Lecture

on
Electrical Measurement & Measuring Instruments
Measurement
The measurement of a given quantity is an act of comparison between the quantity (whose magnitude is unknown) and a predefined standard.
The results of the measurement are meaningful, for this purpose there are two basic requirements:
• The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined and should be commonly accepted,
• The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.
Methods of Measurement
(1) Direct Methods:- In these methods, the unknown quantity is directly compared against a standard. The result is expressed as a numerical
number and a unit. Direct methods are quite common for the measurement of physical quantities like length, mass and time.
(2) Indirect Methods:- Measurement by direct methods are not always possible, feasible and practicable. These methods in most of the cases
are inaccurate because they involve human factors. They are also less sensitive. Hence direct methods are not preferred and are rarely
used.
In engineering applications Measurement Systems are used. These measurement systems use indirect methods for measurement purposes. A
Measurement System consists of a transducing element which converts the quantity to be measured in an analogous form. The analogous
signal is then processed by some intermediate means and is then fed to the end devices which present the results of the measurement.
Instrument
Measurement generally involves using an instrument as a physical means of determining a quantity or variable. The instrument serves as an
extension of human faculties and enables the man to determine the value of an unknown quantity which his unaided human faculties cannot
measure.
An instrument may be defined as a device used for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable.
Measurement System and its Elements
A measurement system may be defined as a systematic arrangement for the measurement or determination of an unknown quantity and
analysis of instrumentation. The generalised measurement system and its different components/elements are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Generalised measurement system

Primary Sensing Element:-
The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with the primary sensing element of a measurement system. The physical quantity
under measurement, called the measurand. This act is then immediately followed by the conversion of measurand into an analogous
electrical signal. This is done by a transducer. A transducer in general; is defined as a device which converts energy from one form to
another. A transducer is defined as a device which converts a physical quantity into an electrical quantity. The physical quantity to be
measured, in the first place is sensed and detected by an element which gives the output in a different analogous form. This output is then
converted into an electrical signal by a transducer. This is true of most the the cases but is not true for all. In many cases the physical
quantity is directly converted into an electrical quantity by a transducer. However, the first stage of a measurement system is known as a
detector transducer stage.
Many a times, certain operations are to be performed on the signal before its further transmission so that interfering sources are removed in
order that the signal may not get distorted. The process may be linear such as amplification, attenuation, integration, differentiation, addition
and subtraction or nonlinear such as modulation, detection, sampling, filtering, chopping and clipping, etc. The process is called signal
conditioning. So a signal conditioner follows the primary sensing element or transducer, as the case may be. The sensing element senses the
condition, state or value of the process variable by extracting a small part of energy from the measurand, and then produces an output which
reflects this condition, state or value of the measurand.
Variable Conversion Elements:-
After passing through the primary sensing element, the output is in the form of an electrical signal, may be voltage, current, frequency,
which may or may not be accepted to the system. For performing the desired operation, it may be necessary to convert this output to some
other suitable form while retaining the information content of the original signal. For example, if the output is in analog form and the next
step of the system accepts only in digital form then an analog-to-digital converter will be employed. Many instruments do not require any
variable conversion unit, while some others require more than one element.
Manipulation Elements:-
Sometimes it is necessary to change the signal level without changing the information contained in it for the acceptance of the instrument.
The function of the variable manipulation unit is to manipulate the signal presented to it while preserving the original nature of the signal.
For example, an electronic amplifier converts a small low voltage input signal into a high voltage output signal. Thus, the voltage amplifier
acts as a variable manipulation unit. Some of the instruments may require this function or some of the instruments may not.
Data Transmission Elements:-
The data transmission elements are required to transmit the data containing the information of the signal from one system to another.
For example, satellites are physically separated from the earth where the control stations guiding their movement are located.
Data Presentation Elements:-
The function of the data presentation elements is to provide an indication or recording in a form that can be evaluated by an unaided human
sense or by a controller. The information regarding measurand is to be conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument or the system for
monitoring, controlling or analysis purpose. Such a device may be in the form of analog or digital format. The simplest form of a display
device is the common panel meter with some kind of calibrated scale and pointer. In case the data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic
tapes or magnetic discs may be used. For control and analysis purpose, computers may be used.
Characteristics of Measuring Instruments
Accuracy:- It is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of the quantity being measured. Thus accuracy of a
measurement means confirmity to truth. Accuracy is determined as the maximum amount by which the result differs from the true value.
Precision:- It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements, i.e. given a fixed value of a quantity, precision is a measure of the
degree of agreement within a group of measurements.
Span:- If in a measuring instrument the highest point of calibration is y units and the lowest point x units. Then the instrument range is from
x to y units and the instrument span is given by
Span = (y-x) units
Sensitivity:- Sensitivity can be defined as the ratio of a change in output to the change in input.
Resolution:- The smallest increment in input (the quantity being measured) which can be detected with certainty by an instrument is its
resolution.
Dead zone:- Dead zone is the largest range of values of a measured variable to which the instrument does not respond.
Classification of Measuring Instruments

Figure 2. Classification of measuring instruments

•   in Measurement
Errors
The difference between the true or exact value and the measured value of the unknown quantity is known as the absolute error of the
measurement.
If be the absolute error of the measurement, and be the measured and absolute value of the unknown quantity then may be expressed as

The relative error is the ratio of absolute error to the true value of the unknown quantity to be measured,
=
when the difference between the true value A and the measured value Am of the unknown quantity is very small or negligible then the
relative error may be expressed as,
=
The measured value of the unknown quantity may be more than or less than the true value of the measurand. So the manufacturers have to
specify the deviations from the specified value of a particular quantity in order to enable the purchaser to make proper selection according
to his requirements. The limits of these deviations from specified values are defined as limiting or guarantee errors. The magnitude of a
given quantity having a specified magnitude and a maximum or a limiting error must have a magnitude between the limits
and
or
Types of Errors
(1) Gross Errors (2) Systematic Errors (3) Random Errors
(1) Gross Errors:- This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading instruments and recording and calculating measurement
results. The responsibility of the mistake normally lies with the experimenter. The experimenter, may grossly misread the scale. For
example he may, due to an oversight, read the temperature as 31.5°C while the actual reading may be 21.5°C. He may transpose the reading
while recording. For example he may read 25.8°C and record 28.5°C. But as long as human beings are involved, some gross errors will
definitely be committed. Although complete elimination of gross errors is probably impossible, one should try to anticipate and correct
them. Some gross errors are easily detected while others may be very difficult to detect.
Gross errors may be of any amount and therefore their mathematical analysis is impossible. However, they can be avoided by adopting two
means. They are:
• Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
• Two, three or even more readings should be taken for the quantity under measurement. These readings should be taken preferably by
different experimenters and the readings should be taken at a different reading point to avoid re-reading with the same error. It should he
understood that no reliance be placed on a single reading. It is always advisable to take a large number of readings as a close agreement
between readings assures that no gross error has been committed.
(2) Systematic Error:-
(a) Instrumental Errors (b) Environmental Errors (c) Observational Errors
(a) Instrumental Errors:-
o Due to inherent shortcomings in the instrument
o Due to misuse of the instruments
o Due to loading effects of instruments
Inherent Shortcomings of Instruments: These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical structure. They may be due to
construction, calibration or operation of tile instruments or measuring devices. These errors may cause the instrument to read too low or too
high.
For example, if the spring (used for producing controlling torque) of a permanent magnet instrument has become weak, the instrument will
always read high. While making precision measurements, we must recognize the possibility of such errors as it is often possible to eliminate
them, or at least reduce them to a great extent by using the following methods:
• The procedure of measurement must be carefully planned. Substitution methods or calibration against standards may be used for the
purpose.
• Correction factors should be applied after determining the instrumental errors.
• The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
Misuse of Instruments: There is an old saying that instruments are better than the peop1e who use them. Too often, the errors caused in
measurements are due to the fault of the operator than that of the instrument. A good instrument used in an unintelligent way, may give
erroneous results. Examples which may be cited for this misuse of instrument may be failure to adjust the zero of instruments, poor initial
adjustments, using leads of too high a resistance and so on.
No doubt the above malpractices may not cause a permanent damage to the instrument but all the same they cause errors. However, there are
certain ill practices, which in addition to producing errors cause permanent damage to the instruments as a result of overloading and
overheating which may ultimately result in failure of the instrument and sometimes the system itself.
Loading effects: One of the most common errors committed by beginners, is the improper use of an instrument for measurement work.
For example, a well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading voltage reading when connected across a high resistance circuit. The same
voltmeter when connected in a low resistance circuit, may give a more dependable reading.
(b) Environmental Errors:-
These errors are due. to conditions external to the measuring device including conditions in the area surrounding the instrument. These may be
effects of temperature pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or of external magnetic or electrostatic fields. The corrective measures employed to
reduce these undesirable effects are:
• Arrangements are made to keep the conditions as nearly as constant as possible. For example, temperature can be kept constant by keeping
the equipment in a temperature controlled enclosure.
• Using equipment which is immune to these effects. For example, variations in resistance with temperature can be minimized by using
resistance materials which have a very low resistance temperature coefficient.
• Employing techniques which eliminate the effects of these disturbances. For example, the effect of humidity dust etc. can be entirely
eliminated by hermetically sealing the equipment.
(c) Observational Errors:-
There are many sources of observational errors. As an example, the pointer of a voltmeter rests slightly above the surface of the scale. Thus an
error on account of PARALLAX will be incurred unless the line of vision of the observer is exactly above the pointer. To minimize parallax
errors highly accurate meters are provided with mirrored scales as shown in Figure 3.
When the pointer's image appears hidden by the pointer, observer's eye is directly in line with the pointer. Although a mirrored scale
minimizes parallax error, an error is necessarily present though it may be very small. Since the parallax errors arise on account of
pointer and the scale not being in the same plane, we can eliminate this error by having the pointer and the scale in the same plane.
There are human factors involved in measurement. The sensing capabilities of individual observers effect the accuracy of
measurement. No two persons observe the same situation in exactly the same way where small details are concerned. For example,
there are observational errors in measurements involving timing of an event. One observer may tend to anticipate the signal and read
too soon. Different experimenters may different results, especially when sound and light measurements are involved in the same
plane since no two observers possess the same capabilities.
Modern electrical instruments have digital display of output which completely eliminates the errors on account of human
observational or sensing powers as the output is in the form of digits.

Figure 3 . Errors due to Parallax

(3) Random (Residual) Errors
It has been consistently found that experimental results show variations from one reading to another, even after all systematic errors have
been accounted for. These error are due to a multitude of small factors which change or fluctuate from one measurement to another and are
due surely to chance. The quantity being measured is affected by many happenings throughout out the universe. We are aware of and
account for some of the factors influencing the measurement, but about the rest we are unaware. The happenings or disturbance about which
we are unaware are lumped together and called "Random" or "Residual”. Hence the errors caused by these happenings are called Random
(or Residual) Errors.
Operating Torques:-
(1) Deflecting Torque (2) Controlling Torque (3) Damping Torque
(1) Deflecting Torque ():
It is the torque which deflects the pointer on a calibrated scale according to the electrical quantity passing through the instrument. The
deflecting torque causes the moving system and hence the pointer attached to it to move from zero position to indicate on a graduated scale
the value of electrical quantity being measured.
(2) Controlling Torque ():
It is the torque which controls the movement of the pointer on a particular scale according to the quantity of electricity passing through it. If
deflecting torque were acting alone, the pointer would continue to move indefinitely and would swing over to the maximum deflected
position irrespective of the magnitude of current (or voltage or power) to be measured.
(a) Spring Control (b) Gravity Control
• 
• 
(3) Damping Torque:
If the moving system is acted upon by deflecting and controlling torques alone, then pointer, due to inertia, will oscillate about its final
deflected position for quite sometime before coming to rest. This is often undesirable because it makes difficult to obtain quick and accurate
readings. In order to avoid these oscillations of the pointer and to bring it quickly to its final deflected position, a damping torque is provided
in the indicating instruments.
(a) Air friction damping:
Air friction damping uses either aluminium piston or vane, which is attached to or mounted on the moving system and moves in an air
chamber at one end.
(b) Fluid friction damping:
In fluid friction damping, a light vane (attached to the moving system) is dipped into a pot of damping oil. The fluid produces the necessary
opposing (or damping) force to the vane. The vane should be completely submerged in the oil.
• The disadvantage of this type of damping is that it can only be used in the vertical position.
(c) Eddy Current Damping:
This is also known as electromagnetic damping. When a conductor moves in a magnetic field an emf is induced in it and if a closed path is
provided, a current (known as eddy current) flows. This current interacts with the magnetic field to produce an electromagnetic torque which
opposes the motion. This torque is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field and the current produced. The current is proportional to
emf which in tum is proportional to velocity of the conductor. Thus if the strength of the magnetic field is, constant (if it is produced by a
permanent magnet), the torque is proportional to velocity of the conductor.
Figure 6. Air friction damping Figure 7. Fluid friction damping Figure 8. Eddy current damping
PMMC Instruments
 They are also known as d’Arsonval instruments.
 These instruments works on the electromagnetic effect of current.
 A permanent magnet used to produce magnetic flux and coil that carries the current to be measures moves in this field.
Working Principle:-
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force. It is given by expression,
F = BIL
Where F = Force in Newton,
B = Flux density is tesla,
I = Current is ampere,
L = Length of conductor in meter.
The current I which is to be measured is passed through the moving coil and experiences a force which is directly proportional
to this current. Due to this force the coil moves and the pointer attached to it will also move. The angle through which the
pointer moves is proportional to current I.
Construction of PMMC instrument:
• A coil of thin wire is mounted on an aluminum frame (spindle) positioned between the poles of a U shaped permanent
magnet which is made up of magnetic alloys like alnico.
• The coil is pivoted on the jewelled bearing and thus the coil is free to rotate. The current is fed to the coil through spiral
springs which are two in numbers.
• The coil which carries a current, which is to be measured, moves in a strong magnetic field produced by a permanent
magnet and a pointer is attached to the spindle which shows the measured value.
Deflecting Torque:
The expression for the deflecting torque is given by,
Td = G I
where G = constant
I = Current through the moving coil
Controlling Torque:
The controlling torque is given by,
Tc = C θ
where C = Control spring constant in N-m/rad
θ = Deflection of coil from zero position
For steady state, the controlling torque is equal to the deflection torque
∴ Tc = Td
i.e. Cθ = GI
∴θ∝I
Thus deflection of the pointer is proportional to current passed through the coil.
Advantages of PMMC Instruments:-
1) The PMMC consumes less power and has great accuracy.
2) It has uniformly divided scale and can cover arc of 270 degree.
3) The PMMC has a high torque to weight ratio.
4) It can be modified as ammeter or voltmeter with suitable resistance.
5) It has efficient damping characteristics and is not affected by stray magnetic field.
6) It produces no losses due to hysteresis.

Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments:-

7) The moving coil instrument can only be used on D.C supply as the reversal of current produces reversal of torque on the
coil.
8) It’s very delicate and sometimes uses ac circuit with a rectifier.
9) It’s costly as compared to moving coil iron instruments.
10) It may show error due to loss of magnetism of permanent magnet.
Connection of PMMC instruments as Ammeter or Voltmeter
1. Ammeter:
When the instrument is used as an ammeter, an external low resistance called shunt is connected in parallel with the
movement so that net resistance of the instrument is very low and the instrument can be connected in series with any
equipment whose current is to be measured. Due to low resistance, voltage drop across instrument is negligible.
2. Voltmeter:
When the instrument is used as a voltmeter, an external resistance is connected in series with the movement and this series
combination is connected across supply terminals or load terminals or in general cross any two terminals where terminal
voltage is to be measured. Due to high series resistance, current flowing through the instrument is negligible.

Fig.10: Connection as a voltmeter

Fig.9: Connection as an ammeter
Electro-dynamic Wattmeter
• The basic action of this instrument depends upon the electromagnetic force exerted between fixed and moving coils
carrying current.
• Fig.(1) shows fixed coil FF and moving coil M carried by spindle.
• Controlling torque is provided by two spiral springs mounted on the spindle which act as the leads of coil M.
• The deflecting torque is proportional to the product of the current in the current coil and voltage across pressure coil. So Td
is proportional to power.
• The scale of this instrument is uniform.
• It is used for power measurement in ac and dc circuits.
Fig.11: Electrodynamic wattmeter
Advantages:-
1) It can be used for AC as well as DC measurement.
2) It is easy in construction.
3) The instrument is free from hysteresis errors.
4) Uniform scale.
5) Light weight.
6) Consume less power.

Disadvantages:-
7) High cost.
8) Errors can occur due to friction, changes in temperature etc.
9) Large errors at low power factor.
10) It gets affected by the external stray magnetic fields. So shielding is essential.
Energy Meter:-
• Fig. 16 shows the construction of energy meter.
• The two exciting coils act as current coil and voltage coil and the disc acts as a time counting device.
• The disc is kept free to rotate continuously. Speed of the disc depends on the power supplied to the load. More the load,
higher is the disc speed.
• In this instrument a gear train is provided to count the revolution of the disc. Number of revolution of the disc are directly
recorded in terms of the energy consumed.

Fig.12: Construction of energy meter