Themed Paper

Measurement and Control

1–15
Thermal and structural modelling of Ó The Author(s) 2019
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DOI: 10.1177/0020294019857747

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Hitesh Arora1,2 , Rupinder Singh3 and Gurinder Singh Brar4

Abstract
This paper presents a state-of-the-art critical review of the thermal and structural modelling of the arc welding process.
During the welding process, high temperature in the welding zone leads to generation of unwanted residual stresses and
results in weld distortion. Measurement of the temperature distribution was a key issue and challenge in the past decade.
Thermomechanical analysis is among the best-known techniques to simulate and investigate the temperature distribu-
tion, welding distortion and residual stresses in the weld zone. The main emphasis of this review is the thermal and
structural modelling of welding processes and the measurement of welding residual stresses using different techniques.
The study also provides information about the various types of heat sources and models used to predict the weld bead
characteristics and thermomechanical analysis for different welding processes such as tungsten inert gas welding, metal
inert gas welding and shielded metal arc welding.

Keywords
Welding, finite element simulation, residual stress, modelling

Date received: 20 March 2019; accepted: 20 May 2019

Introduction with the workpiece and electric current is used. The

Welding overview
The process of joining metals with the help of heat and
pressure using filler or without filler to produce coal
essence is called welding. Welding is used to create per-
manent joints. It finds its use in many industries like
shipbuilding, automobiles, oil and petroleum. In this
process, electric current is used to create an arc between
the electrode and the job, which heats the metal and
melts it; this is known as arc welding. The electrodes
used may be consumable or non-consumable. Flux is
used to shield the weld metal from the gases present in
the atmosphere. The process can be automated or man-
ual. Arc welding, which was first developed in the 19th
century, became commercially vital in the shipbuilding
industry during the Second World War. Even today, it
is a vital procedure in the production of steel pipelines
and automobiles (Figure 1).1
Consumable electrode methods
Shielded metal arc welding. The most common, reliable
and inexpensive welding process is the shielded arc
welding process, also called the manual arc welding
process. Here, the consumable electrode used is compa-
tible with the material to be welded, which is covered
with the flux. To strike an arc, the electrode is scratched
electric arc melts the electrode and vapours off the flux,
which protects the weld material from atmospheric con-
tamination. The process uses inexpensive equipment
and requires little operator training (Figure 2).2,3
Gas tungsten arc welding. This is a manual arc process
in which a non-consumable electrode made of tungsten
is used, with a separate filler and a mixture of gases for
shielding purposes. This method is characterized by a
stabilized arc and good weld quality, which is mainly
used for the thin workpiece and requires great operator
skills that can be done at low speeds. Stainless steel,
aluminium and other light materials can be welded with
this process (Figure 3). An allied process is known as
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, I.K. Gujral Punjab Technical
University, Jalandhar, India
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional University,
Phagwara, India
3
Department of Production Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering
College, Ludhiana, Ludhiana, India
4
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology,
Pauri, India
Corresponding author:
Rupinder Singh, Department of Production Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev
Engineering College, Ludhiana, 141006 Ludhiana, India.
Email: rupinderkhalsa@gmail.com

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2 Measurement and Control

Figure 1. Classification of fusion welding processes.

Figure 3. Gas tungsten arc welding process.

Figure 2. Shielded metal arc welding process.

plasma arc welding (PAW) in which the electrode used

is also made of tungsten, but plasma gas is used to cre-
ate the arc. The arc in PAW is more intense than the
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) arc, restricting the
method to a manufacturing process and also making
transverse control more significant. One of the most
important applications of the process is automated
welding of stainless steel. Another variation of the
PAW process is plasma cutting, which is one of the
most efficient steel-cutting processes.3
An important weld process required for the develop-
ment and production of fusion reactor components is
TIG welding. Various grades of stainless steel like SS Figure 4. Metal inert gas welding process.
304, SS 316, SS 316L and some nuclear grade special
materials with various thicknesses ranging from 2 to into the weld pool, joining the two base materials
60 mm are the major components developed for use in together. A shielding gas is also sent through the weld-
construction. ing gun which protects the weld pool from contamina-
tion. Technically, it is called gas metal arc welding
Metal inert gas welding. Metal inert gas (MIG) weld- (GMAW), and the colloquial name for it is wire weld-
ing is an arc welding process in which a continuous ing (Figure 4).
solid wire electrode is fed through a welding gun and
Arora et al.
Figure 5. Types of lap or fillet joints.
Figure 6. Types of butt joints.
Figure 7. Types of other joints.
Other arc welding processes include electro gas weld-
ing, electro slag, atomic hydrogen welding, stud arc
welding and carbon arc welding.
Welded joints
Welded joint types
Lap joint. This type of joint is made by overlapping the
workpieces so that welding is done at the edges of the
work material. The cross-section of the fillet is approxi-
mately triangular. Fillet joints are of three types:
single transverse, double transverse and parallel
(Figure 5).
Butt joint. The butt joint is obtained by putting the two
workpieces parallel, as shown in Figure 6. In butt welds,
the plate edges do not require bevelling if the thickness
of plate is less than 5 mm. However, if the plate thick-
ness is more than 5–12.5 mm, the edges should be bev-
elled to V or U-groove on both the sides.
3
The corner joint, edge joint and T-joint are some
other types of welded joints, as shown in Figure 7.
Welding heat flow
Considering the heat flow theory is vital in a way to
learn the process of welding experimentally, analytical
and numerically. Rosenthal was among the initial
researchers to advance an analytic answer for the flow
of heat. Rosenthal presented the moving coordinate
system for Fourier equation of heat conduction to
build up solutions for the line and point arc sources.
He projected the shapes of the molten weld bead in
two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D)
welding simulations. He executed the analytical study
of the welding process to discover the influence of the
welding parameters, namely voltage, current, weld geo-
metry and welding speed.4 Similar to Rosenthal, a
number of researchers have shown significant concern
in the thermal features of welding.5
The parameters which are essential to depict the
welding heat supply to the weld from the welding arc
4 Measurement and Control
Figure 8. Circular disc heat source.
are the most crucial contribution data for thermal
investigation of welding. Various mathematical models
are proposed for different distributions of heat source
in command to accurately arrest the shape and size of
the welding heat source for better diffusion of heat into
the welded joint. In this paper, a few welding heat
source models from the literature are discoursed along
with their application in welding simulation. Later, a
review is given about appliance of the finite element
(FE) process in welding process simulation.
Models of heat source
Circular disc heat source model. The circular disc heat
source model, also called Gaussian heat source distribu-
tion, was proposed.6 This model is based on Gaussian
or normal distribution and is called the ‘circular disc’
model. The schematic of the heat source in 2D is given
in Figures 8 and 9. The model is given as
2
q(r) = q(0)ecr ð1Þ
An option for the replacement of circular
heat source model was given by Friedman and
Krutz and Segerlind,7,8 who moved the heat source
model in the welding direction as seen in the following
equation
3Q 3x2 =c2 3j2 =c2
q(x, j) = e e ð2Þ
pc2
where q is the welding heat flux and c is the radius of
the distribution of the heat flux.
The transformation relating the fixed coordinate sys-
tem (x, y, z) and moving coordinate system (x, y, j) is
given as
j = z + v(t  t) ð3Þ
where t is a log factor to define the position of the
heat source at time t = 0 and ‘v’ is the welding speed
(m/s). After substituting equation (2) into equation (1)
we get
Figure 9. System of Cartesian coordinates for the movement
of circular disc heat source model.
3Q 3x2 =c2 3½z + vðttÞ2 =c2
q(x, y, t) = e e ð4Þ
pc2
Equation 4 is applicable in the region, that is,
x2 + j2 \ c2 , whereas for x2 + j2 . c2 , q(x, j, t) = 0.
The heat then diffuses outward (x-y direction) until the
weld cools.
The surface heat source model of Pavelic et. al,
Friedman and Krutz and Segerlind6–8 is successfully
applied for welding simulations involving smaller
depths of penetration. Andersson9 applied the heat
source model of equation (4) for the welding process
simulation. To minimize the computational require-
ment of full 3D FE methods (FEM) analysis, he
assumed that the heat flow in the z-direction is negligi-
ble, hence the heat flow is restricted to an x-y plane
positioned at z = 0. He observed that this assumption
results in insignificant error in temperature distribution
except for low speed, high heat input welds. The disc
moves along the surface of the workpiece in the z-
direction and deposits heat on the reference plane as it
crosses.
Double ellipsoidal power density heat distribution. Prior to
the double ellipsoidal heat flux distribution, single ellip-
soidal heat flux distribution was found by Goldak and
Akhlaghi.10 The former was not much accurate because
heat distribution at the following border of the weld
molten pool was rising and falling sharply than experi-
mental dimensions, and in the front part, the heat dis-
tribution was not as sharp as expected. To rise above
this drawback,10 projected double ellipsoidal heat
sources, in which there are two ellipsoids, one in front
and the other is half, which gives the power
distribution.
Arora et al. 5

where f1 and f2 are the fraction of deposition of heat

f1 + f2 = 2. The other parameters are the dimensions
shown in Figure 10.
Sometimes the weld cross-section may require a finer
representation of the heat density distribution. For
example, double ellipsoidal distribution may not be
suitable to predict the weld pool shape given in Figure
11(b). Double ellipsoidal heat distribution approxi-
mates the weld pool shape given in Figure 11(a). Four
ellipsoid quadrants could be superimposed to accu-
rately prototype such weld pools given in Figure 11(b).
A comparison of the single and double ellipsoidal mod-
els and the welding sequence models are shown in
Figure 10. Configuration of double ellipsoidal heat source Figures 12 and 13, respectively.
model. The method for estimating the model parameters
from the molten metal pool shape and size acquired
from the molten pool surface ripple markings and
metallographic data were proposed.10 The sensitivity of
the ellipsoid parameters to the temperature distribution
was studied. It was found that the ellipsoidal para-
meters must be smaller than the molten metal pool size
to provide accurate results.11

Numerical solution
Standard heat transfer solution. Over the past few years,
FEM are used extensively in a shot to predict residual
stresses and distortion in welding operations. A guide-
Figure 11. Sectional weld pool shape of the fusion zone.
line on the utilization of FE and boundary element
methods for modelling and analysis of residual stresses
is given by Mackerle.12 The method to find the molten
6=3f1 Q 3x2 =a2 3y2 =b2 3½z + vðttÞ2 =c2
Qf (x, y, z, t) = e e e weld pool dimension was proposed by Wahab and
abcp=p
Painter.13 Using experimentation, they measured the
ð5Þ weld pool dimension with the help of a mechanical
device, by which the molten metal is ejected rapidly
and for the rear half
from the molten weld pool and reveals the immediate
weld pool opening, which was grown for the subse-
6=3f2 Q 3x2 =a2 3y2 =b2 3½z + vðttÞ2 =c2
Qr (x, y, z, t) = e e e quent FE modelling of gas metal arc (GMA) welding
abcp=p method. They established that the welding process
ð6Þ parameters have great control on the dimensions of the

Figure 12. (a) Comparison of temperature distribution. (b) Comparison of angular distortion of double ellipsoidal model with
single ellipsoidal model.
6 Measurement and Control
Figure 13. Welding sequence models.
weld molten pool. By increasing the welding current
and speed, it yields a longer pool for constant heat
input. Upper characters for all the dimensions of weld
pool are yielded by increasing the heat input.13
Trapezoidal deviation was used to model the heat dis-
tribution, which represents the movement of the weld-
ing heat source with constant heat input and pulling
out of the heat source steadily. They stated that multi-
passes give relief to the welding residual stresses, which
was confirmed by the experimental measurements.14
Demonstration of the welding heat source parameters,
effect of heat density distribution on the heat affected
zone (HAZ), fusion zone (FZ) and the profile of the
weld bead was done by Gery et al.,15 who concluded
that 3D analysis is preferable to 2D. In the weldment,
various zones of the microstructure was approximated
by means of the maximum temperature calculated with
the help of the model and measured with the values
measured experimentally of different zones of micro-
structure.16–22 The non-destructive capability of ultra-
sonic waves in evaluation of stresses of a welded
circumferential joint of two different materials austeni-
tic stainless steel, 304 and CS A106, was employed by
Javadi et al.23
Residual stresses and welding distortion. Welding stresses
originate from the restrained welding distortion. Many
research papers24–51 describe the models used to find
the welding distortion and welding residual stresses. To
get the exact model, the field describes the specimen of
metal needed to be able to change its volume and shape;
along with this, properties of the materials are required
like specific heat, plasticity, Poisson’s ratio and density.
Comparison of temperature distribution and angular
displacement with the experiments performed by
Mahapatra et al.27 showed good agreement. It was
found that the double ellipsoidal heat source is prefer-
able to the ellipsoidal heat source.28
A study was conducted on the parameters which are
directed for the effect of tacking on the resultant resi-
dual stress fields. It was concluded that axial residual
stresses also depend on the different orientation of tack
welds at an axial part 180o from the beginning of weld
location for the inner and outer planes.29,30 Validation
on the distribution of the temperature and residual
stresses which were induced due to TIG welding of SS
304 was done by Deng.31 Investigation on the welding
residual stress in HAZ of cruciform hollow sectional
welded tube joint was done by Brar and Singh.32 3D
FEM for the simulation of GMAW in cruciform
welded joint was presented. To capture the residual
stresses, experimentally non-destructive method was
used (X-ray diffraction) and validated with FEM.
Additionally, the parameters of welding were optimized
in the direction to reduce the welding stresses in joint
and improve the mechanical properties of the welded
joint like tensile strength of the joint. Simulation was
done to examine the stresses and distortion induced in
the different plate joints and compared by experimenta-
tions by means of a completely automatic method. A
study was conducted by means of 3D shell modelling
technique to advance the computational accuracy and
efficiency. Optical measurement system and thermo-
graphic camera were used to obtain the displacement
and temperature field.33 Another study was conducted
on controlling the welding distortion by the heat sink-
ing method. Heat sinking was done by circulating the
water through the channels at the bottom of the welded
joints. Both experimental and numerical work was
done and compared in which good agreement was
obtained.34 Predicting the welding residual stress in
GMAW process, a neural-network model was devel-
oped. The input welding process parameters and geo-
metrical parameters were taken and the residual
stresses were studied.35 The results of geometry
arrangement stresses produced due to welding were cal-
culated, which are anticipated by 3D computer exami-
nation, employing a thermal-elastic-plastic essential
equation; the results of heat transfer were also calcu-
lated. The relation between the highest tensile stresses
acquired using U butt joint arrangement and V butt
joint arrangement were established and was found to
facilitate the level of axial stresses enlarged with the
physical constraint.36 The thermo-elastic-plastic beha-
viour and weld-induced stresses in welded pipe joints of
dissimilar metals were studied with the help of FE soft-
ware. Simulated results were mapped with the experi-
mental results to assess the precision of FEM. Non-
destructive testing (hole-drilling method) was used to
find the residual stresses experimentally. The model
was studied to see the effect of heat flux on the distri-
bution and magnitude of circumferential and longitudi-
nal stresses in welded butt joints of pipes, which are of
ferrite constituent, and it was found that the input of
heat played a major role on welding residual stresses.37
The computer results of 3D investigation of flux cored
arc welding (FCAW) method were generated for a one-
pass welded joint and the distribution of temperature
and welding stresses were predicted. The computer-
generated results contrasted with the ground level
results; first comparison was done of the FE analysis
(FEA) temperature distribution results with the corre-
sponding data calculated through thermocouples K-
Arora et al.
type and then the welding stresses predicted of FEM
were compared and experimentally measured with the
destructive testing hole-drilling method.38 A 2D FE
parabolic temperature distribution was formulated
through the thickness, with an element estabilization
technique and matched with the developed model by
FE software ANSYS with 3D elements (SOLID70).39
The numerically evaluated stresses originated due to
the welding butt joint with the help of simulation soft-
ware. FE investigation calculated the weld-induced
stress distribution around the weld FZ, which is much
more than any part of the welded object. The simulated
results were compared with other techniques like layer-
removal method, hole-drilling method, sectioning
method, neutron diffraction, X-ray diffraction method,
ultrasonic and magnetic methods, which all are for
measuring the residual stress.40–42 It was predicted that
weld bead dimension with the developed model was
validated by comparing them with the values measured
through experimentation.43
An efficient 3D welding simulation technique, the
rapid-damping methodology, was developed to success-
fully apply the technique to the multi-pass size welded
cylinder rib joint and to decrease the calculation time.
Further examination on the 3D FE investigations is
then required to systematically know the features of
residual stresses in circumferential joints. Furthermore,
the behaviour of welding induced residual stress under-
neath internal pressure; very less work is reported on
this because of the complicated analysis followed by
loading problems. Hence, intense interest is required on
this, different FE approaches were implemented on a
huge bogie beam structure. It was also established that
the approach which used the minimum computational
time among each of the methodologies is the quick
dumping methodology which, furthermore, demon-
strated subjectively great concurrence with the non-
destructive X-ray diffraction method. Weld bead mea-
surement value anticipated from the FEM give great
concurrence with the test estimations and the computa-
tional time is essentially decreased by utilizing a sub-
organizing approach with a satisfactory exactness of
anticipated welding residual stress.44 An FE model of
multi-pass welding of huge tube sheets in command
was offered to find the distortion induced in the tube
hole.45 They represented 2D FEM to calculate welding
stresses and distortion on plate of grade stainless steel
400 metal. The outcome predicted from the FEA with
the values of exploratory outcomes were compared,
which gave decent agreement that the volume of heat
input mainly depends on the welding process para-
meters, and welding prompted stresses and distortion
are for the most part influenced with the sum of heat
input in each welding pass. Mathematical study was
done with the help of FE software ANSYS, for a weld-
ing of thick late with multi-pass GMA welding process.
The deposition of metal for each welding pass is con-
trolled by employing a birth and death technique.46
Thermal-mechanical analysis was applied using FE
7
methods, to examine the thermo elasto-plastic conduct
and figure the welding stresses in welded joints. The
welding stresses on the shell of the weldments were cal-
culated with the help of non-destructive technique X-
ray diffraction and the predicted results were matched
with the predicted results from FEA to validate the
process.47 The result of clamp on distortions and stres-
ses on thin plates of stainless steel of grade SS-304 in
the single-pass butt welded joints were studied. Cases
without and while clamping are studied, the welding
stresses and distortion are foreseen by 3D FE simula-
tion and matched with the data obtained through
experimentation.48 In this paper, 3D FEM for GTAW
simulation for single-pass thin-walled circumferential
weld has been presented. The distortion and residual
stresses with welding joint configuration as single V
joint with geometrical dimensions as outer diameter of
300mm and cylinder with 3mm thickness was calcu-
lated experimentally by strain gauges and FE examina-
tion utilizing ANSYS software was performed.49 3D
FE modelling, bearing in mind the transient welding
source, was produced to imagine the temperature distri-
bution, change in time 8/5 time, deformation and resi-
dual stress induced by Electro Slag Welding.50 A 3D
thermal-structural FE examination was used which
assessed the weld instigated stresses in AISI 304L heat
treated plates. FE representation was confirmed with
the values obtained by the destructive experimental
technique. The confirmed FE model was then matched
with stress measurement using the ultrasonic testing
machine.51 The predicted after-effects of FE examina-
tion were compared with the values obtained from
experimentation of bending initiated in a plate of stain-
less steel 304 with automated gas tungsten arc (GTA)
welding process.52 The temperature field at the top of
the plate was found and was matched with FEA.
Gaussian heat distribution and volumetric model was
simulated and were experienced with two different
welding velocities at 2.4 and 3 mm/s; the volumetric
model is found to be less effectual than Gaussian heat
source for the thin plates and the Gaussian heat source
model obtained results were in conformity with the
measured values. The effect of welding sequences on
the temperature distribution and welding distortion of
the butt welded steel plates were analysed using the FE
method.53 Thin plates having length of 500 mm, width
300 mm and thickness 4 mm of low carbon steel were
welded with GTAW using two different sequences.
A comparison of the heat distribution of the
sequences of welds 1 and 2 showed that sequence 1
yields high temperature, as a result of which greater
deformation is expected. Using sequence 2, discontinu-
ous welding, different properties of welded structure
may be upgraded. Numerically investigation of the
welding residual stresses and welding distortion of stif-
fened plates using and without using triangular brack-
ets by a non-linear thermomechanical approach was
carried out. The numerical results were validated with
the experimental one and the results were found to be
8 Measurement and Control

Table 1. Welding parameters.

Weld parameters
Dia of electrode Arc current Weld speed
(mm) (Amp) (mm/s)

C1 2 50 3
C2 2 60 4
C3 2 70 5
C4 2 80 6

close; it was concluded that the bracket has less effect

on the welding residual stresses in the plate and the
utmost distortion in the stiff plate with two crosswise
bracket decreases around ł in the values of experiment
and around 67% in the numerical simulation.54
Welding simulation of carbon steel plate was done
using FE tool ANSYS and user subroutine, which
achieved heat source application and addition of filler
metal. The significant welding process parameters
(Table 1) were also studied to find the effect on welding
distortion. It was concluded that welding speed and dis-
tortion do not have a linear relation, as they had shown
high amount of distortion at both low and high weld-
ing speeds (cases 1 and 4 respectively).55.
A model was developed to simulate the heat distri-
bution and establish welding stress fields while welding
a pipe. A pipe of SUS304 stainless steel was used. TIG
welding two-pass with an inter-pass temperature of
50 °C was used. Thermal analysis was done using an
8-node brick thermal element. In the work, Goldak
heat source model was accustomed for application of
heat from the moving welding arc. Thermal radiation
and convection heat transfer accounted for the heat
loss on the weld surface. The investigation led to a total
strain rate as
2 = 2elastic + 2plastic + 2thermal
The code developed by Varma Prasada et al.56 was
validated with the investigational result presented by
Deng and Murakawa.57 Decent agreement was found
between the predicted and experimental results.
Numerical study on ANSI Flange class of 100 mm
nominal diameter weldneck was done by Siddique et
al.58 Circumferential and transverse stresses were inves-
tigated by varying the diameter of pipe and the welding
parameters, that is, welding speed and welding current.
Serially coupled temperature-induced welding stress
investigation method was employed to investigate the
temperature distribution, stresses and distortion. The
temperature distribution was calculated using moving
thermal analysis. For distribution of the heat input,
Goldak model was employed. Afterwards, prediction
of the welding distortion and welding residual stresses
of non-linear moving mechanical analysis was done.
Figure 14. (a) Axial residual stress at Y = 120°. (b) Hoop
residual stress at Y = 120°.
Simulation of depositing of molten filler metal was per-
formed using birth and death element technique. It was
concluded that at low welding speed, high-tensile cir-
cumferential stresses were found outside the HAZ and
somewhat lesser tensile stresses were found within
HAZ. With increase in the diameter of pipe, greater
will be the stresses and the result of input of heat as
shown in Figure 14(a) and (b).
The development behaviour of residual stresses in
the circumferential joints of stainless steel pipes was
analysed. A 3D thermal-mechanical numerical model
was created utilizing the MSC-Marc software to inves-
tigate the residual stresses in single-pass welding.
Utilizing a numerical computational methodology,
components of the adjustments in anxiety all through
the pipe welding process are portrayed and the residual
stress distributions in butt welded plates and pipe are
compared. (Table 2).59
A study on axi-symmetric 3D models was designed,
and by employing the FEM residual stresses were cal-
culated of pipe of material SAE 1020. The pipe was
welded by choosing geometrical and welding para-
meters: pipe of schedule 5 and 10 were welded using
current 110 A and voltage 20 V with different speeds of
0.5 and 0.58 cm/s, respectively.20
It was found that the tensile stress decreases to zero
at the weld line and then becomes compressive when it
Arora et al. 9

Table 2. Welding and geometrical parameters for different analysis.

Case no. Arc Welding Efficiency Velocity of Gap Diameter of Thickness of Heat Input
voltage (V) current (Amp.) (%) welding (mm/s) (mm) pipe (mm) wall (mm) (MJ/m)

C1 30 315 85 6.0 2.2 100.00 8.00 1.58

C2 30 315 85 6.7 2.2 100.00 8.00 1.41
C3 30 315 85 7.5 2.2 100.00 8.00 1.26
C4 30 280 85 6.7 2.2 100.00 8.00 1.25
C5 30 350 85 6.7 2.2 100.00 8.00 1.56
C6 30 315 85 6.7 2.2 200.00 8.00 1.41
C7 28 240 85 6.7 2.2 100.00 6.00 1.00
C8 32 380 85 6.7 2.2 100.00 10.00 1.81

Figure 15. Temperature distribution, 10 mm distance from

Figure 16. Stresses along axis at different locations.
weld toe.

goes away from the weld centre line; the pipe with less
wall thickness has less residual stress than the pipes
having more thickness. Pipes of different thicknesses
were welded at various welding velocities, with the high
speed of welding the quantity of adjoining portion is
less exaggerated by the heat of the arc.31 It was found
that weld induced stress and furthermore the welding
contortion in low carbon steel does not appear to be
affected by the solid-state stage change. Yet, for mild
steel, the welding stresses and distortion appear to be
extensively influenced by the martensitic change. The
thermal field of joints made by submerged arc welding
(SAW) process on plates was determined and the meth-
odical solution for a transient different welding heat
source was found considering different boundary con-
ditions.60–62
The stresses in welded plates are examined numeri-
cally and experimentally. Moving FE model was cre-
ated to evaluate the longitudinal stresses prompted by
butt joint welding. Simulation of material deposition
was done using technique element birth and death in
commercial FE software ANSYS.63
In thermal moving analysis, three passes were
applied. Figure 15 shows the distribution of tempera-
ture at 10 mm from the weld bead.
In every cycle, the time to cool is about 400 s. This
gives a decent accord among the FE results and
experimental results. The most extreme temperature
happens in the main go because of the high heat input.
The longitudinal stresses appropriation in the plate
having width of 300 mm using trial and mathematical
investigations is shown in Figure 16.
Strain hardening models. The influence of different hard-
ening models were studied, namely isotropic, kinematic
and combined hardening was investigated for different
ductile fracture criteria.64 Ductile fracture criteria are
also proposed by some researchers.65–69 Equations 1–6
were utilized in the kinematic hardening and the
Lemaitre and Chaboche formulation with five con-
stants has been utilized in the combined hardening
models.70 All of the criteria and models were applied to
marketable FE software using user subroutines. The
predicted effects of FE method was associated with the
measured values for Nakazima tests to recognize the
ductile fracture criterion (DFC) and the corresponding
hardening model, which predict the fracture better in
stainless steel material SS304L.71,72
Distribution of welding residual stress. There are many fac-
tors that upset the residual stress field in weldment
modules. According to Leggatt,73 the following are the
reasons that concern the stress distribution in weldment
parts:
10
Figure 17. Welding residual stress distribution.
1. The presence of residual stress before welding
(manufacture and fabrication);
2. Material properties (weld and parent metal);
3. The geometry of the joined components;
4. Restrain applied;
5. Welding procedure;
6. Operation after welding.
Figure 17 shows the welding residual stress field.
According to the figure the compressive stresses are
present in the base metal only, whereas in the tensile
residual stresses are also present in the HAZ and weld
bead. This means that in the welded material both the
stresses have compressive and tensile residual stresses.
It was proved that steel influences residual stress. It is
found that steel having less percentage of carbon
(S15C) has a minor consequence on the (GTAW) resi-
dual stress, but the effect of medium carbon steel
(S45C) on the residual stress is quite significant.31 In
this study, the researcher noted that the tensile stresses
exist in the welded area, whereas the compressive stres-
ses exist in the FZ. The stress field for the steel plates
and steel pipes are different for both. Usually, a steel
plate (Figure 17) welding yields tensile stress sited in
the weld area, 74–79 while the compressive residual stres-
ses are mostly found in the HAZ zone.75,77–79 However,
the residual stress distribution in the steel pipes is dif-
ferent from the stress distribution in the steel plate. The
presence of residual stress is established at the heat-
affected zone of thick-walled stainless steel pipe of
multi-pass narrow gap welding, but there is a difference
in the distribution of residual stresses at the inner and
outer surfaces of steel welded pipes. Compressive stres-
ses are found near the outer surface of the weld area,
whereas tensile stresses are found near the inner surface
of the weld area.80 The effects of joint geometry and
welding parameters on the distribution and magnitude
of stresses on butt joints thick welded section were
examined.81
Research on stresses and thermal heat input in a
welded structure was conducted by Monin et al.82 The
research concluded that the temperature influenced by
the heat input of the effect on residual stresses is not
Measurement and Control
linear. However, the use of smaller heat input is better
to get lesser magnitude of residual stresses. Heat input
does affect the distribution and value of residual
stress.83,84 With the application of low input of heat,
the compressive residual stress exists near to the weld
bead of the components. Whereas with high heat input
applied to the components, the component experiences
tensile residual stress. This is agreeable, but it is also
mentioned that heat input just has very little influence
on the welding residual stress.85
Investigation was done on the residual stress in steel
plates induced due to multi-pass using the experimental
and numerical methods. Axial residual stresses were
estimated, which were produced by butt welding with
the help of the developed FEM. FE software ANSYS
was incorporated to simulate the welding process with
the element birth and death technique. Plates with
6 mm thinness are modelled by one and three passes of
welding to examine the effect on the stresses induced by
the multi-pass welding. Experimentation was done to
adjust the mathematical outcomes for each mechanical
and thermal analysis. The X-ray diffraction technique
was employed for measurement of stress. A decent con-
formity was attained among the experimental and
numerical results.86
Evaluation on the thermal distribution and stress
during welding with the FE model was done by Deng
and Murakawa.57 Initially, a 3D model was evolved to
replicate the thermal distribution and stresses in the
steel pipe. Next, with the built character of the thermal
and stress distribution, a 2D axi-symmetric model was
also developed. The replicated result indicates that the
2D axi-symmetric representation can efficiently repro-
duce the temperature distribution and residual stress
for SS pipe of SUS304. According to Deng and
Murakawa57 the use of 2D models can save a large
amount of computational time.
Heat source parameters. Utilization of FEM recreation
to examine the thermal–structural characteristics of
DMR-249A steel welded joints produced by manual
arc welding and actuated tungsten inert gas bend weld-
ing (A-TIG) forms were considered. The temperature
appropriation and stresses were analysed down with
SYSWELD programming and the utilized model was
double ellipsoidal.87
An affectability investigation of the proportion of
back and face ellipsoidal factor (ar/af) on weld dimen-
sions is delineated in Figure 18(a).88
Figure 19 demonstrates the examination the weld
macrograph (right side) tentatively estimated report
(left side) relating to information and processed
temperature.
The great examination of test and processed weld
measurements utilizing the ideal arrangement of ar/af
proportion was found. It is known that a generally sen-
sible understanding of the contour of figured thermal
distribution support the right judgement of ar/af
Arora et al.
Figure 18. Sensitivity on weld dimensions. (a) (ar/af) ratio for data. (b) Weld velocity for (ar/af) = 2:1 (Yadaiah and Bag).88
Figure 19. Numerically and experimentally measured
macrograph.
proportion in the reproduction of a straight welding
procedure.
The link among the procedure factors and weld bead
parameters is recognized to control the weld bead pro-
file of the welded joint. Mathematical expression was
developed to attain this, which is related to the key
variables and the size of the weld bead upsetting these
dimensions. The process parameters were also opti-
mized to manage and get the quality of weld, which is
also feasible using this mathematical expression. For
attaining the desired weld bead dimensions, these devel-
oped numerical relations can be in use in automatic
welding as a programme.31
The peak current and pulse frequency has a greater
effect on the dimensions of the weld bead,89 developing
11
the image processing algorithm to measure the weld
pool geometry. The heat source model was confirmed
with the results measuring the temperature distribution.
MSC-Marc software was used, with which the tempera-
ture distribution was intended having double ellipsoidal
model. The model results of the heat distribution and
the weld pool dimensions are in decent concurrence
with the measured results.90 To control the weld molten
pool dimensions, a combination of control algorithm,
picture processing and sensor are employed. Different
experiments were performed for initial parameters heat
transfer condition change and torch speed variation.
Using the proposed sensing technique, a control system
was developed. Robust adaptive control algorithm was
developed to acquire high control performance and to
control the pool area.91 A method to estimate the heat
source parameters, which combines analytical formula-
tion, experimental data and numerical simulation, was
suggested by Chujutalli and Estefen.92 Facchinotti ana-
lytical formulation is employed to determine isotherms
in the space where peak temperature values and weld
bead size are obtained for an isotherm associated with
the base material’s melting temperature. Experimental
data of the welding process and the bead weld size are
input data in the algorithm. A numerical model has
been established for the calibration and validation of
the model. The parameters obtained by the proposed
method are validated by correlating the numerical and
experimental results from tests of a single weld bead,
showing good agreement. The numerical analysis model
of the 3D transient welding thermal process of GTAW
welding stainless steel 10Cr18Ni9 thin plate, was estab-
lished, based on the Goldak heat source model. The
method for determining the arc distribution parameters
by the calibration tool of SYSWELD software is given.
The FE result of the molten pool is compared with the
results of the experiment, and the effects are in high-
quality concurrence with the measured results.93 The
contour of the molten weld pool and thermal gradient
12
are obtained for a variety of welding processes with the
help of the analytical method. By employing the neural-
network programme, the heat source parameters are
forecast. The final results of molten weld pool size and
temperature obtained by the mathematical simulation
using predicted factors of heat source are validated by
the measured results, which are already published.94
The composite light filter is combined with a commer-
cial charge coupled device (CCD) camera to frame a
low-cost vision sensing arrangement. The entire image
of a weld pool can be captured using CCD clearly dur-
ing constant-current (GTAW). The edges of the weld
pool can be extracted based on the image processing
algorithm, under different welding conditions.95,96
Outlook. An abundant comprehension of the perfor-
mance of the arc welded joints is important to guaran-
tee the well-being, effectiveness and consistency of such
joints. Numerical investigations of the arc welding pro-
cesses can give sensible estimation of the principle fac-
tors of the procedure. This decreases the cost of
optimizing the variables; speeds up the design processes
and lessens the quantity of exploratory tests. However,
many necessary key issues and problems are yet to be
addressed. Significant residual stress and distortion are
regularly created by the arc welding process, preventive
mechanical usage. The capacity to precisely anticipate
residual stresses and furthermore the resultant distor-
tion is a key item from simulations of assembly
processes.
The literature survey outcome is as follows:
1. The residual stress pattern in the case of plate is
totally different from the pattern of residual
stresses in welded pipes.
2. The axial residual stress is compressive on the
outer surface and tensile on the inner surface
near the weld line. Tensile axial residual stresses
are formed on the outer surface, away from the
weld centerline, and compressive axial residual
stresses are formed on the inner surface in the
case of circumferential joint.
3. Transverse residual stress is tensile on the upper
side and compressive on the lower side at the
middle position of weld line in the case of the
plate butt joint.
4. There is little effect of the mechanical constraint
on the residual stresses.
Literature surveys regarding the simulation of arc
welding process show that an important amount of
work has been reported on the 2D and 3D temperature
distribution. Most researchers have concentrated on
welding deformation and residual stresses in plates.
Furthermore, certain aspects of welding phenomenon
are still the subject of research, specifically effects of
welding speed, heat input, restraint and arc gap on
Measurement and Control
temperature distribution, distortion and residual stress
field distribution for welded pipe joints.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to IKGPTU Jalandhar and
GNDEC Ludhiana for technical support.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this
article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
authorship and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iD
Hitesh Arora https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8113-1704
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Appendix 1
Notation
q heat flux
Q heat input
c radius of the distribution of the heat flux
Qf heat input in the front ellipsoid
Qr heat input in the rear ellipsoid
e strain rate
h convection heat transfer coefficient
k thermal conductivity
q (r) surface flux at radius r (W/m2 )
q (0) maximum flux at the centre of the
heat source (W/m2 )
c distribution width coefficient (m2 )
r radial distance from the centre of the heat
source (m)
t log factor to define the position of the
heat source
t time
v welding speed (m/s)