Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
MB 0050
ASSIGNMENTS
Subject code: MB0050
(4 credits)
Marks 60
SUBJECT NAME: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Q1. Give examples of specific situations that would call for the following types of
research, explaining why – a) Exploratory research b) Descriptive research c)
Diagnostic research d) Evaluation research.
It is a type of research conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined. Exploratory
research helps determine the best research design, data collection method and selection of
subjects. It should draw definitive conclusions only with extreme caution. Given its
fundamental nature, exploratory research often concludes that a perceived problem does not
actually exist.
Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing available literature
and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with consumers,
employees, management or competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth
interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies. The Internet
allows for research methods that are more interactive in nature. For example, RSS feeds
efficiently supply researchers with up-to-date information; major search engine search results
may be sent by email to researchers by services such as Google Alerts; comprehensive search
results are tracked over lengthy periods of time by services such as Google Trends; and
websites may be created to attract worldwide feedback on any subject.
The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves,
but they can provide significant insight into a given situation. Although the results of
qualitative research can give some indication as to the "why", "how" and "when" something
occurs, it cannot tell us "how often" or "how many".
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It also known as statistical research, describes data and characteristics about the population
or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive research answers the questions who, what, where,
when and how...
Although the data description is factual, accurate and systematic, the research cannot describe
what caused a situation. Thus, Descriptive research cannot be used to create a causal
relationship, where one variable affects another. In other words, descriptive research can be
said to have a low requirement for internal validity.
The description is used for frequencies, averages and other statistical calculations. Often the
best approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is to conduct a survey investigation.
Qualitative research often has the aim of description and researchers may follow-up with
examinations of why the observations exist and what the implications of the findings are.
In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied. But
there are always restrictions to that. Your research must have an impact to the lives of the
people around you. For example, finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of
a town. The reader of the research will know what to do to prevent that disease thus, more
people will live a healthy life.
Q2.In the context of hypothesis testing, briefly explain the difference between a) Null
and alternative hypothesis b) Type 1 and type 2 errors c) Two tailed and one tailed test
d) Parametric and non parametric tests.
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Ans: a) Null and alternative hypothesis- In the context of statistical analysis, we often talk
null and alternative hypothesis. If we are to compare method A with method B about its
superiority and if we proceed on the assumption that both methods are equally good, then this
assumption is termed as null hypothesis. As against this, we may think that the method A is
superior, it is alternative hypothesis. Symbolically presented as:
Suppose we want to test the hypothesis that the population mean is equal to the hypothesis
mean (µ H0) = 100. Then we would say that the null hypotheses are that the population mean
is equal to the hypothesized mean 100 and symbolical we can express as: H0: µ= µ H0=100
If our sample results do not support these null hypotheses, we should conclude that
something else is true. What we conclude rejecting the null hypothesis is known as
alternative hypothesis. If we accept H0, then we are rejecting Ha and if we reject H0, then we
are accepting Ha. For H0: µ= µ H0=100, we may consider three possible alternative
hypotheses as follows:
b) Type 1 and type 2 errors- In the context of testing of hypothesis there are basically two
types of errors that researchers make. We may reject H0 when H0 is true & we may accept
H0 when it is not true. The former is known as Type I & the later is known as Type II. In
other words, Type I error mean rejection of hypothesis which should have been
accepted & Type II error means accepting of hypothesis which should have been
rejected. Type I error is donated by á (alpha), also called as level of significance of test;
and Type II error is donated by (beta).
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The probability of Type I error is usually determined in advance and is understood as the
level of significance of testing the hypothesis. If type I error is fixed at 5%, it means there are
about chances in 100 that we will reject H0 when H0 is true. We can control type I error just
by fixing it at a lower level. For instance, if we fix it at 1%, we will say that the maximum
probability of committing type I error would only be 0.01.
But with a fixed sample size, n when we try to reduce type I error, the probability of
committing type II error increases. Both types of errors can not be reduced simultaneously.
There is a tradeoff in business situations, decision-makers decide the appropriate level of type
I error by examining the costs of penalties attached to both types of errors. If type I error
involves time & trouble of reworking a batch of chemicals that should have been accepted,
where as type II error means taking a chance that an entire group of users of this chemicals
compound will be poisoned, then in such a situation one should prefer a type I error to a type
II error means taking a chance that an entire group of users of this chemicals compound will
be poisoned, then in such a situation one should prefer a type II error. As a result one must set
very high level for type I error in one’s testing techniques of a given hypothesis. Hence, in
testing of hypothesis, one must make all possible effort to strike an adequate balance between
Type I & Type II error.
c) Two tailed and one tailed test- In the context of hypothesis testing these two terms are
quite important and must be clearly understood. A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis
if, say, the sample mean is significantly higher or lower than the hypnotized value of the
mean of the population. Such a test inappropriate when we have
If
significance level is % and the two-tailed test to be applied, the probability of the rejection
area will be 0.05 (equally split on both tails of curve as 0.025) and that of the acceptance
region will be 0.95. If we take µ = 100 and if our sample mean deviates significantly from µ,
in that case we shall accept the null hypothesis. But there are situations when only one-tailed
test is considered appropriate. A one-tailed test would be used when we are to test, say,
whether the population mean in either lower than or higher than some hypothesized value.
d) Parametric and non parametric tests- The hypothesis testing determines the validity of
the assumption (technically described as null hypothesis) with a view to choose between the
conflicting hypotheses about the value of the population hypothesis about the value of the
population of a population parameter. Hypothesis testing helps to secede on the basis of a
sample data, whether a hypothesis about the population is likely to be true or false.
Statisticians have developed several tests of hypothesis (also known as tests of significance)
for the purpose of testing of hypothesis which can be classified as:
Parametric tests usually assume certain properties of the parent population from which we
draw samples. Assumption like observations come from a normal population, sample size is
large, assumptions about the population parameters like mean, variants etc must hold good
before parametric test can be used. But there are situation when the researcher cannot or does
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not want to make assumptions. In such situations we use statistical methods for testing
hypothesis which are called non parametric tests because such tests do not depend on any
assumption about the parameters of parent population. Besides, most non-parametric test
assumes only nominal or original data, where as parametric test require measurement
equivalent to at least an interval scale. As a result non-parametric test needs more observation
than a parametric test to achieve the same size of Type I & Type II error.
Ans: Economic and business variables are related. For instance, demand and supply of a
commodity is related to its price. Demand for a commodity increases as price falls. Demand
for a commodity decreases as its price rises. We say demand and price are inversely related
or negatively correlated. But sellers supply more of a commodity when its price rises. Supply
of the commodity decreases when its price falls. We say supply and price are directly related
or positively co-related. Thus, correlation indicates the relationship between two such
variables in which changes in the value of one variable is accompanies with a change in the
value of other variable.
According to L.R. Connor, “if two or more quantities vary in sympathy so that movements in
the one tend to be accompanied by corresponding movements in the other(s) they are said to
be correlated”.
W.I. King defined “Correlation means that between two series or groups of data, there exists
some casual connection”.
The definitions make it clear that the term correlation refers to the study of relationship
between two or more variables. Correlation is a statistical device, which studies the
relationship between two variables. If two variables are said to be correlated, change in the
value of one variable result in a corresponding change in the value of other variable. Heights
and weights of a group of people, age of husbands and wives etc., are examples of bi-variant
data that change together.
Although, the term correlation is used in the sense of mutual dependence of two or more
variable, it is not always necessary that they have cause and effect relation. Even a high
degree of correlation between two variables does not necessarily indicate a cause and effect
relationship between them.
1. Cause and effect relationship: Heat and temperature are cause and effect variable. Heat is
the cause of temperature. Higher the heat, higher will be the temperature.
2. Both the correlated variables are being affected by a third variable. For instance, price of
rice and price of sugar are affected by rainfall. Here there may not be any cause and effect
relation between price of rice and price of sugar.
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3. Related variable may be mutually affecting each other so that none of them is either a
cause or an effect. Demand may be the result of price. There are cases when price rise due to
increased demand.
4. The correlation may be due to chance. For instance, a small sample may show correlation
between wages and productivity. That is, higher wage leading to lower productivity. In real
life it need not be true. Such correlation is due to chance.
5. There might be a situation of nonsense or spurious correlation between two variables. For
instance, relationship between number of divorces and television exports may be correlated.
There cannot be any relationship between divorce and exports of television.
The above points make it clear that correlation is only a statistical relationship and it does not
necessarily signify a cause and effect relationship between the variables.
Q 4. Briefly explain any two factors that affect the choice of a sampling technique. What
are the characteristics of a good sample?
Ans: A part of the population is known as sample. The method consisting of the selecting for
study, a portion of the ‘universe’ with a view to draw conclusions about the ‘universe’ or
‘population’ is known as sampling. A statistical sample ideally purports to be a miniature
model or replica of the collectivity or the population constituted of all the items that the study
should principally encompass, that is, the items which potentially hold promise of affording
information relevant to the purpose of a given research.
Sampling helps in time and cost saving. It also helps in checking their accuracy. But on the
other hand it demands exercise of great care caution; otherwise the results obtained may be
incorrect or misleading.
Sampling Procedure- The decision process of sampling is complicated one. The researcher
has to first identity the limiting factor or factors and must judiciously balance the conflicting
factors. The two among various criteria governing the choice of the sampling technique:
(1) Purpose of the Survey: What does the researcher aim at? If he intends to generalize
the findings based on the sample survey to the population, then an appropriate probability
sampling method must be selected. The choice of a particular type of probability sampling
depends on the geographical area of the survey and the size and the nature of the population
under study.
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• Amount of funds budgeted for the study: Sampling is opted when the amount of
money budgeted is smaller than the anticipated cost of census survey.
• Facilities: The extent of facilities available – staff, access to computer facility and
accessibility to population elements – in another factor to be considered in deciding to
sample or not. When the availability of these facilities is limited, sampling is
preferable.
• Time: The time limit within the study should be completed in another important
factor to be considered in deciding the question of sample survey. This, in fact, is a
primary reason for using sampling by academic and marketing researchers.
Q 5. Select any topic for research and explain how you will use both secondary and
primary sources to gather the required information.
Ans: For performing research on the literacy levels among families, the primary and
secondary sources of data can be used very effectively. More specifically the primary sources
of data collection is suggested in this regard. Because personal data or data related to human
beings consist of:
The data serve as the bases or raw materials for analysis. Without an analysis of factual data,
no specific inferences can be drawn on the questions under study. Inferences based on
imagination or guess work cannot provide correct answers to research questions. The
relevance, adequacy and reliability of data determine the quality of the findings of a study.
Data form the basis for testing the hypothesis formulated in a study. Data also provide the
facts and figures required for constructing measurement scales and tables, which are analyzed
with statistical techniques. Inferences on the results of statistical analysis and tests of
significance provide the answers to research questions. Thus, the scientific process of
measurements, analysis, testing and inferences depends on the availability of relevant data
and their accuracy. Hence, the importance of data for any research studies.
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The sources of data may be classified into (a) primary sources and (b) secondary sources.
Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that
have not been previously collected e.g.., collection of data directly by the researcher on brand
awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer behavior from a
sample of consumers by interviewing them,. Primary data are first hand information collected
through various methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing etc.
In such cases where the available data are inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete, primary data
have to be gathered. They include: socio economic surveys, social anthropological studies of
rural communities and tribal communities, sociological studies of social problems and social
institutions. Marketing research, leadership studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys,
readership, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness practice (KAP)
studies, farm managements studies, business management studies etc.
There are various methods of data collection. A ‘Method’ is different from a ‘Tool’ while a
method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instruments used for the
method.
For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods are
(a) observation, (b) interviewing, (c) mail survey, (d) experimentation, (e) simulation and (f)
projective technique. Each of these methods is discussed in detail in the subsequent sections
in the later chapters.
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These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for another
purpose. The secondary sources consists of readily compendia and already compiled
statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by researchers for their studies e.g.,
census reports, annual reports and financial statements of companies, Statistical statement,
Reports of Government Departments, Annual reports of currency and finance published by
the Reserve Bank of India, Statistical statements relating to Co-operatives and Regional
Banks, published by the NABARD, Reports of the National sample survey Organization,
Reports of trade associations, publications of international organizations such as UNO, IMF,
World Bank, ILO, WHO, etc., Trade and Financial journals newspapers etc.
Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also unpublished
records. The latter category includes various records and registers maintained by the firms
and organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records, personnel records, register of
members, minutes of meetings, inventory records etc.
First, they are readymade and readily available, and do not require the trouble of constructing
tools and administering them.
Second, they consist of data which a researcher has no original control over collection and
classification. Both the form and the content of secondary sources are shaped by others.
Clearly, this is a feature which can limit the research value of secondary sources.
Finally, secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the researcher using
them need not have been present when and where they were gathered.
Second, secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings of research
may be tested, e.g., the findings of a local or regional survey may be compared with the
national averages; the performance indicators of a particular bank may be tested against the
corresponding indicators of the banking industry as a whole; and so on.
Finally, secondary data may be used as the sole source of information for a research project.
Such studies as securities Market Behaviour, Financial Analysis of companies, Trade in
credit allocation in commercial banks, sociological studies on crimes, historical studies, and
the like, depend primarily on secondary data. Year books, statistical reports of government
departments, report of public organizations of Bureau of Public Enterprises, Censes Reports
etc, serve as major data sources for such research studies.
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Q6. Case Study: You are engaged to carry out a market survey on behalf of a leading
Newspaper that is keen to increase its circulation in Bangalore City, in order to
ascertain reader habits and interests. Develop a title for the study; define the research
problem and the objectives or questions to be answered by the study.
Ans: Generally, there is a significant relationship between the race or ethnic group and the
language medium of the newspapers. Generally, Kannada newspapers are mostly read by the
kannadigas respondents, Tamil newspapers by the tamilians etc. However, there is no
significant relationship in the readership of English newspapers whereby they are read by all
the ethnic groups.
Title:
Reader’s habits and interests in Bangalore
Research Problem:
To ascertain the reader habits and interests and to increase news paper circulation in
Bangalore City.
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2. How much time do you spend reading web pages each day?
a. I don’t read web pages.
b. Less than two hours.
c. Two to four hours.
d. Five or more hours.
4. Have you ever pretended that you read a book when you hadn’t?
a. Yes.
b. No.
6. Have you ever pretended that you read a web page when you hadn’t?
a. Yes.
b. No.
7. What is the last book that you read? If you haven’t read a book, write “Not
Applicable.”
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