 12-volt automobile battery is connected across a resistor of
unknown resistance, a current of 2.5 mA results. What is the value of the resistor?
Given: Required:
V = 12V R=?
I = 2.5 mA = 0.0025A
Solution:
V 12V
𝑅= = = 4800Ω
I 0.0025A
Example 3: A 1.5 meter insulated extension cord, which consists of two wires to make a
complete circuit, is used to connect a lamp to an outlet. If the copper wire of the cord has
a diameter of 2.3mm.what is the resistance of the wires at room temperature?
Given: Required:
L = 1.5m R=?
LT = 3m
Ø = 2.3mm = 0.0023m
ρCu = 1.70x10-8Ωm
Solution:
ρL 1.70x10-8Ωm x 3m
𝑅= = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟑𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝛀
A π (0.0023)2 2
𝑚
4
Example 4: A platinum wire has a resistance of 0.50 Ω at 0 C. It is placed in a water bath

where its resistance rises to a final value of 0.60Ω. What is the temperature of the bath?
Given: Required:
RO = 0.50Ω Tf = ?
Rf = 0.60Ω
T1 = 0ºC
α = 3.9x10-3/C
Solution:
𝑅𝐹 = 𝑅𝑂 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇)
RF 0.6Ω
RO − 1 0.50Ω -1
TF = = = 𝟓𝟏. 𝟐𝟖𝐨 𝐂
α 3.9x10-3/C
23
Example 5: A desktop computer system includes a color monitor and the central
processing unit with keyboard, each operating at an average voltage of 120V. a typical
17’’ color monitor has a power requirement of 130 W, and a CPU’s requirement has a
power of 960W.(a). Calculate the average current that each component carries.(b). What
is the resistance of each component under this operating condition?
Given: Required:
V = 120V IMONITOR = ?
PMONITOR = 130W ICPU = ?
PCPU = 960W R MONITOR = ?
R CPU = ?
Solution:
P = IV
PMONITOR 130W
IMONITOR = = = 1.08 A
V 120V
PCPU 960W
ICPU = = = 8A
V 120V
V 120V
R MONITOR = = = 111.11Ω
IMONITOR 1.08 A
V 120V
R CPU = = = 15Ω
ICPU 8A
Example 6: A hair dryer is rated at 1200W for 115V. The uniform wire filament breaks
near one end, and the owner repairs it by removing one section near the break and simply
reconnecting it. The filament is then 10.0% shorter than its original length. What will be
the change in the heater’s power output?
Given: Required:
P = 1200 W PF = ?
V = 115V
Solution:
LF = 90% Lo
PO 1200W
IO = = = 10.43A
V 115V
V 115V
Ro = = = 11.03Ω
I 10.43A
ρLF ρ( 0.90LO)
Rf = = = 0.90R o
A A
Vo = Vf = 115V
24
Io R o = If R f
Io R o = If (0.90R o )
Io = If (0.90)
10.43A
IF = = 11.59A
0.90
Pf = IF Vf = 11.59A (115v) = 1,332.85W
Example 7: If the motor of a frost- free refrigerator runs 15% of the time, how much
does it cost to operate per month if the power company changes 11с per kWh?
Given: Required:
PREFRIGERATOR = 500W Cost of refrigerator per month
30 days 24 hours
t = 0.15 ( )( ) = 108hrs/mo
1 month 1 day
Solution:
108hrs
500W ( month )
KWH = = 54
1000
54KWH 11¢ 594¢ $1
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 = ( )( )=( )( ) = $5.94/mo
month KWH month 100¢
Example 8: Most modern power plants produce electricity at a rate of about 1.0GW.
Estimate to two significant figures how many fewer power plants the state of California
would need if all its households switched from the 500watt refrigerators in the previous
example to more efficient 400watt refrigerators. Assume exactly 6 million homes with
an average of 1.2 refrigerators per home.
Given:
PP = 1.0GW = 1.0x109W = 1.0x106KW
500 24hrs
Energy Req’t of 500W refrigerator = (15%) ( ) = 1.8 KWH/day
1000 day
# of homes = 6.0x106
# of refrigerators/home = 1.2 ref/home
Required:
# of power plants
Solution:
Total
1.8KWH
day 1.2ref KWH
(6,000,000homes) ( ) = 12,960,000
refrigerator home day
25
Switch to 400W
KWH KWH
0.80 (12,960,000 ) = 10,368,000
day day
KWH KWH KWH

12,960,000 - 10,368,000 = 2, 592, 000
day day day
KW 24hrs KWH/plant
1.0x106 ( ) = 2.4x107
plant day day
KWH
2, 592, 000
day
# of power plants = = 0.108 plants
KWH/plant
2.4x107
day
26
Name:
Assignment No.:
1. How long would it take for a net charge of 2.5C to pass a location in a wire so as to
produce a steady current of 5.0milliampere?
Given:
𝑞 = 2.5𝐶
𝐼 = 5.0𝑚𝐴 = 0.005𝐴
Required:
𝑡 =?
Solution:
𝑞 = 𝐼𝑡
𝑞 2.5𝐶
𝑡= = = 500𝑠 𝟓𝒑𝒕𝒔
𝐼 0.005𝐴
2. What is the percentage variation of the resistivity copper over the range from room
temperature (20 degrees Celsius) to 100 degrees Celsius?
Given:
𝑇𝑖 = 20℃
𝑇𝑓 = 100℃
𝛼 = 1.68𝑥10−3 /℃
Required:
𝑅𝑖
=?
𝑅𝑓
Solution:
𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅𝑖 [1+∝ ∆𝑇]
𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅𝑖 [1+∝ 1.68𝑥10−3 (100 − 20)]
𝑅𝑓 = 1.1344𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑖
= 88.15% 𝟓𝒑𝒕𝒔
𝑅𝑓
27
Chapter 4:
Basic Electric Circuits
Important Terms:
Equivalent Series Resistances = The sum of the individual resistances.
Equivalent Parallel Resistances = The value of a single resistor that could replace any
number of resistors and maintain the same current through the battery.
Kirchhoff’s Rules = A general method for analyzing multi-loop circuits which embody
the conservation of charge and the conservation of energy.
Junction (Node) = A point at which three or more wires are joined.
Branch = A path connecting two junctions.
Kirchhoff’s Junction Theorem = The algebraic sum of the currents at any junction is
zero.
Kirchhoff’s Loop Theorem = The algebraic sum of the potential differences across all
of the elements of any closed loop is zero.
RC Circuit = A circuit that is made of a resistor and a capacitor connected in series.
Time constant = It is a special value to express the charging time.
Ammeter = It measures the current through circuit elements.
Voltmeter = It measures the voltage across circuit elements
Galvanometer = A basic component of both ammeter and voltmeter.
Fuse = Common to older homes which limits the current in a circuit.
Circuit Breaker = They are used extensively in wiring new homes which uses bimetallic
strip which also limits the current in a circuit.
Grounded Plug = It is the large round prong connects with the dedicated grounding
wire.
Polarized Plug = A two prong plug that fits in the socket only one way because one
prong is wider than the other and one of the slits of the receptacle is also larger.
28
Important Equations
Equivalent Series Resistance
𝐑 𝐒 = 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟑 + … ..
Equivalent Parallel Resistance

1 1 1 1
= + + + … ..
RP R1 R 2 R 2
Kirchhoff’s Rules
∑ 𝐈𝐢 = 𝟎
𝐢
∑ 𝐕𝐢 = 𝟎
𝐢
Where: I = Current, A
V = Voltage, v
Charging Voltage across a Capacitor in an RC Circuit

𝐕𝐂 = 𝐕𝐎 (𝟏 − 𝐞−𝐭/𝐑𝐂 )
Where: Vc = voltage of a charging capacitor, v

Vo = Voltage of the battery, v
t = time, s
R = resistance, Ω
C = capacitance, F
Time Constant for an RC Circuit

τ = RC
Where: τ = time constant

R = resistance, Ω
C = Capacitance, F
Discharging Voltage across a Capacitor in an RC Circuit

𝐕𝐂 = 𝐕𝐎 𝐞−𝐭/𝐑𝐂 = 𝐕𝐎 𝐞−𝐭/𝛕
Where: Vc = voltage of a charging capacitor, v

Vo = Voltage of the battery, v
t = time, s
R = resistance, Ω
C = capacitance, F
29
τ = time constant
Galvanometer Current used as Ammeter

IR s
Ig =
r + Rs
Where: Ig = galvanometer currnt, A

I = current, A
Rs = shunt resistance, Ω
r = resistance of the galvanometer coil
Galvanometer Current used as Voltmeter

V
Ig =
r + Rm
Where: Ig = galvanometer currnt, A

V= voltage, v
Rm = resistance, Ω
r = resistance of the galvanometer coil
Example 1: What is the equivalent resistance of three resistors (1.0Ω, 2.0Ω, and 3.0Ω)
when they are connected (a) in series and (b) in parallel? (c) What current will be
delivered from a 12 –volt battery for each of these arrangements?
Given: Required:
R1 = 1.0Ω , I=?
R2 = 2.0Ω ,
R3 = 3.0Ω ;
V = 12v;
Solution:
Series
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 1 + 2 + 3 = 𝟔Ω
VT 12
IT = = = 𝟐𝐀 = I1 = I2 = I3
RT 6
V1 = I1R1 = 2(1Ω) = 2v
V2 = I2R2 = 2(2) = 4v
V3 = I3R3 = 2(3) = 6v
VT = 12v
PT = IT VT = 2x12 = 𝟐𝟒𝐖
P1 = I1 V1 = 2x2 = 𝟒𝐖
P2 = I2 V2 = 2x4 = 𝟖𝐖
P3 = I3 V3 = 2x6 = 𝟏𝟐𝐖
PT = 𝟐𝟒𝐖
30
Parallel
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 + 3 + 2 11
= + + = + + = =
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 1 2 3 6 6
𝟔
𝑅𝑇 = Ω
𝟏𝟏
VT 12
IT = = = 𝟐𝟐𝐀
RT 6⁄
11
VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = 𝟏𝟐𝐕
V1 12V
I1 = = = 𝟏𝟐𝐀
R1 1Ω
V2 12V
I2 = = = 𝟔𝐀
R2 2Ω
V3 12V
I3 = = = 𝟒𝐀
R3 3Ω
IT = 𝟐𝟐𝐀
PT = IT VT = 22A x 12V = 𝟐𝟔𝟒𝐖
P1 = I1 V1 = 12A x 12V = 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝐖

P2 = I2 V2 = 6A x 12V = 𝟕𝟐𝐖
P3 = I3 V3 = 4A x 12V = 𝟒𝟖𝐖
PT = 𝟐𝟔𝟒𝐖
Example 2: What are the voltages across and the current in each of the resistors (R1 to
R5) in the figure below? How much power is dissipated in each of the resistors?
R1= 6.00 Ώ
R5= 2.50 Ώ
R2= 4.00 Ώ
R3= 6.00 Ώ R4= 2.00 Ώ
Given: Required:
R1= 6.00 Ώ Currents & Voltages

R2= 4.00 Ώ
R3= 6.00 Ώ
R4= 2.00 Ώ
R5= 2.50 Ώ
31
Solution:
I I I 1 1 1+3 4
= + = + = = V2 6𝑣
R34 R3 R4 6 2 6 6 I2 = = = 1.5𝐴
R34 = 1.5Ω R2 4
V345 6𝑣
I345 = = = 1.5𝐴 = I5 = I34
R 345 4
V5 = I5R5 = 1.5(2.5) = 3.75v

R345 = 2.5 + 1.5 = 4Ω V34 = I34R34 = 1.5(1.5) = 2.25v = V3 = V4
𝑉3 2.25
I3 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟓𝐀
𝑅3 6
1 1 1 1 1 2 𝑉4 2.25
= + = + = I4 = = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝐀
R 2345 R 2 R 345 4 4 4 𝑅4 2
R2345 = 2Ω
PT = VTIT = 24(3) = 72w
P1 = I1V1 = 3(18) = 54w

P2 = I2V2 = 1.5(6) = 9w
RT =R1+ R2345 = 6 + 2 = 8Ω P3 = I3V3 = 0.375 (2.25) = 0.84375w
P4 = I4V4 = 1.25(2.25) = 2.53125w
𝑉𝑇 24 P5 = I5 V5 = 1.5(3.75) = 5.625w
IT = = = 3A = I1 = I2345
𝑅𝑇 8 PT =72.00000w
V1 = I1R1 = 3(6) = 18v
V2345 = I2345R2345 = 3(2) = 6v =V2 = V345
Example 3: Three resistors are connected in parallel across a 36.0-volt battery. Use
Kirchhoff’s rule to calculate (a) the current through each resistor and the battery and (b)
the equivalent resistance of the pair.
A C E
B D
36v 6.0 3.0 2.50
KCL @ PT.1 𝑩 = 𝟔𝑨
𝐴– 𝐵– 𝐶 = 0
KVL @ Loop 2
KCL @ PT.2 6𝐵 – 3𝐷 = 0
𝐶– 𝐷– 𝐸 = 0 6(6) – 3𝐷 = 0
36
KVL @ Loop 1 D = = 𝟏𝟐𝐀
3
−6𝐵 + 36 = 0
32
KVL @ Loop 3 𝐶 = 𝐷 + 𝐸 = 12 + 14.4 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟒𝐀
3𝐷 – 2.5𝐸 = 0
3(12) – 2.5𝐸 = 0 𝐴 = 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 6 + 26.4 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟒𝐀
36
E = = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟒𝐀
2.5
Example 4: What are the voltages across the current in each of the resistors (R1 to R4) in
the figure below? (Use the Kirchhoff’s law).
9Ω Given:
R3=2.00Ω
R3=2.00Ω
V2=12.00V
B
Required:
A
2Ω Voltages
C
V2=12.00V
6Ω
6V
KCL @ PT.1 3(𝐴 + 3𝐶 = 3)

𝐴 – 𝐵 – 𝐶 = 0 𝑒𝑞. 1 11𝐴 – 9𝐶 = 12
@ Loop 1 3𝐴 + 9𝐶 = 9
−9𝐵 – 2𝐴 + 12 = 0 11𝐴 – 9𝐶 = 12
2𝐴 + 9𝐵 = 12 𝑒𝑞. 2 14𝐴 = 21
𝑨 = 𝟑/𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝟏. 𝟓𝑨
KVL @ Loop 2
6 + 6𝐶 – 12 + 2𝐴 = 0 3
2A + 6C=6 2 ( ) +9B = 12
2
2 3 + 9𝐵 = 12
𝐴 + 3𝐶 = 3 𝑒𝑞. 3 9𝐵 = 12 – 3
𝑩 = 𝟏𝑨
*1&2
9 (𝐴 – 𝐵 – 𝐶 = 0) 3
2A + 9B = 12 + 3C = 3
2
9A – 9B – 9C =0 3 3
2A + 9B = 12 3C = 3 – =
2 2
11A – 9C =12 eq.4 3 1
C = = A
2(3) 2
*3&4
33
Example 5: The capacitance resistance in the RC circuit is 6.0 µF and 0.25MΩ,
respectively, and the battery has a 12-volt terminal voltage. (a) The capacitor was initially
uncharged. What is the voltage across it one time constant after the switch is closed? (b)
What are the voltage across the capacitor and the capacitor’s charge at t = 5.0 s?
𝑎. 𝑉𝐶 = 0.63𝑉𝑂 = 0.63(12) = 7.56𝑣
𝑏. 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝑂 (1 – e −t/τ ) = 12(1 − e−5/1.5 ) = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟕𝐕

𝜏 = 𝑅𝑐 = (6 x 10 −6F )(0.25 x 106 Ω) = 1.5s
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉𝐶 = 6 x 10−6 F(11.57) = 𝟔. 𝟗𝟒 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐂
Example 6: A galvanometer that can safely carry a maximum coil current of 200 µA
(called the full-scale sensitivity) has a coil resistance of 50 Ω. It is to be used in an
ammeter designed to read currents up to 3.0 A (at full scale). What is the required shunt
resistance?
Given: Required:
Ig = 200μA = 200 x 10−6 A 𝑅S =?
R = 50Ω
1 = 3A
Solution:
I𝑅S 3𝑅S
Ig = ; 200 x 10−6 =
R+𝑅S 50 + 𝑅S
200 x 10−6 (50) + 200 x 10−6 𝑅S = 3𝑅S
0.01 = 2.9998 𝑅S
0.01
𝑅S = = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 𝐱 10−3 Ω
2.9998
Example 7: Suppose that the galvanometer in latter problem is to be used instead in a

voltmeter with a full-scale reading of 3.0 V. What is the required multiplier resistance?
Given: Required:
V = 3V 𝑅M =?
Solution:
V 3
Ig = ; 200 x 10−6 =
R + 𝑅M 50 + 𝑅M
3
𝑅M = − 50 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟗𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟒 Ω
200 x 10−6
34
Name:
Assignment No.:
1. Three resistors with values 1.0 ohm, 2.0 ohm, and 4.0 ohm are connected in
parallel in a circuit with a 6.0v battery. What are the (a) the total equivalent
resistance, (b) the voltage across each resistors, and (c) the power dissipated in the
resistors?
1 1 1 1 7 4 6𝑣
= + + = ; 𝑅𝑇 = Ω 𝟏𝒑𝒕𝒔 𝐼2 = = 3𝐴 𝟏𝒑𝒕
𝑅𝑇 1 2 4 4 7 2Ω
6𝑣
𝐼3 = = 1.5𝐴 𝟏𝒑𝒕
6𝑣 4Ω
𝐼𝑇 = = 10.5𝐴 𝟏𝒑𝒕
4
Ω 𝑃1 = 6(6) = 36𝑤 𝟏𝒑𝒕
7
𝑃2 = 6(3) = 18𝑤 𝟏𝒑𝒕
6𝑣 𝑃3 = 6(1.5) = 9𝑤 𝟏𝒑𝒕
𝐼1 = = 6𝐴 𝟏𝒑𝒕
1Ω 𝑃𝑇 = 6(10.5) = 63𝑤 𝟐𝒑𝒕
2.. Three resistors with values 5.0 ohm, 2.5 ohm, and 4.0 ohm are connected in series
in a circuit with a 36.0v battery. What are the (a) the total equivalent resistance, (b) the
voltage across each resistors, and (c) the power dissipated in the resistors?
𝑅𝑇 = 5 + 2.5 + 4 = 11.5Ω 𝟏𝒑𝒕
36𝑣 72
𝐼𝑇 = = 𝐴 = 3.13𝐴 𝟏𝒑𝒕
11.5Ω 23
72 360
𝑉1 = (5) = 𝑣 = 15.65𝑣 𝟏𝒑𝒕
23 23
72 180
𝑉2 = (2.5) = 𝑣 = 7.83𝑣 𝟏𝒑𝒕
23 23
72 288
𝑉3 = (4) = 𝑣 = 12.52𝑣 𝟏𝒑𝒕
23 23
72 360 25920
𝑃1 = ( )= 𝑤 = 49.00𝑤 𝟏𝒑𝒕
23 23 529
72 180 12960
𝑃2 = ( )= 𝑤 = 24.5𝑤 𝟏𝒑𝒕
23 23 529
72 288 20736
𝑃3 = ( )= 𝑤 = 39.20𝑤 𝟏𝒑𝒕
23 23 529
72 2592
𝑃𝑇 = 36 ( ) = 𝑤 = 112.70𝑤 𝟐𝒑𝒕
23 23
35
3. Use the Kirchhoff’s law to determine the power dissipated in the resistors.
10.0 7.0
C
A
B
9.0
36 v 6.0
KCL 8.0 5.0

𝐴 − 𝐵 − 𝐶 = 0 𝑒𝑞𝑛 1
KVL at loop1
36 − 10𝐴 − 9𝐵 − 8𝐴 = 0
36 = 18𝐴 + 9𝐵
2𝐴 + 𝐵 = 4 𝑒𝑞𝑛 2
KVL at loop2
−18𝐶 + 9𝐵 = 0
𝐵 = 2𝐶
𝐴 = 1.5𝐴 𝟏𝒑𝒕
𝐵 = 1.0𝐴 𝟏𝒑𝒕
𝐶 = 0.5𝐴 𝟏𝒑𝒕
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 = 𝐼 2 𝑅
𝑃1 = (1.5)2 (10) = 22.5𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝟏𝒑𝒕
𝑃2 = (0.5)2 (7) = 1.75𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝟏𝒑𝒕
𝑃3 = (1)2 (9) = 9𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝟏𝒑𝒕
𝑃4 = (0.5)2 (6) = 1.5𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝟏𝒑𝒕
𝑃5 = (1.5)2 (8) = 18𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝟏𝒑𝒕
𝑃6 = (0.5)2 (5) = 1.25𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝟏𝒑𝒕
𝑃𝑇 = 54𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝟏𝒑𝒕
36
4. In a flashing neon light circuit, at a time constant of 2.0 s is desired. If you have a
1.0 micro farad capacitor, what resistance should you use in the circuits?
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶
𝜏 2𝑠
𝑅= = = 2𝑀Ω 𝟓𝒑𝒕𝒔
𝐶 1𝑥10−6 𝐹
5. A galvanometer has a coil resistance of 20 ohm. A current of 200 microamperes

deflects the needle through 10 divisions of full scale. What resistance is needed to
convert the galvanometer to a full scale 10-volt meter?
V 10
Ig = ; 200 x 10−6 =
R + 𝑅M 20 + 𝑅M
10
𝑅M = − 20 = 𝟒𝟗, 𝟗𝟖𝟎Ω 𝟓𝒑𝒕𝒔
200 x 10−6
6. A voltmeter has a resistance of 300k-ohms. What is the current through the meter
when it is connected across a 10 ohm resistor that is wired to a 6.0 volt source?
V
Ig = ;
R + 𝑅M
6v
Ig = = 2.0x10−5 A 𝟓𝐩𝐭𝐬
300,000 + 10
37
Chapter 5:
Magnetism
Important Terms:
Pole – Force Law or Law of Poles = Like magnetic poles repel each other and unlike
magnetic poles attract each other.
Magnetic Field = It surrounds every magnet.
Electromagnetism = It is the study of interactions between electrically charged particles

and magnetic field.
Tesla = The combined unit, newton per ampere meter, of magnetic field is named in
honor of Nikola Tesla.
Right Hand Force Rule = When the fingers of the right hand are pointed in the direction
of v and then curled toward the vector B, the extended thumb points in the direction of F
for a positive charge.
Right Hand Source Rule = If a current carrying wire is grasped with the right hand with
the extended thumb pointing in the direction of the current I, the curled fingers indicate
the circular sense of the magnetic field direction.
Ferromagnetic Materials = Strong magnetic materials where the electron spins do not
pair or cancel completely.
Magnetic Domains = A strong coupling or interaction between neighboring atom.
Magnetic Permeability = It is the core material of the magnet.
Hard Iron = Irons that retains some magnetism after being in an external magnetic field.
Permanent Magnet = It magnetism can be lost.
Curie Temperature = The critical temperature where the domain coupling is destroyed
by the increased in thermal oscillations and a ferromagnetic loses its ferromagnetism.
Right Hand Force Rule for a Current Carrying Wire = When the fingers of the right
hand are pointed in the direction of the conventional current I and then curled toward the
vector B, the extended thumb points in the direction of the magnetic force on the wire.
Magnetic Moment = It is the quantity IA.
DC Motor = It has a continuous rotation for continuous energy output.
38
Cathode Ray Tube = A vacuum tube that is used in an oscilloscope.
Mass Spectrometer = It is one form of electric and magnetic field.
Magnet = composed of two “centers” of force called “poles”, one or near each end of the
magnet these poles are distinguished as positive and negative, these are called the north
(N) and south poles (S). This terminology comes from the early used of the magnetic
compass.
Magnetic Poles = With two bar magnets we notice a pattern of attraction and repulsion
between their various ends.
Important Equations:
Magnitude of the Magnetic Force on a Moving Charged Particle
F = qvBSinθ
Where: F = force, N
q = charge, C
v = velocity, m/s
B = magnetic field, T
Magnitude of the Magnetic Field near a Long, Straight, Current-Carrying Wire

μ𝐨 𝐈
𝐁=
𝟐𝛑𝐝
Where: B = magnetic field, T

I = current ,A
µo = magnetic permeability of free space
= 4π x 10-7Tm/A
d = distance, m
Magnitude of the Magnetic Field at the Center of a Circular Loop of Current-

Carrying Wire
μ𝐨 𝐈
𝐁=
𝟐𝐫

I = current, A
= 4π x 10-7Tm/A
r = radius, m
Magnitude of the Magnetic Field at the Center of a Solenoid

μ𝐨 𝐍𝐈
𝐁=
𝐋
39
B = µonI

I = current ,A
= 4π x 10-7Tm/A
L = length, m
N = turn or loop
n = linear turn density, turn/m
= N/L
Magnitude of Force on a Straight, Current-Carrying Wire

F = ILBSinθ
Where: F = force, N
I = current, A
L = length, m
Magnitude of Torque on a Single Current- Carrying Loop

τ = IABSinθ
Where: τ = torque,
I = current, A
A = area, m2
Magnitude of Torque on a Single Current- Carrying Coil

τ = NIABSinθ
Where: τ = torque,
I = current, A
A = area, m2
N = loops, turns
40
Example 1: A particle with a charge of -5.0 x 10-4C move at a speed of 1.0 x 103 m/s in
the + x direction toward a uniform magnetic field of 0.20T in the +y direction. What is
the force on the particle just as it enters the magnetic field?
Given: Required:
𝑄 = −5𝑥10−4 𝐶 F=?
𝑣 = 1.0 𝑥 103 𝑚/𝑠
β = 0.2 T
Solution:
𝐹 = 𝑄𝑣𝛽𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (−5𝑥10−4 𝐶)( 1.0 𝑥 103 𝑚/𝑠)(0.2 𝑇)𝑆𝑖𝑛 90 = 0.1 𝑁
Example 2: The maximum household current in a wire is about 15 A. for simplicity;

assume that it is a steady (dc) current (even though it is not). Assume also that this
current is a west-to-east direction. What are the magnitudes and the directions of
magnetic field it produces 1.0 cm directly below the wire?
Given: Required:
I= 15A β= ?
d= 1cm = 0.01 m
Solution:
μo I 4πx10−7 Tm/AI 2x10−7 TmI 2x10−7 Tm/A(15A)
β= = = = = 𝟑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐓
2πr 2πd d 0.01m
Example 3: A solenoid is 0.30 m long with 103 turns per meter and carries a current of
5.0 A. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field at the center of this solenoid?
Compare your result with the field near the single wire in the previous example (notice
that this wire carries three times the current of the solenoid in this Example!), and
comment.
Given: Required:
L=0.3 m B=?
n= 1000 turns/m
I= 5A
Solution:
β = μ𝒐 𝑛𝐼 = 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑇𝑚/𝐴 (1000𝑚) (5𝐴) = 0.00628𝑇
41
Example 4: Two long parallel wires separated by a distance d and carry currents I1 and
I2 in the same direction.(a) Derive an expression for the magnetic force per unit length on
one of the wires due to the other and show that, in keeping with Newton’s third law, the
forces on the two wires are equal in magnitude. (b) Show that for these current directions,
the forces are mutually attractive, in keeping with Newton’s third law that the forces are
at action- reaction pair must be opposite in direction.
Given:
I1
I2
d
Solution:
𝐹 = 𝑄𝑣𝛽𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑄
𝐼 = ; 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡
𝑡
𝑑 𝐿
𝑣= =
𝑡 𝑡
𝜃 = 90
𝐿
𝐹 = (𝐼𝑡) ( ) 𝛽𝑆𝑖𝑛90
𝑡
𝐹 = (𝐼)(𝐿)𝛽
F
= Iβ
L
F1
= I1 β1
L
μo I2
β=
2πd
F1 I1 μo I2
=
L 2πd
F1 μo I1 I2 F2
= =
L 2πd L
42
Example 5: An orbiting electron possesses an orbital magnetic moment, and the motion
can produce a magnetic field. In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, the single
electron travels in a circle with a radius of 0.0529 nm and has a period of 1.5 x 10-16s.
Derive a general expression for the orbital magnetic moment in terms of the orbital radius
r, the charge on the electron e, and the orbital period T. What is the magnitude of the
orbital magnetic moment of the electron in the hydrogen atom?
Solution:
𝑎. 𝜏 = 𝐼𝐴
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟2
q e
𝐼= =
t t
eπr2 πer2
𝑇= =
t t
2
π(1.609 x 10-19 )(0.0529x10-9 )
𝑏. 𝜏 = -6 = 9.43 x 10−24 Am2
1.5x10 s
Example 6: One electron is removed from a methane molecule prior to entering the mass
spec arrangement. After passing through the velocity selector, the charged molecule has
a speed of 1.0 x 103m/s. It then enters the final magnetic field region, in which the field
is 6.7 x 10-3T and follows a circular path. The molecule lands on the detector 5.0cm from
the entrance to the field. Determine the mass of this molecule. Neglect the mass of the
removed electron.
Given:
𝑉 = 1.0 𝑥 103 𝑚/𝑠
𝛽 = 6.7 𝑥 10−3 𝑇
𝑑 = 5𝑐𝑚 = 0.05𝑚
𝑞 = 1.602 x 10−19
𝜃 = 90
Solution:
q𝛽r 1.602 x 10−19 (6.7x10−3 )(0.025)
m= = 3
= 2.68x10−26 𝑘𝑔
V 1.0x10
43
Name:
Assignment No.:
1. A positive charge of 0.25 C moves horizontally to the right at a speed of 2.0x102

m/s and enters a magnetic field directed vertically downward. If it experiences a
force of 20N, what is the magnetic field strength?
2. Two long parallel wires separated by 50 cm carry currents of 4.0 amperes each in
a horizontal direction. Find the midway between the wires if the currents are (a) in
the same direction and (b) in opposite directions.
3. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field of the circular orbit of the electron in
a hydrogen atom, which has an orbital radius of 0.0529nm?
44
4. Two long straight parallel wires 10cm apart carry equal currents pf 3.0 ampere in
opposite directions. What is the force per unit length of the wires?
45
Chapter 6:
Electromagnetic Induction
Important Terms:
Electromagnetic Induction = It is the current induced in a loop caused by an induced
electromotive force (emf) due to this process.
Magnetic Flux = It is a measure of the number of field lines passing through an area.
Faraday’s Law of Induction = It is the time rate of change of the magnetic flux through
all the loops.
Lenz’s Law = An induced emf in a metal loop or coil gives rise to a current whose
magnetic field opposes the change in magnetic flux that produces it.
Alternating Current = The polarity of the voltage and the direction of the current
periodically change.
AC Generators = The electricity used in homes and industry is primarily ac, this is
sometimes called as an alternator.
Back EMF = It is the induced emf in motors and generators.
Transformer = It consists of two coils of insulated wire would on the same (closed) iron
core.
Primary Coil = When AC voltage is applied to the input coil, the alternating current
gives rise to an alternating magnetic flux that is concentrated in the iron core.
Secondary Coil = The changing flux also passes through the output coil, inducing an
alternating voltage and current in it.
Step-up Transformer = If the secondary coil has more windings than the primary coil
does (Ns > Np, or Ns/Np > 1), the voltage is stepped up or (Vs > Vp).
Step-down Transformer = The secondary coil has fewer turns than the primary and the
voltage is stepped down, or reduced and the current is increased.
Eddy Currents = The fourth cause of energy loss in the transformer core.
Electromagnetic Waves = It is considered as a means of heat transfer.
Maxwell’s Equation = A set of equation which combines the electric field and the
magnetic field into a single electromagnetic field.
46
Radiation Pressure = The radiation force per area.
Magnetic Flux
Φ = BACosθ
Where: φ = magnetic flux, Tm2

B = magnetic field strength, T
A = area, m2
Faraday’s Law of Induction

𝚫𝚽
𝛏 = −𝐍
𝚫𝐭
Where: ξ = induced emf, v

N = loops, turns
φ = magnetic flux, Tm2
t = time, s
Generator emf
𝛏 = 𝛏𝐨 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭 = 𝛏𝐨 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐭
Where: ξ = induced emf, v

ξo = emf, v
= NBAω
ω = angular velocity, rad/s
t = time, s
f = frequency, hz
N = loops, turns
B = magnetic field strength, T
A = area, m2
Back emf of a Motor

ξb = V - IR
Where: ξb = back emf, v

V = voltage, v
I = current, A
R = Resistance, Ω
Currents, Voltages and Turn Ratio for a Transform

𝐈𝐏 𝐕𝐒 𝐍𝐒
= =
𝐈𝐒 𝐕𝐏 𝐍𝐏
Where: IP = primary current, A
47
IS = secondary current, A
VP = primary voltage, v
VS = secondary voltage, v
NP = primary turns, turns
NS = secondary turns, turns
Example 1: Consider a laptop computer’s speaker that is near a single wire carrying a
household current. At a distance of 30 cm, maximum current of 10 A would produce a
maximum magnetic field of about 7.0x10-6 Tesla. Both the current and the field would
reverse direction every half cycle, or Δt= 1/120s.
The speaker’s coil consists of 1000 circular wire loops and has a total resistance
of 1.0 ohm and a radius of 3.0 cm. Since the coil is small, assume for simplicity that the
magnetic field strength at any instant is constant over coils’ area, which is perpendicular
to the field direction. According to the manufacturer, the coil can carry only 25mA before
it is damaged. What is the magnitude of the average induced emf in the coil during one
half cycle and the magnitude of the average induced current in the coil? Will the
speaker’s coil survive?
Given: Required:
d = 30cm = 0.3m Emf = v = ?
Imax = 10 A (household) I (induced) =?
β = 7.0 x 10-6 T
∆t = 1⁄120 S
N = 1000 loops
R=1Ω
r = 3cm = 0.03m
Imax = 25m A = 0.025A (Manufacturer Limit)
Solution.
N |∆ø|
V = emf =
∆t
∆ø = øf -øi
øi = β o A Cosθ = 7.0 x 10-6 (π) (0.03)2 cos 0
øi = 1.97 x 10-8 Tm2 / loop
øf = - 1.97 x 10-8 Tm2 / loop
∆ø = øf -øi = - 1.97 x 10-8 - 1.97 x 10-8 = -3.94x10-8 Tm2 / loop
N ⁄ ∆ø ⁄ 1000(−3.94𝑥10−8 )
V = emf = = = 4.728𝑥10−3 𝑣
∆t 1⁄ 𝑠
120
𝑉 4.728𝑥10−3
𝐼= = = 4.728𝑥10−3 𝐴 = 4.728𝑚𝐴 < 25𝑚𝐴 𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑅 1
48
Example 2: A farmer decides to use a waterfall on his property to create a small
hydroelectric power plant. He builds a coil consisting of 1500 closely packed circular
loops of wire with a radius of 20 cm and constructs his generator to spin at 60Hz in a
magnetic field. To generate a maximum emf of 120 V, what must be the magnitude of the
magnetic field?
Given: Required :
N = 1500 loops β=?
T = 20cm = 0.2m
F = 60hz
Emf v = 120V
Solution :
𝑉 = 𝜀 = 𝐴𝑁𝑓𝛽 = 𝜋 (0.2)2 (1500) (60) 𝛽 = 120𝑣
𝛽 = 1.69 𝑥 10−3 𝑇
Example 3: A dc motor with a resistance of 8.0 ohm in its windings operates on 120 V.
With a normal load, there is a back emf of 100 V when the motor reaches full speed .
What are (a) the starting current drawn by the motor and (b) the armature current at
operating speed under a normal load?
Given: Required
R = 8Ω Ia =?
V = 120V I=?
εb = 100V
Solution :
a. V = IR
I20 = Ia (8)
120
Ia = 8 = 15A
b. ε = V – IR
100 = 120 – Ia (8)
20 = 8𝐼𝑎
Ia = 2.5 A
Example 4: A transformer has 50 turns on its primary coil and 100 turns on its secondary
coil. (a) if the primary is connected to 120- volt source, what is the voltage output of the
secondary? (b) If the transformer is operated in reverse and the 120-volt input is applied
to the 100-turn coil, what would be the voltage output?
Given: Required:
Np = 50 turns Vs = ?
Ns = 100 turns
Vp = 120 volt
49
Solution:
100 Vs 100 120
= =
50 120 50 Vs
Vs 120
2 = 120 2=
Vs
Vs = 240v Vs = 60v
Example 5: A small hydroelectric power plant produces energy in the form of electric
current at 10 A and a voltage of 440 V. The voltage is stepped up to 4400 V (by an ideal
transformer) for the transmission over 40 km of power line, which has a resistance of
0.50Ώ/km. (A power transmission line has two wires for a complete circuit. (a) What
percentage of the original energy would have been lost in transmission if the voltage had
not been stepped up? (b) What percentage of the original energy is lost with the voltage
stepped up?
Given: I = 10 A LT = 80km.
V = 440v R/L = 0.5Ω⁄km
v = 4400v RT = 40Ω
L = 40km
Required: ρ=?
Solution:
PL = I2 R = 102(40) = 4000 watt
P = IV = 10(440) = 4400 watt
4000
%PL = x 100 = 𝟗𝟎. 𝟗𝟏%
4400
10𝐴 4400 440(10)
= ; = 𝐼𝑠 = 𝟏𝐀
𝐼𝑠 440 4400
PL = I2 R = 12 (40) = 40w
40
%PL = x100 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏%
4400
Example 6: Viking space probes landed on Mars in 1976 and sent radio and TV signals
back to Earth. How much longer did it take for a signal to reach us when Mars was
farthest from Earth than when it was closest to us? The average distance of Mars and
Earth from the Sun are 229 million km and 150 million km respectively. Assume circular
orbits with these average distances as radii.
Given: Required:
d=229x109 m, 150x109 m 𝑡 =?
50
dM = 229x109 m
dE = 150x109 m
Solution:
∆d = (dM + dE ) − (dM − dE )
= 2dE = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐦
c = speed of light = 3.0x108
d
c=
t
∆d 300x109 1min.
t= = = 1000x = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟕𝐦𝐢𝐧
c 3.0x108 60sec.
51
Chapter 7: AC Circuits
Important Terms:
Peak Voltage = The voltage oscillates between values of positive Vo and negative Vo.
Peak Current = The current oscillates between values of positive Io and negative Io
rms Current = effective current
rms Voltage = effective voltage
Capacitive Reactance = The quantitative measure of the opposition of a capacitor to

current.
Inductance = It is the measure of the opposition a circuit element presents to a time

varying current.
Inductor = It is a coil that exhibits a reverse voltage, or back emf, in opposition to the
changing current.
Henry = The combined unit, volt-second per ampere, for inductance named after Joseph
Henry.
Inductive Reactance = The opposition that an inductor presents to the current in an AC

circuit depends on the value of the inductance and on the frequency of the voltage.
Phase Diagram = The resistance and reactance of the circuit are given in a vectorlike
properties.
Phasors = The magnitude of the resistance and reactance represented by an arrow.
Impedance = The phasor sum is the effective, or net, opposition to the current.
Phase Angle = The angle between the voltage from the source and the current in the
circuit.
Inductive Circuit = If the inductive reactance is greater than the capacitive reactance, the
phase angle is positive.
Capacitive Circuit = If the capacitive reactance is greater than the inductive reactance,
the phase angle is negative.
Power Factor = It is the ratio of the resistance to the impedance.
Resonance Frequency = The frequency for the condition of minimum impedance.
52
Instantaneous Voltage in an AC Circuit
V = VOSinωt = VOSin2πft
Where: V = instantaneous voltage, v

VO = peak voltage, v
t = time, s
f = frequency, hz
Instantaneous Current in an AC Circuit

I = IOSin2πft
Where: I = instantaneous current, A

IO = peak current, A
t = time, s
f = frequency, hz
Effective Current and Power

IO = √𝟐𝐈rms
VO = √𝟐𝐕rms
Where: VO = peak voltage, v

Vrms = effective voltage, v
Irms = effective current, A
IO = peak current, A
Effective Power in an AC Circuit

P = I2rmsR
Relationship between Voltage and Current in an AC Circuit

Vrms = IrmsR
Where: Vrms = effective voltage, v

Irms = effective current, A
R = resistance, Ω
Capacitive Reactance
𝟏 𝟏
𝐗𝐂 = =
𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐂 𝛚𝐂
Where: XC = capacitive reactance, Ω

C = capacitance, F
f = frequency, hz
53

V = IXC
Where: V = voltage, v
I = current, A
XC = capacitive reactance, Ω
Inductive Reactance
XL = 2πfL = ωL
Where: XL = inductive reactance, Ω

L = inductance, H
f = frequency, hz

V = IXL
I = current, A
XL = inductive reactance, Ω
Ohm’s Law Generalized to AC Circuits

V = IZ
I = current, A
Z = impedance, Ω
Impedance for a Series RLC Circuit

𝐙 = √𝐑𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐋 − 𝐗 𝐂 )𝟐
Where: Z = impedance, Ω
R = resistance, Ω
Phase Angle Between Voltage and Current in a Series RLC Circuit

𝐗𝐋 − 𝐗𝐂
𝐓𝐚𝐧𝚽 =
𝐑
Where: φ = phase angle, o

R = resistance, Ω
54
Power Factor of a Series RLC Circuit

𝐑
𝐂𝐨𝐬𝚽 =
𝐙
Where: Z = impedance, Ω
R = resistance, Ω
Φ = phase angle, o
Power in Terms of Power Factor

𝐏 = 𝐈𝐕𝐂𝐨𝐬𝚽 = 𝐈𝟐 𝐙𝐂𝐨𝐬𝚽
Where: P = power, watts

I = current, A
V = voltage, v
Cosφ = power factor
Z = impedance, Ω
Resonance Frequency of a Series RLC Circuit

𝟏
𝒇𝒐 = 𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪
Where: fo = resonance frequency, hz

L = inductance, H
C = capacitance, F
Example 1: A lamp with a 60watt bulb is plugged into a 120 V outlet. (a) What are the
Irms and peak currents through the lamp? (b) What is the resistance of the bulb? (Neglect
the resistance of the wiring.)
Given: Required:
P = 60watts Irms
V= 120v Ipeak
Solution:
P 60 V 120
A) Irms = = = 0.5𝐴 B) R = = = 240Ω
V 120 I 0.5
Ipeak = √2 Irms = √2 (0.5A) = 0.71A
Example 2: A 15.0 micro farad capacitor is connected to a 120V, 60Herts source. What
are (a). The capacitive reactance and (b). The current (rms and peak) in the circuit?
Given: Required:
C = 15μF = 15x10−6 F Irms
V = 120v Ipeak
55
F = 60hz
Solution:
1 1
a. xc = = = 176.84Ω
2πfc 2𝜋(60)(15𝑥10−6 𝐹)
V 120
𝑏. Irms = = = 0.68A
Xc 176.84
Ipeak = √2 Irms = √2(0.68) = 0.96A
Example 3: A 125-mH inductor is connected to a 120-volt, 60-Hertz source. What are (a)
the inductive reactance? And (b) rms current in the circuit?
Given: Required:
L = 125mH = 125x10−3H XL
V = 120v Irms
f = 60Hz
Solution:
𝑎. XL = 2πfL = 2π (60) (125x10−3 ) = 47.12Ω
b. V = XL Irms
120 = 47.12 Irms
Irms = 2.55A
Example 4: A series RC circuit has a resistance of 100 ohm and a capacitance of 15.0
micro farad. (a). what is the (rms current) in the circuit when driven by a 120 volt 60-H
source? (b) Compute the (rms) voltage across each circuits element and the two element
combined. Compare it to that of the voltage source. Is Kirchoff’s loop theorem satisfied?
Given: Required:
R = 100Ω Irms
C = 15 Uf = 15x10-6 F
V = 120 V
f = 60 Hz
Solution:
1 1
Xc = = = 176.84Ω
2πfc 2π(60)(15X10−6 )
Z = √1002 + 176.842 = 203.16 Ω
56
V 120
Irms = = = 0.59 A
Z 203.16
VR = IR = 0.59 (100) = 59V

VC = IXC = 0.59 (176.84) = 104.34
163.34 ≠ 120
= √592 + 104.342 = 119.87
Example 5: A series RLC circuit has a resistance of 25.0 ohm, capacitance of 50

microfarad, and an inductance of 0.300 H. if the circuit is driven by a 120-volt, 60-hz
source, what are (a) the impedance of the circuit (b) the current in the circuit, and (c) the
phase angle between the current and the voltage. (d) How much power is dissipated in the
circuit?
Given: Required:
R = 25 Ω Z
C = 50 uF = 50×10-6 F I
L = 0.3 H Ø
V = 120 V P
f = 60 hz
Solution:
1
Xc = = 53.05 Ω
2π(60)(50X10−6 )
XL = 2π( 60 )(0.3) = 113.1 Ω
Z = √252 + (113.1 − 53.05)2 = 65.05 Ω
120
Irms = = 1.84 A
65.05
X L − 𝑋𝐶 113.1-53.05
TanØ = =
𝑅 25
Ø = 67.40°
P = IV cos Ø = 1.84 (120)cos 67.40 = 84.85 W
57
Example 6: A series RCL circuit has a resistance of 50.0 ohms, capacitance of 6
nanofarad, and an inductance of 28 mH. The circuit is corrupted to a wide range
adjustable frequency – voltage source with an output of 25 volts. (a) What is the
resonance frequency of the circuit? (b) How much current is in the circuit when it is
resonance? (c) What is the voltage across each circuit element for this condition?
Given: Required:
R = 50 Ω f
C = 6nF = 6×10-9 F Z
L = 28m H VR
V = 120 V
Solution:
1 1
f = = = 12,279.07 hz
2π√LC 2π√28 × 10−3 (6.0 × 10−9 )
Z = √R2 + (×L −×C )2

×L = ×C
Z= R = 50 Ω
V
𝐼=Z = 25
50
= 0.5 A
VR = IR = 0.5 (50) = 25 V
VC = VL
XL = 2π(12,279.07)(28 × 10−3 H ) = 2160.25 Ω
VC =VL = XL(I) = 2160.25 x 0.5 = 1080.12v
58
Chapter 8: Geometrical Optics: Reflection and Refraction of
Light
Important Terms:
Wave Front = It is a line or surface defined by adjacent portions of a wave that are in
phase.
Plane wave front = The curvature of a short segment of a circular or spherical wave
front is small. Such a segment might be approximated as a linear wave front in two
dimensions or a plane wave front.
Ray = A line drawn perpendicular to a series of wave fronts and pointing in the direction
of propagation.
Geometrical optics = The use of the geometrical representations of wave fronts and rays
to explain phenomena.
Reflection = It involves the absorption and re-mission of light by means of complex

electromagnetic vibrations in the atoms of the reflecting medium.
Angle of incidence = It is the angle between a ray incident on a surface and the line
perpendicular to the reflecting surface.
Angle of reflection = It is the angle measured from the reflected ray to the surface
normal.
Law of Reflection = It defines the relationship of angle of reflection and incidence.
Regular (Specular) Reflection = When the reflecting surface is smooth, the reflected
rays of a beam of light are parallel.
Irregular (Diffuse) Reflection = If the reflecting surface is rough, the light rays are
reflected in non parallel direction because of the irregular nature of the surface.
Refraction = It is the change in direction of a wave at a boundary where the wave passes
from one medium into another.
Huygens Principle = Every point on an advancing wave front can be considered to be a

source of secondary waves, or wavelets, and the line or surface tangent to all these
wavelets defines a new position of the wavefront.
Angle of Refraction = The change in the direction of wave propagation.
Index of Refraction = It is the relationship between the speed of light in a vacuum and
the speed of light in a medium.
59
Critical Angle = It is the limit for a certain angle of incidence.
Total Internal Reflection = It is an optical phenomenon that occurs when a ray of light
strikes a medium boundary at an angle larger than the critical angle with respect to the
normal to the surface.
Fiber Optics = It is a fascinating field centered on the use of transparent fibers to

transmit light.
Dispersion = It is a transparent material with different indices of refraction for different

wavelengths of light, in refracting there is a separation of the wavelengths.
Indices of Refraction of some substances
Substance n
Air 1.00029
Water 1.33
Ethyl Alcohol 1.36
Fused Quartz 1.46
Glycerine 1.47
Polystyrene 1.49
Oil (typical value) 1.50
Glass (by type) 1.45-1.70
Crown 1.52
Flint 1.66
Zircon 1.92
Diamond 2.42
Law of Reflection
θi = θr
Where: θi = angle of incidence

Θr = angle of reflection
Snell’s Law
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝟏 𝐯𝟏
=
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝟐 𝐯𝟐
𝐧𝟏 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝟏 = 𝐧𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝟐
Where: v = velocity, m/s

n = index of refraction
60
Index of Refraction
𝐜 𝛌
𝐧= =
𝐯 𝛌𝐦
Where: n = index of refraction

c = speed of light, 3.0 x 108m/s
v = velocity, m/s
Critical Angle at Boundary between Two Materials (where n1 > n2)

𝐧𝟐
𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉𝐂 =
𝐧𝟏
Critical Angle at Medium – Air Boundary

𝟏
𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉𝐂 =
𝐧
Example 1: What is the speed of light in water?
Given:
n = 1.33 Required:
c = 3.0x108m/s v =?
Solution:
3.0x108
𝑣= = 2.26x108 𝑚/𝑠
1.33
Example 2: Light in air is incident on a piece of crown glass at angle of 37.00 (relative to
the normal). What is the angle of reflection of the glass?
Given:
𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.00
𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 1.52
𝜃𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 37.00°
Required”
𝜃𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 =?
Solution:
𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃2
1.00𝑆𝑖𝑛37 = 1.52𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃2
𝜃2 = 23.32°
61
Example 3: A beam of light traveling in air strikes the plate-glass top of a coffee table at
an angle of incidence of 45.00 the glass has an n= 1.5 a.) What is the angle of refraction
for the light transmitted into the glass? b.) if the glass plate is 2.0 cm thick, what is the
lateral distance between the point where they enters the glass---x in the figure? c.) prove
that the emergent beam is parallel to the incident beam, that is θ4= θ1
Given:
𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.00
𝜃𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 45.00°
thickness = 2cm
Required”
𝜃𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 =?
X=?
𝜃1 = 𝜃4 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒
Solution:
𝑎. 𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃2
𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1 1𝑆𝑖𝑛45
𝜃2 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 28.13°
𝑛2 1.5
𝑥
𝑏. 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝜃2 =
𝑦
𝑥
𝑇𝑎𝑛28.13° =
2
𝑥 = 2𝑇𝑎𝑛28.13° = 1.07𝑐𝑚
𝑐. 𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃2 = 𝑛4 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃4

1.0𝑆𝑖𝑛45 = 1.5𝑆𝑖𝑛28.13° = 1𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃4
𝜃4 = 45°
Example 4: What is the critical angle for light traveling in water and incident on a water-
air boundary? (b)if a diver submerged in a poll looked up at the water surface at an angle
of θ< θc what would see?(Neglect ant thermal or motional in the water).
Given:
𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.00 Required:
𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.33 𝜃𝑐 =?
Solution:
𝑛1
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛2
𝑛1 1
𝜃𝑐 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 48.75°
𝑛2 1.33
62
Example 5: The index of refraction of a particular transparent material is 1.4053 for the
red end (λ= 700nm) of the visible spectrum and 1.4698 for the blue end ( λ= 400nm). If
white light is incident on a prism of this material at an angle of 45.00, what is the angular
dispersion of the visible spectrum inside the prism?
Given:
Red End Blue End
𝑛1 = 1.00 𝑛1 = 1.00
𝜃1 = 45° 𝜃1 = 45°
𝑛2 = 1.4053 𝑛2 = 1.4698
Required:
𝜃2 =?
Solution:
𝑎. 𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃2
1𝑆𝑖𝑛45 = 1.4053𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃2
1𝑆𝑖𝑛45
𝜃2 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 29.18°
1.4053
𝑏. 𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃2
1𝑆𝑖𝑛45 = 1.4698𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃2
1𝑆𝑖𝑛45
𝜃2 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 28.76°
1.4698
63
Chapter 9: Mirrors and Lenses
Important Terms:
Mirrors = Are smooth reflecting surfaces: usually made of polished metal or glass that
has been coated with some metallic substances.
Image = It is the visual counterpart of an object produced by reflection (mirrors),

refraction (lenses), or the passage of rays through a small hole.
Plane mirror = A mirror with a flat surface.
Virtual image = The image appears to be behind the mirror.
Real image = Image through which light actually passes.
Lateral Magnification = It refers to the comparison between the size of the image to its
object.
Spherical mirrors = It is a reflecting surface with spherical geometry.
Concave mirror = It is the inside reflections.
Convex mirror = It is the outside reflections.
Optic axis = It is the radial line through the center of the spherical mirror and it intersects
the mirror surface at the vertex of the spherical section.
Center of curvature (c) = It is the point on the optic axis that corresponds to the center
of the sphere of which the mirror forms a section.
Radius of curvature (r) = It is the distance between the vertex and the center of
curvature is equal to the radius of the sphere.
Converging mirror = It is a concave mirror which is a result when rays parallel to the
optic axis are incident on a concave mirror, the reflected rays intersect, or converge, at a
common point called, the focal point.
Diverging Mirrors = It is the incident parallel rays emerge from the lens as though they
emanated from a focal point on the incident side of the lens.
Focal Point = When rays parallel to the optic axis are incident on a concave mirror, the
reflected rays intersect, or converge at a common point.
Focal length = It is the distance from the vertex to the focal point of the spherical mirror.
64
Parallel ray = It is a ray that is incident along a path parallel to the optic axis and is
reflected through the focal point.
Chief ray or radial ray = It is a ray that is incident through the center of curvature (c) of
the mirror. Since the chief ray is incident normal to the mirrors surface, this ray is
reflected back along its path, through point c.
Mirror Focal ray = It is a ray that passes through the focal point and is reflected parallel
to the optic axis.
Spherical mirror equation = It is the distance and focal length can be shown to be
related.
Magnification factor =It is magnification equation for a spherical mirror
Spherical aberration = It is incident parallel rays from the optic do not converge at the
focal point. The farther the incident ray is from the axis, the more the more
Lens = It comes from the Latin word for lentil, a seed whose shape is similar to that of a
common lens.
Optical lens = It is made from some transparent material. One of both surfaces usually
has a spherical contour.
Biconvex lens = It is a converging lens where incident light rays parallel to the lens axis
converge at a focal point on the opposite side of the lens.
Biconcave lens = It can be approximated by two prisms placed point to point.
Diverging lens = It is the incident rays emerge from the lens as though they emanated
from a focal point on the incident side of the lens.
Meniscus lenses = Most commonly used for eyeglasses.
Converging lenses = It is thicker at its center than periphery.
Diverging lenses = It is thinner at its center than periphery.
Parallel ray = It is a ray that is parallel to the lens axis on incidence and that after
refraction either (a) passes through the focal point on the image side of a converging lens
or (b) appears to diverge from the focal point of an object side of a diverging lens.
Chief ray or Central ray(for lenses) = It is a ray that passes through the center of the
lens and is undeviated.
65
Lens Focal Ray = It is a ray that passes through the focal point on the object side of a
converging lens or appears to pass through the focal point on the image side of a
diverging lens and after refraction is parallel to the lens axis.
Lens Spherical Aberration = It is an effect that occurs when parallel rays passing
through different region of a lens do not come together on a common focal plane.
Circle of least confusion = It is the place where the transmitted light beam has the
smallest cross section.
Chromatic aberration = It is an effect that occurs because the index of refraction of the
material making up a lens is not the same for all wavelengths.
Astigmatism = It is the rays centering along the major and minor axis of the ellipse than
focus at different points after passing through the lens.
Lens Maker’s Equation = Properties which are related to the focal length of a thin lens
which gives the focal length of a thin lens in air.
Diopters = The unit used by
Magnification Factor
𝐡𝐢
𝐌=
𝐡𝐨
Where: M = magnification factor

hi = height of image
ho = height of object
Focal Length of Spherical Mirror

𝐑
𝐟=
𝟐
Where: f = focal length, m

R = radius of curvature, m
Spherical Mirror Equation

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
+ = =
𝐝𝐨 𝐝𝐢 𝐟 𝐑
𝒅𝒐 𝒇
𝒅𝒊 =
𝒅𝒐 − 𝒇
Where: do = object distance

di = image distance
f = focal length
66
r = radius of curvature
Thin Lens Equation (where f ≠ R/2)

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ =
𝐝𝐨 𝐝𝐢 𝐟
𝒅𝒐 𝒇
𝒅𝒊 =
𝒅𝒐 − 𝒇
Where: do = object distance

di = image distance
f = focal length
Magnification Factor (spherical Mirror and thin lens)

𝐝𝐢
𝐌=
𝐝𝐨
Where: M = magnification factor

hi = height of image
ho = height of object
Total Magnification with a Two-Lens System

Mtotal = M1M2
Where: Mtotal = total magnification

M = magnification factor
Lens Maker’s Equation (thin lens in air only)

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= (𝐧 − 𝟏) ( − )
𝐟 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
Where: f = focal length

n = index of refraction
R = radius of curvature
Lens Power in Diopters (where f is in meters)

𝟏
𝑷=
𝒇
Where: P = lens power

f = focal length
67
Sign convention for spherical mirrors
Focal length
Concave (converging) mirror : +f (or +R)
Convex (diverging ) mirror : -f ( or –R )
Object distance do ( same for both convex and concave mirror )
+do when the object is in front of the object ( real object )
-di when the object is behind of the object ( virtual image)
Image distance (do)
+di when the image is formed in front of the mirror
-di when the image is formed behind the mirror
image orientation M ( same for both mirrors )
+M when the image is upright with respect to the object
-M when the image is inverted with respect to the object
Sign Convention for Thin Lenses
Focal length
Converging lens (sometimes called a positive lens): +f
Diverging lens (sometimes called a negative lens); -f
Object distance (do)

+do when the object is in front of the object ( real object )
-do when the object is behind of the object ( virtual image )
Image distance (do)

+di when the image is formed on the opposite (image) side
of the lens from the object (real image)
-di when the image is formed on the same (object) side of
the lens as the object (virtual image)
Image orientation M
+M when the image is upright with respect to the object
-M when the image is inverted with respect to the object
68
Example 1: What is the minimum vertical length of a plane mirror needed for a person to
be able to see a complete (head to toe) image?
ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ1 + ℎ2 ℎ
𝐿= + = =
2 2 2 2
Example 2: A concave mirror has a radius of curvature of 30 cm. If an object is placed

(a) 45 cm, (b) 20 cm, and (c) 10 cm from the mirror, where is the image formed and what
are its characteristics?
Given:
R= 30
𝑎. 𝑑𝑜 = 45
𝑏. 𝑑𝑜 = 20
𝑐. 𝑑𝑜 = 10
Required:
𝑑𝑖 =? & 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑠
Solution:
𝑅 30
𝑓= = = 15
2 2
1 1 1
𝑎. = +
𝑓 𝑑𝑜 𝑑𝑖
1 1 1
= +
15 45 𝑑𝑖
1 1 1
= −
𝑑𝑖 15 45
𝑑𝑖 = 22.5 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙)
−𝑑𝑖 −22.5
𝑀= = = −0.5(𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑, 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟)
𝑑𝑜 45
1 1 1
𝑏. = +
1 1 1
= +
15 20 𝑑𝑖
1 1 1
= −
𝑑𝑖 15 20
𝑑𝑖 = 60 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙)
−𝑑𝑖 −60
𝑀= = = −3(𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑, 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟)
𝑑𝑜 20
69
1 1 1
𝑐. = +
1 1 1
= +
15 10 𝑑𝑖
1 1 1
= −
𝑑𝑖 15 10
𝑑𝑖 = −30 (𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)
−𝑑𝑖 −(−30)
𝑀= = = 3(𝑢𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟)
𝑑𝑜 10
Example 3: An object is 30 cm in front of a diverging mirror that has a focal length of 10

cm. Where the image, and what is are its characteristics?
Given:
𝑑𝑜 = 30
𝑓 = 10
Required:
𝑑𝑖 =? & 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑠
Solution:
1 1 1
= +
−1 1 1
= +
10 30 𝑑𝑖
1 −1 1
= −
𝑑𝑖 30 10
𝑑𝑖 = −7.5 (𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)
−𝑑𝑖 −(−7.5)
𝑀= = = 0.25(𝑢𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟)
𝑑𝑜 30
Example 4: Where is the image formed by a concave mirror if the object is at infinity?
1 1 1
= +
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 ∞ 𝑑𝑖
1 1
=
𝑓 𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑖 = 𝑓
70
Example 5: As the object distance of a biconvex lens is varied, at what point does the
real image go from being reduced to being magnified.
1 1 1
= +
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 2𝑓 𝑑𝑖
1 1 1 1
= − =
𝑑𝑖 𝑓 2𝑓 2𝑓
𝑑𝑖 = 2𝑓 = 𝑑𝑜
−𝑑𝑖 −2𝑓
𝑀= = = −1(𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑, 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒)
𝑑𝑜 2𝑓
Example 6: Suppose the object is 20 cm in front of the lens L1, which has a focal length
of 15 cm, is 26 cm from L2. What is the location of the final image, and what are its
characteristics?
Given:
𝑑𝑜 = 20𝑐𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜 𝐿1 Required:
𝑓 = 15 𝑑𝑖 =? & 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑠
𝑑𝑜 = 26
Solution
1 1 1
= +
𝑓1 𝑑𝑜1 𝑑𝑖1
1 1 1
= +
15 20 𝑑𝑖1
1 1 1
= −
𝑑𝑖1 15 20
𝑑𝑖1 = 60𝑐𝑚 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙)
−𝑑𝑖1 −60
𝑀= = = −3( 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑, 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑)
𝑑𝑜1 20
1 1 1
= +
𝑓2 𝑑𝑜2 𝑑𝑖2
1 1 1
= +
12 −34 𝑑𝑖2
1 1 1
= +
𝑑𝑖2 12 34
𝑑𝑖1 = 8.87𝑐𝑚 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙)
−𝑑𝑖2 −8.87
𝑀= = = 0.26( 𝑢𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟)
𝑑𝑜2 −34
𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑀1 𝑀2 = −3(0.26) = −0.78

71
Name:
Assignment No.:
1. A biconvex lens has a focal length of 12cm. Where the image formed, and what are its
characteristics for an object (a) 18cm and (b) 4cm from the lens?
1 1 1
𝑎. = +
1 1 1
= +
12 18 𝑑𝑖
1 1 1
= −
𝑑𝑖 12 18
𝑑𝑖 = 36 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙) 𝟑 , 𝟐𝒑𝒕𝒔
−𝑑𝑖 −(36)
𝑀= = = −2(𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑, 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑), 𝟑, 𝟏, 𝟏𝒑𝒕𝒔
𝑑𝑜 18
1 1 1
𝑏. = +
1 1 1
= +
12 4 𝑑𝑖
1 1 1
= −
𝑑𝑖 12 4
𝑑𝑖 = −6 (𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) 𝟑 , 𝟐𝒑𝒕𝒔
−𝑑𝑖 −(−6)
𝑀= = = 1.5(𝑢𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑), 𝟑, 𝟏, 𝟏𝒑𝒕𝒔
𝑑𝑜 4
72
Chapter 10: Physical Optics: The Wave Nature of Light
Important Terms:
Physical Optics = Physical optics or wave optics, takes into account those wave
properties that geometrical optics ignores. The wave theory of light leads to satisfactory
explanations of those phenomena that cannot be analyzed with rays.
Young’s Double Slit Experiment = Young’s-the first method that uses interference in
demonstrating the wave nature of light.
Thin-Film Thickness = It is a result of the interference of light reflected from opposite

surfaces of the film and may be readily understood in terms of wave interference.
Optical Flats = It is used to check the smoothness of a reflecting surface. The flat is
placed so that there is an air wedge between it and the surface.
Newton’s Rings = It is the regular interference pattern in an optical flat that produces a
set of concentric bright and dark circular fringes.
Diffraction = It is the deviation of light. It generally occurs when waves pass through
small openings or around sharp edges or corners.
Diffraction Grating = It is the arrangements of large numbers of parallel, closely spaced

slits.
Bragg’s Law = It defines the relationship of 2dsinø= nλ for n=1,2,3…
Polarization = Refers to the orientation of the transverse wave oscillations.
Polarizing (Brewster) Angle = It is the incident angle at which this polarization occurs.
Birefringence = It is the ability of a material to exhibit doubly refracting.
Dichroism = It is an interesting property where in a birefringent crystal absorbs one of

the polarized components more than the other.
Transmission Axis = It is the direction perpendicular to the orientation of the molecular

chains.
Optical Activity = The ability of a material to rotate the direction of a plane polarized
light.
Scattering = The process when light is incident on a suspension of particle, such as the
molecules of the air; some of the light may be absorbed and radiated.
73
Rayleigh Scattering = It is a relationship between the scattering being inversely
proportional to the wavelength to the 4th power (that is, S=1/λ4).
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) = It is a twisted-nematic display that is an application

involving the optical activity of a liquid crustal and crossed polarizers. When the
crystalline order is disoriented from an electric field applied voltage, the liquid crystal is
optically active in that region, and the light is not transmitted and reflected.
Bright Fringe Condition (double slit interference)
dSinθ = nλ
Where: d = distance between the slits

n = order number
λ = wavelength
Wavelength Measurement ( double slit interference for small θ only)

𝐲𝐧 𝐝
𝛌 ≈
𝐧𝐋
Where: λ = wavelength
yn = distance of the nth bright fringe
d = distance between the slits
n = order number
L = distance from the slit to the point
Nonreflecting Film Thickness (minimum)

𝛌
𝐭= 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐧𝟐 > 𝑛1
𝟒𝐧
Where: t = thickness
n = order number
λ = wavelength
Dark Fringe Condition (single slit diffraction)

wSinθ = mλ
Where: w = slit width

λ = wavelength
Lateral Displacement of Dark Fringes (single slit diffraction)

𝐦𝐋𝛌
𝐲𝐦 = 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐦 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑
𝐰
Where: ym = maximum distance
74
L = distance from the slit to the point
λ = wavelength
w = slit width
Interference Maxima for a Diffraction Grating

dSinθ = nλ for n= 0, 1, 2, 3
Where: d = 1/N, distance

N = lines per unit length
n = order number
λ = wavelength
Limit of the Order Number

𝒅
𝒏 ≤
𝝀
Where: n =order number

d =distance
λ = wavelength
Brewster (polarizing) Angle

Tanθp = n
Where: n = order number
Example 1: In a lab experiment, monochromatic light passes through two narrow slits
that are 0.050mm apart. The interference pattern is observed on a white wall 1.0 m from
the slits. And the second-order fringe is 2.4 cm from the center of the central maximum
(a) what is the wavelength of the light? (b) what is the distance between the second-order
and the third order bright fringe?
Given:
𝑑 = 0.05𝑚𝑚 = 0.00005𝑚 Required:
𝐿 = 1𝑚 𝜆 =?
𝑦2 = 2.4𝑐𝑚 = 0.024 𝑦3 − 𝑦2 =?
𝑛=2
Solution:
𝑦𝑛 𝑑 0.024(0.00005)
𝑎. 𝜆 = = = 6.0𝑥10−7 𝑚 = 600𝑛𝑚
𝑛𝐿 2(1)
𝜆(𝑛 + 1)𝐿 𝜆𝑛𝐿 𝜆𝐿 600𝑛𝑚(1000𝑚𝑚)

𝑏. 𝑦3 − 𝑦2 = − = (𝑛 + 1 − 𝑛) = = 1.2𝑐𝑚
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 0.05𝑚𝑚
75
Example 2: A glass lens (n=1.60) is coated with a thin, transparent film of a magnesium
fluoride (Mgf2, n = 1.38) to make the lens non-reflecting. What is the minimum film
thickness for the lens to be non-reflecting for incident light of wavelength 550 nm?
Given:
𝑛𝑀𝑔𝐹2 = 1.38
𝜆 = 550𝑛𝑚
Required:
𝑡 =?
Solution:
𝜆 550𝑛𝑚
𝑡= = = 99.64𝑛𝑚
4𝑛 4(1.38)
Example 3: Monochromatic blue light (λ = 425 nm) passes through a slit whose width is
0.50 mm. What is the width of the central maximum on a screen located 1.0 m from the
slit?
Given:
𝜆 = 425𝑛𝑚
𝑤 = 0.50𝑚𝑚
𝐿 = 1.0𝑚
Required:
2𝑦 =?
Solution:
𝑚𝐿𝜆 2(1.0𝑚)(425𝑛𝑚)
2𝑦 = = = 1.7𝑚𝑚
𝑤 0.5𝑥10−3 𝑚
Example 4: A particular diffraction grating produces an n = 2 spectral order at a

deviation angle of 30º for a light with wavelength of 500 nm. (a) How many lines per
centimeter does the grating have? (b) If the grating were illuminated with white light,
how many orders of the complete visible spectrum would be produced?
Given:
𝑛 = 2
𝜃 = 30°
𝜆 = 500𝑛𝑚
Required:
𝑁 =?
𝜆=
76
Solution:
𝑛𝜆 2(500𝑛𝑚)
𝑎. 𝑑 = = = 2000𝑛𝑚 = 2𝑥10−6 𝑚 = 2𝑥10−4 𝑐𝑚
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑆𝑖𝑛30
1 1
𝑁 = = = 5000 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚
𝑑 2𝑥10−4 𝑐𝑚
𝑑 2.00𝑥10−6 𝑚
𝑏. 𝑛 ≤ = =4
𝜆 500𝑥10−9 𝑚
2.00𝑥10−6 𝑚
𝜆= = 5𝑥10−7 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 500𝑛𝑚
4
Example 5: Sunlight is reflected from the smooth surface of a pond. What is the Sun’s
altitude when the polarization of the reflected light is greatest?
Given:
𝑛 = 1.33
Required:
𝜃 =?
Solution:
𝜃 = 90 − 𝜃𝑝
𝜃𝑝 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛−1 𝑛 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛−1 (1.33) = 53.06°
𝜃 = 90 − 53.06 = 36.94°
Example 6: How much more is light at the blue end of the visible spectrum scattered by
air molecules than is light at the red end?
Given:
𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 700𝑛𝑚
𝜆𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 400𝑛𝑚
Required:
𝑆𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒
=?
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑑
Solution:
𝑆𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑑 4 700𝑛𝑚 4
=( ) =( ) = 9.38
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝜆𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒 400𝑛𝑚
77
Chapter 11: Optical Instruments
Important Terms:
Vitreous Humor = A jellylike substance that fill the eyeball.
Sclera = The white covering of the eyeball.
Cornea = It is where the light enter the eye through a curved, transparent tissue.
Aqueous Humor = It is the clear fluid in the eye.
Iris = It is located behind the cornea, is a circular diaphragm.
Pupil = Central hole.
Retina = It is located on the back interior wall of the eye ball is a light sensitive surface.
Rods = Are more sensitive to light than the cones.
Cones = Can distinguish frequency changes of sufficiently intense light witch the brain
interprets the color.
Nearsightedness = It is the ability to see distance object clearly but not distant object.
Farsightedness = It is the ability to see distant objects clearly but not nearby object.
Astigmatism = It is another common defect of vision in which the refractive surface,

usually the cornea or crystalline lens, being out of round.
Magnifying Glass = It is a instrument witch single convex lens forms a clear image of an
object that is closer than the near point.
Angular Magnification = It is symbolized m and it is a nation of the angular size of the

object viewed though the magnifying glass.
Compound Microscope = Provides greater magnification than is attained with the single
lens or simple microscope.
Objective = It is the converging lens with a relatively short focal length (fo < 1cm).
Eyepiece = It has a longer focal length and is positioned so that the image formed by that
the image formed by the objective falls just inside its focal length.
Refracting Telescope = Principle of which is similar to that of a compound microscope.
78
Astronomical Telescope = Form a distant object from a intermediate image at the focal
point of objective (fo).
Terrestrial Telescope = Utilizing a large, concave, front surface parabolic mirror.
Reflecting Telescope = A type of telescope that utilizes a large, concave, front surfaced
parabolic mirror.
Resolution = Of two diffracted images that are to ability to distinguish both image as
separate.
Rayleigh Criterion = Can be express in terms of the angular separation (θ) of the
sources the first maximum (m=1) for a single slit diffraction patterns satisfies this
relationship.
Resolving Power = This minimum distance between two points whose image can be just
resolved.
Additive Primary Colors = The red, blue and green from which we interpret a full
spectrum of colors.
Additive Method of Color of Production = When light beams of the additive primaries
are projected on a white screen so they overlap, other color will be produce.
Complementary Colors = Color of such pair that appear white to an eye when
combined.
Subtractive Method of Color Production = Mixing the pigments results in the

subtraction of colors.
Subtractive Primary Pigments = Cyan, magenta, and yellow which produce the three
additive primary colors.
Angular Magnification
𝛉
𝐦=
𝛉𝐨
Where: m = angular magnification
Magnification of a Magnifying Glass with Image at Near Point (25cm)

𝟐𝟓𝐜𝐦
𝐦=𝟏+
𝐟
79
f = focal length
Magnification of a Magnifying Glass with Image at Infinity

𝟐𝟓𝐜𝐦
𝐦=
𝐟

f = focal length
Angular Magnification of a Compound Microscope (with L, fo and fe in cm)

(𝟐𝟓𝐜𝐦)𝐋
𝐦𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 = 𝐌𝐨 𝐦𝐞 =
𝐟𝐨 𝐟𝐞
Where: mtotal = angular magnification of a compound lens

Mo = angular magnification of the objective
me = angular magnification of the eyepiece
fo = focal length of the objective
fe = focal length of the eyepiece
Magnification of a Refracting Telescope

𝐟𝐨
𝐦= −
𝐟𝐞

fo = focal length of the objective
fe = focal length of the eyepiece
Minimum Angle of Resolution for a Slit

𝛌
𝛉𝐦𝐢𝐧 =
𝐝
d = distance
Minimum Angle of Resolution for a Circular Aperture (diameter)

𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝛌
𝛉𝐦𝐢𝐧 =
𝐃
D = diameter
Resolving Power
𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝛌𝐟
𝐬 = 𝐟𝛉𝐦𝐢𝐧 =
𝐃
Where: s = resolving power
80
F = focal length
D = diameter
λ = wavelength
Example 1: A certain near sighted person cannot see objects clearly when they are more
than 78 cm from either eye. What power must corrective lens have if this person is to see
distant objects clearly? Assume that the lenses are in eyeglasses and are 3.0 cm in front of
the eye.
Given:
𝑑𝑖 = 78𝑐𝑚
𝑑 = 3𝑐𝑚
Required:
𝑃 =?
Solution:
1 1 1
𝑎. = +
𝑓 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑜
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑑𝑖 ∞
1 −1
=
𝑓 75
𝑓 = −75𝑐𝑚
1 −1
𝑃 = = = −1.33𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠(𝐷)
𝑓 0.75
Example 2: A farsighted person has a near point of 75cm for one eye and a near point of
100cm for the other. What powers should contact lenses have to allow the person to see
an object clearly at a distance of 25cm?
Given:
𝑑𝑖1 = −75𝑐𝑚 = −0.75𝑚 Required:
𝑑𝑖2 = −100𝑐𝑚 = −1𝑚 𝑃 =?
𝑑𝑜 = 25𝑐𝑚 = 0.25𝑚
Solution:
1 1 1 −1 1
𝑃1 = = + = + = 2.67𝐷
𝑓1 𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑜 0.75 0.25
1 1 1 −1 1
𝑃2 = = + = + = 3𝐷
𝑓2 𝑑𝑖2 𝑑𝑜 1 0.25
81
Example 3: Sherlock Holmes uses a converging lens with a focal length of 12cm to
examine the fine detail of some cloth fibers found at the scene of crime.(a) what is the
maximum magnification given by the lens?(b) what is the magnification by relaxed eye
viewing?
Given:
𝑓 = 12
Required:
𝑎. 𝑀𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠 =?
𝑏. 𝑀𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑦𝑒𝑠 =?
Solution:
25 25
𝑎. 𝑀𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠 = 1 + = 1+ = 3.08
𝑓 12
25 25
𝑏. 𝑀𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑦𝑒𝑠 = = = 2.08
𝑓 12
Example 4: A microscope has an object w/ focal length of10mm and an eyepiece w/ a

focal length of 4.0cm the lenses are positioned 20cm apart in the barrel. Determine the
approximate total magnification of microscope.
Given:
𝑓𝑜 = 10𝑚𝑚 = 1𝑐𝑚
𝑓 = 4𝑐𝑚
𝐿 = 20𝑐𝑚
Required:
𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ?
Solution:
(25𝑐𝑚)𝐿 (25𝑐𝑚)(20𝑐𝑚)
𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡 = = = 125𝑥
𝑓𝑜 𝑓 (1𝑐𝑚)(4𝑐𝑚)
Example 5: An astronomical telescope has an objective lens with focal length of 30cm
and eyepiece with a focal length 9.0cm a. what is the magnification of the telescope? b. if
an erecting lens have a focal length of 7.5cm is use to convert the telescope to a terrestrial
type, what is the overall length of the telescope tube?
Given:
𝑓𝑜 = 30𝑐𝑚
𝑓𝑒 = 9𝑐𝑚
𝑓𝑖 = 7.5𝑐𝑚
82
Required:
𝑎. 𝑀 = ?
𝑏. 𝐿 = ?
Solution
−𝑓𝑜 30
𝑎. 𝑀 = =− = −3.33𝑋
𝑓𝑒 9
𝑏. 𝐿1 = 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑒 = 30 + 9 = 39𝑐𝑚
𝐿 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 = 𝐿1 + 4𝑓𝑖 = 39 + 4(7.5) = 69𝑐𝑚
Example 6: Determine the maximum angle of resolution by Rayleigh Criterion (a) the
pupil of eye (day time diameter of about 4.0mm) (b) the Yerkes observatory refracting
telescope (diameter of 102cm) both a. and b. for visible light with a wavelength of 660nm
and (c) a radio telescope 25m for radiation with a wave length of 21cm.
Given:
𝐷𝑒𝑦𝑒 = 4𝑚𝑚 = 4𝑥10−3 𝑚
𝜆 = 660𝑥10−9 𝑚
𝐷𝑌𝑒𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 102𝑐𝑚 = 1.02𝑚
𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜 𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 25𝑚
𝐿 = 21𝑐𝑚 = 0.21𝑚
Required:
𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =?
Solution:
1.22𝜆 1.22(660𝑥10−9 𝑚)
𝑎. 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 2.01𝑥10−4 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝐷 4𝑥10−3 𝑚
1.22𝜆 1.22(660𝑥10−9 𝑚)
𝑏. 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 7.89𝑥10−7 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝐷 1.02𝑚
1.22𝜆 1.22(0.21𝑚)
𝑐. 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 0.0102𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝐷 25𝑚
83
Chapter 12: Temperature
Important Terms:
Temperature = A relative measure or indication of hotness or coldness
Heat =The net energy transferred from one object to another because of a temperature
difference
Internal Energy = The energy becomes part of the total energy of the molecules of the
object or system
Thermometer = A device constructed to make evident some property of a substance that

changes with temperature.
Thermal Expansion =A change in the dimension or volume of a substance that occurs

when the temperature changes.
Fahrenheit Temperature Scale = The boiling point is 212o while the freezing point is
32o
Celsius Temperature Scale = The boiling point is 100o while the freezing point is 0o
Mole = the quantity that contains Avogadro’s number of a molecule
Absolute Zero = -273.15oC
Kelvin Temperature Scale = absolute zero is the foundation.
Triple Point of Water = Represents a unique set of conditions where water co – exist
simultaneously in equilibrium as a solid, a liquid and a gas
Kinetic Theory of Gases = the molecules undergo perfectly elastic collisions with each
other and with the walls of the container.
Diffusion = The process of random molecular mixing in which particular molecules

moves from a region where they are present in higher concentration to one where they are
in lower concentration.
Osmosis = The diffusion of liquid water across a permeable membrane down a

concentration gradient.
Degree of Freedom = Independent way a molecule has for possessing energy.
Equipartition Theorem = On average, the total internal energy of an ideal gas is divided
equally among each degree of freedom its molecules possess.
84
Celsius – Fahrenheit Conversion
𝟗
℉ = ℃ + 𝟑𝟐
𝟓
𝟓
℃ = (℉ – 𝟑𝟐)
𝟗
Where: F = Fahrenheit
C = Celsius
Ideal (or Perfect) Gas Law (always absolute temperature)

𝐏𝐕 = 𝐍𝐤 𝐁 𝐓
𝐏𝟏 𝐕𝟏 𝐏𝟐 𝐕𝟐
=
𝐓𝟏 𝐓𝟐
𝐏𝐕 = 𝐧𝐑𝐓
Where: kB = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 x 10-23J/K

R = 8.31J/(mol·K)
NA = Avogadro’s number = 6.02 x 1023 molecules/mol
P = Pressure
V = Volume
T = Temperature
N = Number of molecules
n = Number of moles
Kelvin – Celsius Conversion

𝐊 = ℃ + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓
Where: K = Kelvin
Thermal Expansion of Solids

Linear: 𝐋𝐟 = 𝐋𝐨 (𝟏 + 𝛂𝚫𝐓)
Area: 𝐀 𝐟 = 𝐀 𝐨 (𝟏 + 𝟐𝛂𝚫𝐓)
Volume: 𝐕𝐟 = 𝐕𝐨 (𝟏 + 𝟑𝛂𝚫𝐓)
Where: LF = Final length

LO = Initial length
AF = Final area
AO = Initial area
VF = Final volume
VO = Initial volume
T = Temperature
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion for solids
85
Thermal Volume Expansion of Fluids
𝚫𝐕
= 𝛃𝚫𝐓
𝐕𝐨
Where: β = Coefficient of volume expansion for fluids
Results of Kinetic Theory of Gases

𝟏
𝐩𝐕 = 𝐍𝐦𝐯𝐫𝐦𝐬 𝟐
𝟑
𝟏 𝟑
𝐦𝐯𝐫𝐦𝐬 𝟐 = 𝐑𝐓 (all gases)
𝟐 𝟐
𝟑 𝟑
𝐔 = 𝐍𝐤 𝐁 𝐓 = 𝐧𝐑𝐓 (ideal monatomic gases only)
𝟐 𝟐
𝟓 𝟓
𝐔 = 𝐍𝐤 𝐁 𝐓 = 𝐧𝐑𝐓 (diatomic gases)
𝟐 𝟐
Where: v = Velocity
U = Total Energy
Example 1: Convert 20oC to Fahrenheit scale and the normal body temperature and
98.6oF to the Celsius scale.
Given: 9
℉ = (20) + 32
𝑇1 = 20°C 5
𝑇2 = 98.6°𝐹 ℉ = 𝟔𝟖
Required: 5
b. ℃ = (℉ − 32)
Convert to other units 9
5
℃ = (98.6 − 32)
Solution: 9
9 ℃ = 𝟑𝟕
a. ℉ = ℃ + 32
5
Example 2: What is the absolute zero on the Fahrenheit scale?
Given:
𝑇1 = 0°K
Required:
Absolute 0 in oF
9 9
℉ = ℃ + 32 = (−273.15) + 32
Solution: 5 5
K = ℃ + 273.15 ℉ = −𝟒𝟓𝟗. 𝟔𝟕
= ℃ + 273.15
℃ = −273.15
86
Example 3: A quantity of low density gas in a rigid container is initially at room
temperature and a particular pressure. If the gas is heated to a temperature of 60oC by
what factor does the pressure change?
Given: Solution:
T1 = 20℃ T1 T2 P2 T2
= ; =
T2 = 60℃ P1 P2 P1 T1
P2 60 + 273.15
Required: =
P1 20 + 273.15
P2 P2 333.15
=? =
P1 P1 293.15
P2
= 1.136
P1
Example 4: A steel beam is 5.0m long at a temperature of 20oC. On a hot day, the
temperature rises to 40oC. What is the change in the beam’s length due to thermal
expansion?
Given:
L= 5m Required:
Ti = 20℃ a. ΔL =?
Tf = 40℃
A = 60cm2
Solution
a. LF = Lo [1 + α(ΔT)]
12 × 10−6
LF = 5.00m [1 + ( ) (40℃ − 20℃)]
℃
LF = 5.0012 m
ΔL = LF − Lo
ΔL = 5.0012 m − 5.00 m
ΔL = 0.0012 m
87
Example 5: A surveyor uses a steel measuring tape that is exactly 50.00 m long at a
temperature of 20oC. What is its length on a hot summer day when the temperature is
35oC?
Given:
Lo = 50.00m Required:
Ti = 20℃ LF =?
Tf = 35℃
Solution:
LF = Lo [1 + α(ΔT)]
12 × 10−6
LF = 50.00m [1 + ( ) (35℃ − 20℃)] = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗 𝐦
℃
Example 6: In the previous example, the surveyor measures a distance when the
temperature is 35oC and obtains the result 35.794m. What is the actual distance?
Given:
LF = 35.794 m Required:
Tf = 35℃ Lo =?
Solution:
LF = Lo [1 + α(ΔT)]
12 × 10−6
35.794 m = Lo [1 + ( ) (35℃ − 20℃)]
℃
35.794m
Lo = = 𝟑𝟓. 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟒 𝐦
12 × 10−6
[1 + ( ) (35℃ − 20℃)]
℃
Example 7: What is the average (rms) speed of a helium atom (He) in a helium balloon
at room temperature? Take the mass of the helium atom to be 6.65 x 10-27kg.
Given: Solution
mHe = 6.65 × 10−27 kg
3k B T
T = 20℃ + 273.15 = 293.15 K vrms = √
J m
k B = 1.38 × 10−23
K
J
3 (1.38 × 10−23 K) (293.15 K)
Required: vrms = √
V =? 6.65 × 10−27 kg
𝐦
𝐯𝐫𝐦𝐬 = 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎. 𝟗𝟑
𝐬
88
Example 8: More than 99% of the air we breathe consists of diatomic gases, mainly
nitrogen (N2, 78%) and oxygen (O2, 21%). There are traces of other gases, one of which
is radon (Rn), a monatomic gas arising from radioactive decay of uranium in the ground.
Calculate the total internal energy of 1.00mole samples each of oxygen and radon at
room temperature. For each sample, calculate the amount of internal energy associated
with molecular translational kinetic energy.
Given:
n = 1 mole
T = 20℃ + 273.15 = 293.15 K

J
R = 8.31
mol ∙ K
Required:
a. URa =?
UO2 =?
b. UTRANS of Ra =?
UTRANS of O2 = ?
Solution:
3
URa = nRT
2
3 J
URa = (1mol) (8.31 ) (293.15 K)
2 mol ∙ K
𝐔𝐑𝐚 = 𝟑𝟔𝟓𝟒. 𝟏𝟏 𝐉
5
UO2 = nRT
2
5 J
UO2 = (1mol) (8.31 ) (293.15 K)
2 mol ∙ K
𝐔𝐎𝟐 = 𝟔𝟎𝟗𝟎. 𝟏𝟗 𝐉
𝐔𝐓𝐑𝐀𝐍𝐒 𝐨𝐟 𝐑𝐚 = 𝟑𝟔𝟓𝟒. 𝟏𝟏 𝐉
3
𝐔𝐓𝐑𝐀𝐍𝐒 𝐨𝐟 𝐎𝟐 = nRT = 𝟑𝟔𝟓𝟒. 𝟏𝟏 𝐉
2
89
Name:
Section:
1. A building with a steel framework is 150m tall when the temperature is 0oC. How
much taller is the building on a hot summer day when the temperature is 36oC?
Given:
Lo = 150.00m
Ti = 0℃
Tf = 36℃
Required:
ΔL =?
Solution:
LF = Lo [1 + α(ΔT)]
LF = Lo [1 + α(Tf − Ti )]
12 × 10−6
LF = 150.00m [1 + ( ) (36℃ − 0℃)]
℃
LF = 150.0648
ΔL = 150.0648 m − 150.00 m
𝚫𝐋 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟒𝟖 𝐦
2. A steel bridge is built in the summer when the temperature is 35oC. At the time of
construction its length is 80m. What is the length of the bridge on a cold winter day
when the temperature is -12oC?
Given:
Lo = 80m
Ti = 35℃
Tf = −12℃
Required
LF =?
Solution:
LF = Lo [1 + α(Tf − Ti )]
12 × 10−6
LF = 80m [1 + ( ) (−12℃ − 35℃)]
℃
𝐋𝐅 = 𝟕𝟗. 𝟗𝟓𝟒𝟖𝟖 𝐦
90
Chapter 13: Heat
Important Terms:
Heat = Describes a type of net energy transferred.
Kilocalorie (kcal) = the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a kilogram
mass of water of a certain temperature in Celsius.
Calorie (cal) = the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a pound of water of
a certain temperature in Celsius.
British thermal unit (Btu) = the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a
kilogram mass of water of a certain temperature in Fahrenheit.
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat = For every 4186J of work done, the temperature of the
water rose 1oC per kilogram, or 4186J is equivalent to 1kcal.
Specific Heat = the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a 1kg of a
substance by 1oC.
Calorimetry = the quantitative measure of heat exchange, which allows us to determine

the specific heats of substances.
Solid Phase = the molecules are held together by attractive forces or bonds.
Melting Point = the temperature at which solid becomes liquid
Freezing Point = the temperature at which liquid becomes solid
Liquid Phase = molecules of a substance are relatively free to move and a liquid
assumes the shape of its container
Gaseous Phase = molecules interact weakly and are separated by relatively large
distances; thus has no definite shape or volume.
Boiling Point = the temperature at which liquid becomes vapor/gas
Condensation Point = the temperature at which gas condenses and becomes a liquid.
Sublimation = the change of solids to gaseous phase directly.
Deposition = A phase change from gas to a solid.
Latent Heat = the heat energy involved in a phase change
Latent Heat of Fusion = the latent heat for a solid – liquid phase change
91
Latent Heat of Vaporization = the latent heat for a liquid – solid phase change
Latent Heat of Sublimation = the latent heat for the less common solid-gas phase
change
Evaporation = A cooling process for the object from which the molecules escape
Conduction = energy is conductively transferred from a higher temperature region to a

lower temperature region – transfer as a result of a temperature difference.
Thermal Conductor = conductors of heat
Thermal Insulator = poor heat conductor
Thermal Conductivity = characterizes the heat-conducting ability of a material.
Convection = heat transfer as a result of mass transfer, which can be natural or forced
Radiation = heat transferred which does not require a medium but by electromagnetic
waves
Stefan’s Law = the rate at which an object radiates energy has been found to be
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature
Emissivity = a unitless number between number 0 and 1 that is characteristics of the

material.
Blackbody = a body that is a good absorber of a certain wavelength of radiation is a good

emitter of those same wavelengths.
Important Equations
Specific Heat
𝐐 = 𝐦𝐜𝚫𝐓
Where: Q = heat
c = specific heat
m = mass
T = temperature
Latent Heat
𝐐 = 𝐦𝐋
Where: Q = heat
m = mass
L = latent heat
92
Thermal Conduction
𝚫𝐐 𝐤𝐀𝚫𝐓
=
𝚫𝐭 𝐝
Where: Q = heat
t = time
k = thermal conductivity
T = temperature
d = thickness
Stefan’s Law
𝚫𝐐
𝐏 = = 𝛔𝐀𝐞𝐓 𝟒
𝚫𝐭
Where: P = power
Q = heat
t = time
A = area
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
e = emissivity
T = temperature
Net Radiant Power

𝐏𝐧𝐞𝐭 = 𝛔𝐀𝐞(𝐓𝐬 𝟒 – 𝐓 𝟒 )
Where: Ts = surrounding temperature
Example 1: How much mechanical work in joules would have to be done in Joule’s
apparatus to raise the temperature of a liter of water from room temperature to 25oC?
Given:
TI = 20℃
TF = 25℃
Vol = 1L
∴ mH2 O = 1 kg
Required:
Wk =?
Solution:
Q = mc∆T
kJ
Q = (1kg) (4.186 ) (25℃ − 20℃)
kg ∙ ℃
𝐐 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟗𝟑 𝐤𝐉 = 𝐖
93
Example 2: How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 0.20kg of water from
15oC to 45oC?
Given: Solution:
TI = 15℃ Q = mc∆T
TF = 45℃ J
Q = (0.20kg) (4186 ) (45℃
mH2 O = 0.20 kg kg ∙ ℃
− 15℃)
Required: 𝐐 = 𝟐𝟓𝟏𝟏𝟔. 𝟎 𝐉
Q=?
Example 3: A half-liter of water at 30oC is cooled, with the removal of 63KJ of heat.
What is the final temperature of the water?
Given: Q = −63kJ = −63000J

TI = 30℃
mH2 O = 0.50 kg Required:
J TF =?
cH2 O (4186 )
kg ∙ ℃
Solution:
Q = mc∆T
J
−63000J = (0.50kg) (4186 ) (TF − 30℃)
kg ∙ ℃
63000J
TF = − + 30
J
(0.50kg) (4186 )
kg ∙ ℃
𝐓𝐅 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟑℃ ≈ 𝟎℃
Example 4: Equal masses of aluminum and copper are at the same temperature. Which
will require the greater heat to raise its temperature by a given amount, and how many
times greater is this than the heat that would have to be added to the other metal?
Given: Solution:
J QAl mAl cAl ∆TAl
cCu = 390 =
kg ∙ ℃ QCu mCu cCu ∆TCu
J
cAl = 920 Since mCu = mAl & ∆TCu = ∆TAl
kg ∙ ℃
J
mCu = mAl QAl cAl 920
kg ∙ ℃
∆TCu = ∆TAl ∴ = =
QCu cCu J
390
kg ∙ ℃
Required: QAl
QAl = 2.36: 𝐐𝐀𝐥 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟔𝐐𝐂𝐮
=? QCu
QCu 𝐐𝐀𝐥 > 𝐐𝐂𝐮
94
Example 5: Students in a physics lab are to determine the specific heat of copper
experimentally. They heat 0.150kg of copper shot to 100oC and then carefully pour the
hot shot into a calorimeter cup containing 0.200kg of water at 20 oC. The final
temperature of the mixture in the cup is measured to be 25oC. If the aluminum cup has a
mass of 0.045kg, what is the specific heat of copper? (Assume that there is no heat loss to
the surroundings.)
Given: mCu = 0.15 kg

TI for Cu = 100℃ mAl = 0.045 kg
TI for Al & H2 O = 20℃ mH2 O = 0.20 kg
TF = 25℃
J Required:
cAl = 920
kg ∙ ℃ cCu =?
J
cH2 O = 4186
kg ∙ ℃
Solution:
ΣQ = 0
QAl + QCu + Q H2 O = 0
mAl cAl ∆TAl + mCu cCu ∆TCu + mH2 O cH2 O ∆TH2O = 0
[0.045(920)(25 − 20)] + [0.15(cCu )(25 − 100)] + [0.20(25 − 20)(4186)] = 0

207 − 11.25cCu + 4186 = 0
−207 − 4186 𝐉
cCu = = 𝟑𝟗𝟎. 𝟒𝟗
−11.25 𝐤𝐠 ∙ ℃
Example 6: Heat is added to 0.500kg of water at room temperature. How much heat in
joules is required to change the water to steam at 110oC?
Given: J
cH2 O = 2010 for steam
m = 0.50 kg kg ∙ ℃
TI = 20℃ J
TF1 = 100℃ Lv = 22.6 × 105
kg
TF2 = 110℃
J Required:
cH2 O = 4186 @ room T
kg ∙ ℃ ΣQH2 O =?
Solution:
J
Q1 = mc∆T = (0.500 kg) (4186 ) (100℃ − 20℃) = 167440J
kg ∙ ℃
J
QLv = mLv = (0.500 kg) (22.6 × 105 ) = 1130000 J
kg
J
Q3 = mc∆T = (0.500 kg) (2010 ) (110℃ − 100℃) = 10050J
kg ∙ ℃
ΣQH2 O = Q1 + QLv + Q3 = 167440 + 1130000 + 10050
𝚺𝐐𝐇𝟐 𝐎 = 𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟕𝟒𝟗𝟎 𝐉 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟔 𝐉
95
Example 7: A 0.30kg piece of ice at 0oC is placed in a liter of water at room temperature
in an insulated container. Assume that no heat is lost to the container, what is the final
temperature of the water?
Given:
mice = 0.30 kg
vol = 1L: ∴ mH2 O = 1 kg
J
LF = 3.33 × 105
kg
J
cH2 O = 4186
kg ∙ ℃
Required:
TF =?
Solution:
J
Qice = mLF = (0.30kg) (3.33 × 105 ) = 99900J
kg
Qice = Q H2 O
Q H2 O = mc∆T
J
−99900J = (1kg) (4186 ) (TF − 20℃)
kg ∙ ℃
−99900J
+ 20℃ = TF
J
(1kg) (4186 )
kg ∙ ℃
𝐓𝐅 = −𝟑. 𝟖𝟕 ℃
J
Q H2 O = (1kg) (4186 ) (0℃ − 20℃) = −83720 J
kg ∙ ℃
Q H2 O −83720 J
𝐦𝐢𝐜𝐞 = = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝐤𝐠
LF J
3.33 × 105
kg
96
Example 8: A room with a pine ceiling that measures 3.0m x 5.0m x 2.0cm thick has a
layer of glass wool insulation above it that is 6.0cm thick. On a cold day, the temperature
inside the room is 20oC and the temperature in the attic above the room is 8oC. Assuming
that the temperatures remain constant with a steady heat flow, how much energy does the
layer of insulation save in 1.0hr? Assume losses are due to the conduction only.
Given:
A = 3m × 5m = 15 m2
d1 = 2cm = 0.02m
d2 = 6cm = 0.06m
T1 = 20℃
T2 = 8℃
∆t = 1hr = 3600s
J
k glass wool = 0.042
ms ∙ ℃
J
k wood pine = 0.12
ms ∙ ℃
Solution:
∆T = T1 − T2 = 20 − 8 = 12℃
J
k wood pine A∆T∆t 0.12 ms ∙ ℃ (15 m2 )(12℃)(3600s)
∆Q = = = 𝟑𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐉
d1 0.02 m
∆Q1 ∆Q2
=
∆t ∆t
k glass wool A∆T k wood pine A∆T
=
d1 d2
k glass wool (T − T1 ) k wood pine (T2 − T)
=
d1 d2
k glass wool d2 T1 + k wood pine d1 T2

T=
k glass wool d2 + k wood pine d1
∆Q1 A(T2 − T1 )
=
∆t k glass wool k wood pine
+
d1 d2
15m2 (12℃)(3600s)
∆𝐐𝟐 = = 𝟒𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟎𝟖. 𝟗𝟔 𝐉
0.06 0.02
J + J
0.042 ms ∙ ℃ 0.12 ms ∙ ℃
∆𝑄1 = ∆Q − ∆Q2
∆𝑄1 = 3888000J − 406208.96 J = 𝟑𝟒𝟖𝟏𝟕𝟗𝟒𝟏. 𝟎𝟒 𝐉
97
∆𝑄1 34817941.04J
%= × 100 = × 100 = 𝟖𝟗. 𝟓𝟓%
∆Q 3888000J
Example 9: Suppose that your skin has an emissivity of 0.70 and that its exposed area is
0.27m2. How much net energy will be radiated per second from this area if the air
temperature is 20oC? Assume your skin temperature to be the same as normal body
temperature, 37oC.
Given:
Ts = 20℃ + 273.15 = 293.15 K
Tbody = 37℃ + 273.15 = 310.15 K
A = 0.27 m2
e = 0.7
𝑤
δ = 5.67 × 10−8 2 4
𝑚 𝐾
Required:
E =?
Solution:
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝛿𝐴𝑒(𝑇𝑠 4 − 𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 4 )
𝑤
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (5.67 × 10−8 2 4 ) (0.27 𝑚2 )(0.7)(293.15 𝐾 4 − 310.15 𝐾 4 )
𝑚 𝐾
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = −20.02 𝑤
98
Chapter 14: Thermodynamics
Important Terms:
Thermodynamics = transfer or the actions of heat
System = a definite quantity of matter enclosed by boundaries or surfaces, either real or

imaginary
Thermally Isolated System = If the heat transfer into or out of the system is impossible
Heat Reservoir = A system assumed to have an unlimited heat capacity
Equation of State = describe the conditions of thermodynamic systems
Process = change in the state or the thermodynamic coordinates of a system
Irreversible Process = A process for which the intermediate steps are non-equilibrium
states
Reversible Process = the process path between the initial and final states would be
known
First Law of thermodynamics = a statement of the conservation of energy as applied to

thermodynamic system
Isobaric Process = a constant – pressure process
Isometric Process = a constant – volume process
Isothermal Process = a constant – temperature process
Adiabatic Process = no heat is transferred into or out of the system
Second Law of Thermodynamics = heat will not flow spontaneously from a colder
body to a warmer body
Entrophy = A property that indicates the natural direction of a process
Isentropic Process = a constant entropy process
Heat Engine = device that converts heat energy to work
Thermal Cycle = a series of processes which brings the engine or system back to its
original condition.
99
Thermal Pump = a generic term for any device, including refrigerators, air conditioners
and heat pump, that transfers heat energy from a low-temperature reservoir to a high
temperature reservoir.
Coefficient of Performance (COP) = measure of a refrigerator or air conditioner’s

performance
Heat Pump = common commercial devices used to cool homes and offices in the
summer and to heat them in the winter
Carnot Cycle = consists of two isotherms and two adiabats and is conveniently
represented on a T-S diagram, where it forms a rectangle
Relative Efficiency = ratio of two efficiencies
Third Law of Thermodynamics = it is impossible to reach a temperature of absolute

zero
Important Equations
First Law of Thermodynamics
𝑸 = 𝜟𝑼 + 𝑾
Where: Q = heat
U=
W = work
Work Done by an Expanding Gas

𝑾 = 𝒑𝜟𝑽 = 𝒑(𝑽𝟐 – 𝑽𝟏 )
Where: V = volume
p = pressure
Change in Entropy
𝑸
𝜟𝑺 =
𝑻
Where: S = system’s entropy

Q = heat
T = temperature
Thermal Efficiency of a Heat Engine

𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝑸𝒉𝒐𝒕 – 𝑸𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝑸𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒅
Є𝒕𝒉 = = = 𝟏–
𝑸𝒉𝒐𝒕 𝑸𝒉𝒐𝒕 𝑸𝒉𝒐𝒕
100
Where: Є = thermal efficiency
W = work
Q = heat
Coefficient of Performance
𝑸𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝑸𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒅
𝑪𝑶𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒇 = =
𝑾𝒊𝒏 𝑸𝒉𝒐𝒕 – 𝑸𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒅
For refrigerator or air conditioner
𝑸𝒉𝒐𝒕 𝑸𝒉𝒐𝒕
𝑪𝑶𝑷𝒉𝒑 = =
𝑾𝒊𝒏 𝑸𝒉𝒐𝒕 – 𝑸𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒅
For heat pump in heating mode
Where: COP = coefficient of performance

Q = heat
W = work
Carnot Efficiency of an Ideal Heat Engine:

𝑻𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒐𝒕 – 𝑻𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒅
Є𝒄 = 𝟏 – =
𝑻𝒉𝒐𝒕 𝑻𝒉𝒐𝒕
Where: Єc = carnot efficiency
Relative Efficiency
Є𝒕𝒉
Є𝒓𝒆𝒍 =
Є𝒄
Where: Єrel = relative efficiency

Єth = thermal efficiency
Єc = carnot efficiency
Example 1: An ideal gas occupies a volume of 22.4L at STP (standard temperature and
pressure). While absorbing 2.53kJ of heat from the surroundings, the gas expands
isobarically to 32.4L. What is the change in the internal energy of the gas?
Given: T1= 0 °C = 273.15 K

Vol1= 22.4 L at STP
Q= 2.53 KJ Required:
Vol2 = 32.4L ∆𝑈 = ?
P1= P2 = 1 atm = 1.01x105 Pa
101
Solution:
1000𝑐𝑚3 (1𝑚)3
22.4𝐿 𝑥 𝑥 = 0.0224𝑚3
1𝐿 (100𝑐𝑚)3
1000𝑐𝑚3 (1𝑚)3
32.4𝐿 𝑥 𝑥 = 0.0324𝑚3
1𝐿 (100𝑐𝑚)3
𝑁
W= PΔV = 1.01x105 𝑚2 (0.0324 m3- 0.0224 m3) = 1010 J
ΔU= Q – W = 2530 J - 1010 J = 1520 J
Example 2: What is the change in entropy of ethyl alcohol when 0.25kg of it vaporizes at
its boiling point of 78oC (latent heat of vaporization Lv = 1.0 x 105J/kg)?
Given:
m= 0.25 Kg Required:
T= 78 + 273.15 = 351.15 K ∆𝑆 = ?
LV= 1.0x105 J/Kg
Solution:
1.0𝑥105 𝐽
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿𝑣 = 0.25𝑘𝑔 ( )
𝑘𝑔
𝑄 = 25000𝐽
𝑄 25000
∆𝑆 = = = 71.19𝐽/𝐾
𝑇 351.15
Example 3: A metal spoon at 24oC is placed in 1.00kg of water at 18oC. The thermally
isolated system comes to equilibrium at a temperature of 20oC. Find the approximately
change in the entropy of the system.
Given:
TMS= 24°C Required:
TW= 18°C ∆𝑆 = ?
mW= 1 Kg
TF= 20°C
Solution:
𝐽
𝑄𝑊 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇 = 1𝑘𝑔 (4186 ) (20°𝐶 − 18°𝐶) = 8372𝐽
𝑘𝑔°𝐶
𝑇𝐹 + 𝑇𝑊 20 + 18
𝑇𝑊 = = = 19 + 273.15 = 292.15°𝐾
2 2
𝑇𝐹 + 𝑇𝑀𝑆 20 + 24
𝑇𝑀𝑆 = = = 22 + 273.15 = 295.15°𝐾
2 2
102
𝑄𝑊 8372𝐽
∆𝑆𝑊 = = = 28.66𝐽/𝐾
𝑇𝑊 292.15
𝑄𝑀𝑆 −8372𝐽
∆𝑆𝑀𝑆 = = = −28.37𝐽/𝐾
𝑇𝑀𝑆 295.15
∆𝑆 = ∆𝑆𝑊 + ∆𝑆𝑀𝑆 = 28.66 + (−28.37) = 0.29𝐽/𝐾
Example 4: The small gasoline powered engine of a leaf blower removes 800J of heat
energy from a high temperature reservoir and exhausts 700J to a low temperature
reservoir. What is the engine’s thermal efficiency?
Given:
QHOT= 800 J
QCOLD= 700 J
Required:
Єth =?
Solution:
WNET = QHOT − QCOLD = 800 − 700 = 100J
WNET 100J
Єth = = = 0.125 x 100% = 12.5%
QHOT 800J
Example 5: An air conditioner operating in summer extracts 100J of heat from the
interior of the house for every 40J of electric energy required to operate it. Determine its
COP and its COP if it is reversed in the winter, running as a heat pump to move the same
amount of heat for the same amount of kinetic energy.
Given:
QCOLD = 100J
WNET = 40J
Required:
COPREF = ?
COPHP = ?
Solution:
QHOT = QCOLD + WINPUT = 100 + 40
QHOT = 140J
QCOLD 100
COPREF = = = 2.5
WINPUT 40
QHOT 140
COPHP = = = 3.5
WINPUT 40
103
Example 6: An engineer is designing a cyclic heat engine to operate between
temperatures of 150oC and 27oC. What is the maximum theoretical efficiency that can be
achieved? Suppose the engine, when built, does 100J of work per cycle for every 500J of
input heat per cycle. What is its relative efficiency?
Given:
THOT= 150 °C + 273.15 = 423.15 K
TCOLD= 27 °C + 273.15 = 300.15 K
WNET= 100 J
QHOT= 500J
Required:
∈𝑅𝐸𝐿 = ?
Solution:
𝑇𝐶𝑂𝐿𝐷 300.15
∈𝐶 = 1 − =1− = 0.29 𝑋 100% = 29%
𝑇𝐻𝑂𝑇 423.15
𝑊𝑁𝐸𝑇 100
∈𝑇𝐻 = = = 0.20𝑋 100% = 20%
𝑄𝐻𝑂𝑇 500
∈ 𝑇𝐻 0.20
∈𝑅𝐸𝐿 = = 𝑋 100% = 69%
∈𝐶 0.29
104

Electricity Magnetism Optic and Heat With Answer

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Electricity Magnetism Optic and Heat With Answer

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Chapter 1:

Electric Charge, Forces and Fields

Net Charge = It has an excess of either positive or negative charges.

Conservation of Charge = The net charge of an isolated system remains constant.

Insulators = They are poor electrical conductors.

Electroscope = A device that can be used to demonstrate the characteristics of electric

Electrostatic Charging = A process by which an insulator or an insulated conductor

Charging by Induction = Provide a path by which electrons can escape.

Polarization = Separation of charge.

Electric Field = A force per unit charge.

Electric Dipole = It consist of two separate electric charges

Gaussian Surface = Consider a single positive electric charge in an imaginary closed

Particles and electric charge

Particles Electric Mass(kg)

Where: Q= charge(C or coulomb)

Where: k = proportionality constant, 9.00 x 109Nm2/C2

Where: E = electric field, F/C

Where: E = electric field, F/C

Electric Field Between Two Closely Spaced Parallel Plates

Where: E = electric field, F/C

Example 2: Two point charges of -1.0x10-6 C and +2.0x10-6 C are separated by a

q1 = -1.0x10-6 C F12 and F21

R= √Fx2 +Fy2 =√0.442 +02 =0.44N

kq1 q 2 2 ) (1.602 x C)(1.602 x 10 C)

d = 0.60m x = ? (location of zero E)

-5.0m 2uC 3.5m -1.0uC

kqd kq (x) kqx

1. What is the electrostatic force on q1 and q2 ?

R= √Fx2 +Fy2 =√0.222 +0.322 =0.39N 𝟓𝐩𝐭𝐬

Voltage = Potential Difference.

Electric Potential = It as the same as electric potential difference however it is not

Equipotential Surfaces = A plane on which the value of the electric potential is

Electron Volt = The kinetic energy acquired by an electron accelerated through a

Capacitor = A typical arrangement of conductors.

Capacitance = It expresses the charge stored per volt.

Dielectric Constant = It is the characteristics of the capability of the chosen material.

Dielectric Permittivity = It is always greater than the permittivity of the vacuum by a

Where: 𝚫V = electric potential difference, v

Electric Potential Difference between Parallel Plates

Where: 𝚫V = electric potential difference, v

Electric Potential Due to a Point Charge

Where: V = electric potential, v

Electric Potential Energy of a Configuration of Point Charges

Where: U = electric potential energy, J

Relationship between Potential and Electric Field

Where: E = electric field, N/C

Capacitance of a Parallel-Plate Capacitor

Energy in a Charged Capacitor

Where: Uc = energy stored in a capacitor, J

Dielectric Effect on Capacitance

Equivalent Capacitance for Capacitors in Series

Where: Cs = equivalent capacitance connected in series

Equivalent Capacitance for Capacitors in Parallel

Where: Cp = equivalent capacitance connected in parallel

U = Vq = 11.25J/C(1.602 x 10−19 C) = 1.81 x 10−18 J

Example 2: We want to accelerate an electron to one percent of the speed of light in a

kq 9.00 x 109Nm2/C2(1.609 x 10-19C)

kq 9.00 x 109Nm2/C2(1.609 x 10-19C)

∆V= V1 - V2 = 27.26 - 6.8 = 20.46v

UT = U12 + U13 + U23

Utotal = 2(−5.09x10−19 ) + 1.61x10−19 = −8.57x10−19 J

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 = (24x10−6 C)(5000v) = 0.12C