Observations of Failures on Man-made Cut Slopes

Amadu Farrow

ABSTRACT

Occurrences of man-made cut slope failures have been recorded in several parts around the
world. Some slope failures can negatively affect road operations with consequential cost of
repairing. The stability of cutting slopes is dependent upon the nature of the soils and bedrock
encountered which can be highly variable. Slopes can be stable near vertical cuttings when
excavations are carried out through competent rock and very well cemented soils.

In any case, it is important that the slopes of the cuttings be adequately protected from
surfacewater erosion and infiltration which can cause an initially stable slope to become unstable
over time. This could be achieved by applying a dressing of stone pitching to the face of the
cutting for instance, and by installing drainage measures along the slope, and intersecting
surfacewater flow from above the top of the cutting.

This paper therefore aims to provide comments and technical inputs on the condition of cut
slopes along the following road projects in Sierra Leone.
 Kenema – Pendembu
 Regent – Grafton

The comments provided in this paper are based on a visual inspection of the condition of a
limited section of the above roads only.
 Observations of Failures on Man-made Cut Slopes

INTRODUCTION

In the framework of its effort to strengthen Economic Development, improve the population’s
living standards and fight against poverty, the Government of Sierra Leone has, recently
embarked on several roads rehabilitation and reconstruction projects across the country. A great
majority of these roads are being funded by the Government of Sierra Leone through the
Ministry of Finance and Economic Development.

A great number of these roads projects are located in flat to hilly fields. Some of the roads
located in hilly terrain demands extensive cuttings and fillings to be made in order to achieve the
required grades. The stability of cut slopes is of vital importance if the future serviceability of the
road in the cut slope sections will not be jeopardized. Slope instability may also results in loss of
many lives and considerable property. With this view, cut slopes need to be thoroughly designed
and constructed by taking into account the agents for instability in slopes, which could
potentially affect their long-term stability.

Side slopes for road cuttings should be formed using safe slope angles, safe height and protected
as necessary to prevent a slope failure from occurring over the design life of the road. From
analytical techniques, the stability of cut slopes is usually derived in terms of a factor of safety,
with inputs from the material properties (shear strength parameters) obtained through laboratory
testing. However, studies by Ho and Fredlund, 1982 has shown that design of side slopes for
road cuttings in tropical and residual soil using analytical techniques is not always successful.
This can be generally attributed to changes in the engineering properties and conditions of the
materials not anticipated during design and construction of the slope, which may negatively
affect the in-service life of the cut slope (J. Michael Duncan and Stephen G. Wright, 2005). A
realistic and cost effective approach to the design and construction of cutting slopes in tropical
terrains should therefore be based not only on conventional slope stability analyses but also on
performance surveys carried out on existing cutting slopes in similar geo-environmental situation
(K.E.N., Tsidzi).

Some cutting slopes made in road projects in Sierra Leone appear to have been completely based
on conventional slope stability analyses, which have not always proved satisfactory because of
 Observations of Failures on Man-made Cut Slopes

the different shear strength characteristics and changes in the properties of the soil with time.
This necessitates the need to apply sound engineering judgments and lessons learnt from
previous slope failures in the design and construction of cutting slopes in anticipation of changes
in the materials properties. In the Author’s view, if this approach is adopted will help mitigating
the risk of cutting slope failures in weathered and tropical soils.

CAUSES OF SLOPE FAILURE

Various causes of slope failure exist. A failure can occur by erosion of the slope face causing
debris to fall, or can be an internal failure where a section of slope moves downhill. In either
case, the cause of the failure can usually be attributed to a combination of the geometry of the
cutting (slope height and slope angle); and an external influence such as surfacewater flowing
over the face of the cutting or infiltrating the slope which can reduce the internal resistance
(shear strength) of the soil leading to failure. The most important factors that cause slope failure
are as described below:

 Water occurring within a soil mass causing seepage forces thus increasing the shear stress
with concomitant reduction in the shear strength of the soil.
 Use of over-steep slope not compatible with the strength of the material.
 Weathering leading to strength loss of the rock or sock. This could occur by physical and
chemical processes, thus gradually weakening the slope material and ultimately its shear
strength.
 Application of external loads such as nearby structures, traffic at or near the top of the
slope.
 Gravitational forces acting in the direction of motion, thus causing movement of the soil
mass down the slope.
 Forces due to earthquake.
 Observations of Failures on Man-made Cut Slopes

It is of vital importance that the agents of instability in cut slopes be understood for the purpose
of planning, design and construction of new slopes as well as for the repairing of failed slopes (J.
Michael Duncan and Stephen G. Wright, 2005).

TYPES OF SLOPE FAILURES

Several types of slope failure exist. The most common slope failures are described as follows:

Creep
Creep is the downward movement of slopes. Such movement can occur gradually toward the toe
or toward a more stable element of the slope. This type of slope failure can be rapid if the
accumulated stresses in the slope exceed the mobilized shear strength of the slope materials.
Figures 1and 2 shows creep failures.

Figure 1: Signs of creep

 Observations of Failures on Man-made Cut Slopes

Figure 2: Creep failure

Slides

Slides are downward movement of slope. This movement is in the form of a block of earth
material and often occurs along planes of definite weaknesses. Slides which occur either in rock
or soil mass will exhibit a rotational or translational movement depending on the type of material
encountered. Homogeneous material will exhibit a circular failure surface, whilst the non-
homogeneous material exhibits non circular failure surface.

The failure surfaces of translational slide are parallel to the slope and occur at relatively shallow
depth below the slope surface. In homogeneous cohesive soil, rotational slide forms a deep
circular surface. However, in cohesionless soil, rotational slide forms a relatively shallow failure
surface. Figures 3 to 5 shows slide failures.
 Observations of Failures on Man-made Cut Slopes

Rotational Movement

Figure 3: Slides (a) Homogeneous soil (b) Non-homogeneous soil

(Circular failure surface) (Non circular failure surface)

Translational Movement

Figure 4: Translational slides

Figure 5: Movement of soil block in a slide

 Observations of Failures on Man-made Cut Slopes

Flow

Flows are associated with downslope movement of unconsolidated soil with extensive internal
deformations. Flows are caused by entrapped water by an impermeable layer causing the soil
mass to be saturated with complete loss of shear strength. The sliding mass in flow failures
exhibits the character of a flowing fluid. The failure surface of flow is much greater than that of a
slide because, in slides some soil block will be maintained during sliding, whilst in flow, the soil
block is completely lost.

Figure 6: Flow failures

METHODS OF STABILIZING CUT SLOPES

Protection of sloping face of road cutting during and after construction is of vital importance in
the prevention of slope failure. Various slope protection methods are in use. This paper describes
below the most commonly used slope protection methods in Sierra Leone:

Turfing
Turfing is the application of grass with developed roots on the cut slope surface. This method is
efficient and economical in preventing flatter slopes (3:1) from the effect of erosion
 Observations of Failures on Man-made Cut Slopes

Intercepting Drain
Intercepting drains are normally provided at the top of a cut in order to prevent water from
flowing freely down the face of the slope. The water intercepted by this drain is transported to
rays ways or paved spilled ways that are located at strategic locations on the face of the cut. The
transported water is deposited into longitudinal drains/ditches alongside the highway for on-ward
transportation into a suitable outlet.

Slope Linings
Slope linings are predominantly used in mountainous areas that are subjected to heavy rain falls
in order to prevent steep slopes from erosion. The linings are commonly dressed with stone
pitching or rip-rap.

Slope Geometry
Resistance to slope failure is also derived from the geometry of the cuttings, for instance the
slope height, berm and slope angle. The geometry of the cutting should be such that the slope
angle should be determined from experimental quantification of shear strength parameters (C and
ɸ) from testing of representative samples of the slope materials. Typically, the long-term stability
of most soils is formed at a gradient ranging between 2horizontal:1vertical to 3horizontal:
1vertical, unless other measures are implemented. However, vertical cuttings with side slope
ranging between 0.2horizontal:1vertical to 0.5horizontal:1vertical are possible when excavations
are carried out through competent rock.

Shear Strength of Soil

To enhance the stability of a cut slope, the shear strength offered by the soil must be greater than
the shear stress (J. Michael Duncan and Stephen G. Wright, 2005). The shear strength parameters
of soils can be determined in terms of total stress (c and ɸ) and effective stress (c' and ɸ'),
depending on the time required for drainage. In the laboratory, the direct shear box test is most
appropriate for measuring the shear strength parameters of a soil under a drained condition,
whilst the triaxial compression test is suitable for undrained testing of shear strength parameters.
In the field, the vane shear test is used to determine the shear strength parameters.
 Observations of Failures on Man-made Cut Slopes

The fundamental shear strength equation is given by:

s = c + σtanɸ (in terms of total stress)

s = c' + σ'tanɸ' (in terms of effective stress)

Where, s = shear strength of soil

c = unit cohesion
σ = total normal stress at failure
ɸ = angle of internal friction
c' = effective unit cohesion
σ' = effective normal stress
ɸ' = effective angle of internal friction

Factor of Safety
The factor of safety can be defined as the ratio of resisting forces to driving forces. The shear
strength parameters will be required as inputs in the conventional slope stability analyses in the
determination of the factor of safety. A slope is generally assumed to be stable if it has a factor of
safety of 1.25 or higher, provided other measures are implemented for possible variations in
material properties and construction practices (S. Hughes, 2003).

KENEMA – PENDEMBU ROAD

Observations

The road is characterized by the alternate development of flat to hilly terrain, with some sections
constructed in cuts and some in fills. The nature of the soils in cutting sections varies from
laterite to sandy-clay soil. The properties of the clayey soils can be altered due to seasonal
variation, i.e. presenting significant shrinkage or swelling according to moisture content changes.
 Observations of Failures on Man-made Cut Slopes

Some cut slopes have exhibited signs of failure, whilst some cut slopes have collapsed despite
applying a dressing of stone pitching to the face of the cutting. Photograph taken at the location
of the failure are provided in Figures 7. It is evident that the failed cut slope may require major
repairs, which can greatly increase road maintenance costs. Construction of this road is near
completion

The soil conditions at the failed slope consist predominantly clay minerals. The long-term
stability of clay soil under different loading conditions is much more difficult to envisage,
especially for highly plastic clay. The higher the plasticity index the greater the potential for
instability (J. Michael Duncan and Stephen G. Wright, 2005).

Comments on stability of the cut slope

The cut in the slope was made near vertical cutting. From the stability point of view, vertical
cuttings should be avoided unless when excavations are carried out through competent rock or
through well hardened (or cemented) laterite, or laterite which exhibits hardening properties. A
stable cut slope in heavy and soft clay soils is generally assumed to be formed at 2:1 to 3:1
(horizontal: vertical).

The fundamental cause of the slope failure could best be attributed to excessive infiltration in
intersecting cracks during rainstorms situations at the crest of the slope, causing saturation of the
soil mass and build-up of high pore pressure with consequence increase in the unit weight of the
soil. In this case, it is of vital importance that despite the stone-pitching dressings at the face of
the cutting, the slope should be adequately protected from surfacewater build-up at the top of the
slope. This could be achieved by establishing vegetation at the top of the slope to prevent long-
term erosion. Another possible solution is to construct drainage ditches a suitable distance away
from the top of the cut in order to intercept the flow of water over the face of the slope. These
measures cannot be unwarranted particularly when the cut material is weak. In-depth numerical
slope stability analysis should be considered as an integral part of the solution.

Another possible slope stabilization measure is the use of gabions with stepped face to provide
the necessary support. In the Authors practice, gabion has been found to be a satisfactory
 Observations of Failures on Man-made Cut Slopes

measure of stabilizing cuttings made in clay soil of low height. Figure 3 depicts the application
of gabions in slope stability of clay soil. This technique potentially enhances the stability of clay
soil that will accommodate slight movement of the slope, thereby reducing the possibility for
failure – slide, overturn or collapse. Other stabilization measures are possible.

Figure 7: Sudden slope failure: Kenema – Pendembu Road

Figure 8: Use of gabions for slope stabilization

 Observations of Failures on Man-made Cut Slopes

REGENT – GRAFTON ROAD

Observations

The road traverses mountainous terrain. Some sections of the road are being constructed by
cutting into the steeply sloping grounds. The cuttings are being made into the native laterite soil.
Soil structure and properties are derived from the bedrock and can be altered overtime. Some
laterite soils exhibit a self-hardening (or cementing) property on exposure to air, but this is not
always the case. Soil conditions are random in nature and composition change over a short
distance.

Some of the cuttings along the Regent Grafton road have been excavated to a significant depth
using steep slope angles. Currently the face of these cuttings are exposed to surfacewater flow
and infiltration. These are not favourable conditions from the view of maintaining slope stability,
particularly if difficult ground conditions are encountered in the cuttings.

Recently, a sudden slope failure occurred on a cut section of the Regent Grafton road. It was
observed that some of the cuttings in the road have been made in laterite containing numerous
intersecting fissures and sections of highly decomposed bedrock. Portions of the soil in the
cuttings have a granular composition occasionally containing boulders of laterite and the original
parent bedrock. Photographs taken at the location of the failure are provided in Figure 9.

Comments on stability of the cut slope

The stability of the cuttings are dependent upon the nature of the soils and bedrock encountered
which can be highly variable. Vertical cuttings are possible when excavations are carried out
through competent rock or well cemented laterite. The intersecting fissures in the soil are a
potential for instability and should be addressed.

In light of the above, it is important that the slopes of the cuttings be adequately protected from
surfacewater erosion and infiltration which can cause an initially stable slope to become unstable
over time. This could be achieved by applying a dressing of stone pitching to the face of the
 Observations of Failures on Man-made Cut Slopes

cutting for instance, and by installing drainage measures along the slope, and intersecting
surfacewater flow from above the top of the cutting.

The current condition of some of the cut slopes along the Regent Grafton road is cause for
concern, especially given that a failure has occurred. If left in the current condition it is
considered likely that additional failures may occur.

Figure 9: Slope failure at Regent – Grafton Road

REFERENCES

 Hughes, S. (2003). Slope failure (Landslides, mudflows, earthflows, and other mass
wasting processes).
 Michael Duncan, J. & Stephen Wright, G. (2005). Soil strength and slope stability.
 Tsidzi, K.E.N. (2005). An engineering geological approach to road cutting slope design
in Ghana Road.
 Gray & Leiser, (1982). Vegetation and erosion.
 Observations of Failures on Man-made Cut Slopes

 Gray, D.H (1995). Biotechnical stabilization of steepened slope.

 Chan, R.K.S. (2003). Guide to slope maintenance.
 Niroumand, H, Kassim1, K.A., Ghafooripour, A., Nazir1, R & Zolfeghari Far, S. Y.
(2012). Investigation of slope failure in soil mechanics.
 Daire Cummins (2013). Observations on Cut Slopes, Regent Grafton Road, Freetown,
Sierra Leone.