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WELDING

UNDERSTANDING METAL FUSION

BEGINER'S WELDER STUDY GUIDE


Prepared By: Jhune Esta - 2019
What is ARC Welding?

Arc welding is one of several fusion processes for joining metals. By applying intense
heat, metal at the joint between two parts is melted and caused to intermix - directly,
or more commonly, with an intermediate molten filler metal. Upon cooling and
solidification, a metallurgical bond is created. Since the joining is an intermixture of
metals, the final weldment potentially has the same strength properties as the metal
of the parts. This is in sharp contrast to non-fusion processes of joining (i.e.
soldering, brazing etc.) in which the mechanical and physical properties of the base
materials cannot be duplicated at the joint.

In arc welding, the intense heat needed to melt metal is produced by an electric arc.
The arc is formed between the actual work and an electrode (stick or wire) that is
manually or mechanically guided along the joint. The electrode can either be a rod
with the purpose of simply carrying the current between the tip and the work. Or, it
may be a specially prepared rod or wire that not only conducts the current but also
melts and supplies filler metal to the joint. Most welding in the manufacture of steel
products uses the second type of electrode.

Basic Welding Circuit


The basic arc-welding circuit is illustrated in Fig. 1. An AC or DC power source, fitted
with whatever controls may be needed, is connected by a work cable to the work
piece and by a "hot" cable to an electrode holder of some type, which makes an
electrical contact with the welding electrode.

An arc is created across the gap when the energized circuit and the electrode tip
touches the work piece and is withdrawn, yet still with in close contact.

The arc produces a temperature of about 6500ºF at the tip. This heat melts both the
base metal and the electrode, producing a pool of molten metal sometimes called a
"crater." The crater solidifies behind the electrode as it is moved along the joint. The
result is a fusion bond.

Arc Shielding
However, joining metals requires more than moving an electrode along a joint.
Metals at high temperatures tend to react chemically with elements in the air -
oxygen and nitrogen. When metal in the molten pool comes into contact with air,
oxides and nitrides form which destroy the strength and toughness of the weld joint.
Therefore, many arc-welding processes provide some means of covering the arc and
the molten pool with a protective shield of gas, vapor, or slag. This is called arc
shielding. This shielding prevents or minimizes contact of the molten metal with air.
Shielding also may improve the weld. An example is a granular flux, which actually
adds deoxidizers to the weld.
Figure 2 illustrates the shielding of the welding arc and molten pool with a Stick
electrode. The extruded covering on the filler metal rod, provides a shielding gas at
the point of contact while the slag protects the fresh weld from the air.

The arc itself is a very complex phenomenon. In-depth understanding of the physics
of the arc is of little value to the welder, but some knowledge of its general
characteristics can be useful.

Nature of the Arc


An arc is an electric current flowing between two electrodes through an ionized
column of gas. A negatively charged cathode and a positively charged anode create
the intense heat of the welding arc. Negative and positive ions are bounced off of
each other in the plasma column at an accelerated rate.

In welding, the arc not only provides the heat needed to melt the electrode and the
base metal, but under certain conditions must also supply the means to transport the
molten metal from the tip of the electrode to the work. Several mechanisms for metal
transfer exist. Two (of many) examples include:

1. Surface Tension Transfer® - a drop of molten metal touches the molten metal
pool and is drawn into it by surface tension
2. Spray Arc - the drop is ejected from the molten metal at the electrode tip by
an electric pinch propelling it to the molten pool (great for overhead welding)

If an electrode is consumable, the tip melts under the heat of the arc and molten
droplets are detached and transported to the work through the arc column. Any arc
welding system in which the electrode is melted off to become part of the weld is
described as metal-arc. In carbon or tungsten (TIG) welding there are no molten
droplets to be forced across the gap and onto the work. Filler metal is melted into the
joint from a separate rod or wire.

More of the heat developed by the arc is transferred to the weld pool with
consumable electrodes. This produces higher thermal efficiencies and narrower
heat-affected zones.
Since there must be an ionized path to conduct electricity across a gap, the mere
switching on of the welding current with an electrically cold electrode posed over it
will not start the arc. The arc must be ignited. This is caused by either supplying an
initial voltage high enough to cause a discharge or by touching the electrode to the
work and then withdrawing it as the contact area becomes heated.

Arc welding may be done with direct current (DC) with the electrode either positive or
negative or alternating current (AC). The choice of current and polarity depends on
the process, the type of electrode, the arc atmosphere, and the metal being welded.

4 Popular different types of Welding Processes:


1. MIG - Metal Inert Gas or Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), also known as MIG (metal inert gas) welding or
MAG (metal active gas) welding, is a process in which an electric arc forms between
an electrode and a metal work piece, heating the metals and causing them to melt,
and be joined.

2 . TIG - Tungsten Inert Gas or Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)


Tungsten Inert Gas welding, also known as gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), is an
arc welding process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce the
weld.

3. Stick - Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)


Stick welding is a form of welding that uses electricity to melt a metal filler
rod/electrode/stick (electrode is the proper term) that melts both the metal joint and
electrode all at once to fuse two pieces of metal together and fill the joint with filler
metal at the same time.

4. Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)


Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW or FCA) is a semi-automatic or automatic arc
welding process. FCAW requires a continuously-fed consumable
tubular electrode containing a flux and a constant-voltage or, less commonly, a
constant-current welding power supply.
MIG - Metal Inert Gas or Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

This welding process uses a continuously fed electrode through a welding gun and the
operator needs to pull a trigger in order to feed the consumable electrode through. Between
the base material and the electrode an electric arc forms, which heats the material until it
reaches the melting point that makes it possible to get it joined with another.

For this type of welding, you need an externally supplied shielding gas, and some of the
most common used gases for this purpose are stainless steel, carbon steel, magnesium,
copper, nickel, aluminum, and silicon bronze. Some of the typical uses for MIG welding

The main advantages of choosing the MIG style for welding include the reduction of waste
thanks to the higher electrode efficiency, the minimal weld clean up required, lower heat
inputs, and reduced welding fumes. Moreover, this is the easiest welding technique to learn,
which makes it suitable for beginners and DIY enthusiasts.

Among the disadvantages, we can count the need for external shielding gas, the rather high
cost for the best mig welders and other equipment needed, the limited positions in which you
can weld, because you cannot use this technique for vertical or overhead welding, and the
inability to weld thick materials. Moreover, in order to be able to use this welding technique
successfully, all the materials need to be free of dirt and rust.
MIG welding is very commonly used in the automotive industry, mostly because it can
provide a strong weld that can withstand large forces. Automotive repairs often require
versatility and strength, and this is the type of welding that is best fitted to this purpose.
Other common uses include branding, robotics, constructions, and the maritime industry.

When it comes to MIG welding, you need to be sure that you adjust the power settings
perfectly in order to should the thickness of the material. The speed of the welding is also a
factor that affects the periods and penetration of the weld. By decreasing the speed of
thoughts travel, you will be able to increase penetration. various calculators are available if
you want to compare the different settings that you need for the welding power for a specific
project.
TIG - Tungsten Inert Gas or Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

Also known as Heliarc welding, TIG is a welding process that uses a tungsten electrode that
is not consumable to heed the base metal and create a molten puddle for the by using this
method, you can create are no filler metal or autogenous weld in order to melt two pieces of
metal together. You can also add an external filler rod into the molten puddle in order to be
able to create a weld bead and increase the mechanical properties of the metal.

Just like in the case of MIG welding, you will need an external gas supply, and some of the
common of them are argon and argon/helium mixtures. Some of the most typical uses for
TIG welding include piping systems, aerospace welding, and motorcycle or bikes.

The main advantages of using this welding technique as an enthusiast or a professional


include the ability to weld very thin materials, the high quality cleaning welds, and the highly
aesthetic weld beads. Moreover, with this technique you can weld a wide range of alloys and
obtains spatter free wells so you don't have worry as much about debris.

On the other hand, some of the disadvantages of the TIG welding include the high cost of
the equipment and the lower deposition rates. Moreover, you will need external shielding gas
and a rather high operator skill in order to obtain the desired results.

TIG welding is generally regarded as the most popular welding technique used nowadays,
and the reason behind this is the fact that it offers a clean weld and a high degree of purity
that is almost impossible to obtain with other welding methods. The method is most
commonly used for welding stainless steel, even though it is also a suitable choice for other
metals such as aluminum, magnesium, copper, and nickel.

Some of the industries that use TIG welding on a regular basis include those where
nonferrous metals are prevalent. This means that this method is a suitable one for the
manufacturing of tubing, vehicles, bicycles, as well as the repair and maintenance of various
types of tools made from magnesium, aluminum, and stainless steel.
Stick - Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Commonly referred to as Stick, the shielded metal arc welding is a process that uses an
electrode to carry electric current in order to be able to provide most of the weld metal. The
electrode used for this method consists of a core wire that is coded influx and the electric arc
is created when the tip of the electrode that is the work piece and is withdrawn while still
remaining in close contact in order to generate temperatures of about 6500°F.

The molten metal is protected from nitrates and oxides in the atmosphere during this
process, which means that this process is a suitable one for pipeline welding, construction,
heavy equipment repair, and steel erection.

The main advantages of using the shielded metal arc welding technique include the low cost
of the equipment that is necessary, as well as its portability. There is no need for shielding
gas as in the TIG or MIG welding techniques, which means that you can use this technique
outside even during wind or rain. Moreover, this technique also works on dirty and rusty
metals so it is a suitable alternative for those projects where you can simply not use the TIG
or MIG techniques.

On the other hand, the disadvantages of the shielded metal arc welding technique include
the lower consumable efficiency, as the quite a lot of waste is produced by welding in this
way, and the high operator skill required. It is actually quite going to take you a bit longer
than other methods to master the required skills, taking into account the fact that the method
is also rather difficult to use on thin materials.

This method is usually considered obsolete when compared to the MIG anti-ageing methods
mostly because it is primarily a manual welding technique. However, the process is
sometimes necessary because it is not always possible to use TIG or MIG welding due to
the position, type of material, and skill.

This type of welding offers a very low cost solution that does not require much expensive
equipment. As a result, the quality of the final weld may not be the best possible, mostly
because this technique may allow for shallow penetration, porosity, cracking, and a
vulnerability to severe weather.
Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

This technique is rather similar to the MIG welding method, as it also requires an
uninterruptedly fed electrode, but instead of a solid wire, it needs a tube-shaped wire
full with flux. You can choose from two types of flux core wire, which are socially and
will shield wires. social good wires are a good solution for outdoor use, as they work
even in windy situations. n the other hand, double shield uses an external shielding
gas and the flux in order to guard the modern weld puddle.

The main advantages of this technique include the higher electrode efficiency that
creates less waste than other types of welding methods, as well as the lower hit
inputs. With the flux-cored arc welding, there is no need for external shielding gas,
and you get reduced welding fumes regardless of the metal used for welding. this is
also a rather clean type of welding, as you don't have to deal with lots of debris.

When it comes to the disadvantages of this welding method, some of the most
common of them include the generation of a lot of smoke and the high cost of the
equipment. This welding method is not recommended for thin materials and may
create slag.

The flux-cored arc welding technique is very easy to learn and there are many
professionals prefer it because it is extremely inexpensive. Even though there are
several limitations when it comes to the application of the technique and the results
may not be as aesthetically pleasing as those obtained with other types of whaling
methods, this matter remains popular because of its ease of use.
OTHER TYPES OF WELDING PROCESS

Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

This type of welding involves firing a ray of high velocity electrons at the
materials that require welding. This technique transforms energy from
the electrons into sheets in order to melt the welding materials, which
can then merge and fuse together.

This type of welding is used in multiple industries, with applications


ranging from fully automated automotive inline part production to high-
cost aircraft engine industry.

Some examples of products that are created with electron beam welding
include aerospace components, transmission assemblies, and bimetal
saw blades.
Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW)

This welding technique has been largely replaced by the gas metal arc
welding methods, but it is still in use for specific purposes such as
welding tungsten.

This material is highly resistant to heat and by using this technique, you
can weld it in a way that does not damage the metal while still creating
cohesive, strong weld.

As in all welding jobs it is extremely important to wear welder gloves for


protection and safety.

The method was invented by Irving Langmuir after he discovered atomic


hydrogen. It involves the placement of two metal tungsten electrodes in
a hydrogen atmosphere in order to break up the hydrogen in the
molecules and combine them in an explosion of heat that can go up to
3000 degrees Celsius.
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding

This is one of the most difficult types of welding, and also the most time-
consuming, because it requires a lot of focus and skill mostly because of
the small area between the art of the flame in the material you intend to
weld.

For this method small strips of metal are welded with this process in
order to obtain an extremely strong weld that is bound to last for years.

This welding method has been released in 1941 and it has changed
very little since.

It is still used by manufacturers of bicycles and aircraft, both military and


commercial.
Plasma Arc Welding

A process that is similar to that of the gas tungsten arc welding, the plasma
arc welding was initially developed in 1954 and it uses electrical current that is
passed through a very small nozzle that goes through the protective gases in
order to enable extreme accuracy when it comes to welding small areas.

This method is a suitable one to use when it comes to heating metal very
extreme temperatures which results in deeper and stronger welds.

This welding method is often used in the aircraft manufacturing industry, and it
is very rare for it to be useful for DIY and enthusiast welders.
AC, DCEN AND DCEP.
WHEN TO USE AND WHEN NOT TO USE THEM.
DCEP, or Reverse Polarity is the standard polarity for MIG and for Stick welding.
In MIG, if it uses gas only, without a flux or metal core, it will require electrode
positive. Dual shield and metal core can vary.

Any MIG hard wire welding accidentally with DCEN, will result in globby welds,
with an unstable arc and frequent arc outages. As for the required polarity
welding with Stick, almost all welding is done with Reverse polarity. This is
because the electrons flowing from the negative work to the positive electrode
help to deposit the metal at a regular pace and, though it is counter-intuitive, it
actually helps to increase penetration.

DCEP provides a more stable arc in general in stick welding, but for welds
requiring light penetration, use DCEN if the electrode is designated to run either
polarity.

Although years ago, TIG welding was briefly done with DCEP during the war
years on aluminum aircraft, it required large electrodes and low currents or the
tungsten would overheat and is no longer considered acceptable since the
development of AC welding in TIG for aluminum. DCEP provides plenty of
cleaning for aluminum, but is not used because of the limitations of the tungsten’s
heat range.
DCEP: Direct
ct Current Electrode Positive
The direction of current flow through a welding circuit when the electrode lead
is connected to the positive terminal of the power source and the work is
connected to the negative terminal. See also Direct Current, Direct Current
Electrode Negative, Anode,, Cathode, Polarity, and Circuit.

DCEN: Direct
ct Current Electrode Negative
Direct Current Electrode Negative
gative (DCEN)) The direction of current flow through
a welding circuit when the electrode lead is connected to the negative terminal of
the power source and the work is connected to the positive terminal. Sometimes
referred to as straight polarity..
AC vs. DC - Welding Productivity
Stick welding is polarity driven. Direct current (DC) is used on most
stick welding applications. Alternating current (AC) is typically only used as a
second option. ... DC positive polarity provides a high level of penetration into the
steel. DC negative polarity results in less penetration but a higher deposition rate.

WHILE DC STICK WELDING IS THE GO-TO OPTION, AC STICK MIGHT


OFFER A BETTER SOLUTION IN SOME CASES

Graph of welding output on DC+ or DC- polarity. As seen by the bold lines, the
output is at a consistent current level all the time.
While AC/DC might make most reminisce about a certain era of rock music – I know
I listened to plenty of the band’s music on KSHE 95 in St. Louis – to welders it
means polarity. Stick welding is polarity driven. Direct current (DC) is used on most
stick welding applications. Alternating current (AC) is typically only used as a second
option.

DC stick welding offers advantages over AC when welding steel, including smoother
and more stable arcs, easier starts, fewer arc outages, less spatter and easier
vertical up and overhead welding. DC positive polarity provides a high level of
penetration into the steel. DC negative polarity results in less penetration but a
higher deposition rate. It is sometimes used, for example, on thin sheet metal in an
attempt to prevent burn-through.
“Because AC polarity is half DC positive and half DC negative, it is right in the
middle,” says Kevin A. Beardsley, application engineer, The Lincoln Electric Co.
“You can choose AC if you don’t want to go DC negative because you don’t want
that much penetration.”

Beardsley emphasizes AC is almost always a secondary choice. Most welders don’t


bother changing polarity because their other jobs run on DC positive.

Graph of welding output on AC polarity. Note that 120 times per second, the
welding output crosses the centerline, representing zero amperage or no
output. With many electrodes the arc tends to frequently extinguish on AC
polarity. To overcome this, some electrodes have elements in their coatings
that help keep the arc ignited as the output goes through periods of low and no
output (loosely represented by the red zone).

When in need
There are, however, a few situations where AC polarity is used. The obvious one is
when the only available power supply has AC output only. This is typical with low-
cost, entry-level welding machines, such as the “buzz box” welder.

“Also, there are some specific technical problems associated with using DC polarity,
and number one is arc blow,” says Eric Stewart, pipewelding technologist at Lincoln.
“When welding, that arc has a shape and the welder wants to direct that arc into the
joint to get full penetration. When there is arc blow, that arc is blowing to one side or
the other.”
An effective fix to arc blow problems, therefore, is switching to AC instead of DC
polarity. The arc blow can be caused by magnetism in the material being welded or
can be induced by the arc’s current.

“You can magnetize with current flowing through, so where you put your grounds
and things like that can impact arc blow. The arc is going to wander,” Stewart says,
also mentioning that another possible cause can be an external source, such
as windy conditions.

Stick electrode coating types and currents.

Because AC alternates between positive and negative polarity, it enables


magnetized parts to be welded.

“If you were welding in a box and pushing toward the intersection where the vertical
line comes down, the two horizontals meet into a corner,” Stewart says. “The
magnetic forces in relation to joint geometry actually at that point create a turbulent
puddle and that will result in a tremendous amount of spatter.”
When in use
One specific industry for AC stick welding is in shipbuilding, particularly when
welding into a corner and arc blow becomes a problem. Another area is maintenance
and repair.

“Those are the guys that will use AC stick welding more than anyone as a primary
option,” Beardsley says. “Maintenance and repair welding requires work on
machines that are magnetized. Also, maintenance and repair work can involve a lot
of rusty weld areas, where you don’t want high penetration.”

A switch to AC polarity requires a power supply and electrode both designed to run
AC. Again, because any production type of process is probably going to be DC, “if
you want an AC capability, you have to specify that,” Beardsley says. AC/DC power
supplies are available but on the higher end models.

The AC-225 stick welder puts out AC polarity only but is good for general
purpose welding including mild steel, low alloy and stainless steels and cast
iron for common repair projects.
Which stick?
With many electrodes, the arc tends to frequently extinguish on AC polarity. At the
instant of the switch, the arc actually goes out and then has to re-establish itself.
Electrodes are available with specific elements in their coating that operate on AC
polarity to keep the arc ignited.

Stick Welding with Idealarc 250 Stick Welder, Viking Hemisfear 2450 helmet

The 6011 welding rods have a high cellulose potassium-type coating. These rods
can be used with AC and DC polarity for all-position welding. They work especially
well for welding rusty, dirty or older metal or making repairs outside where it’s
windy. The 6011 rods are the AC version of the popular 6010 welding rods for DC.
The 6010 have a high cellulose sodium-type coating, can penetrate deeply and are
used for many applications in the field.

Both are fast-freeze rods, meaning the weld puddle changes from liquid to solid
rapidly, and are used primarily by pipefitters and pipe welders. Sizes vary, but 1.8 in.
to 5/32 in. are prominent. Other AC welding rods include 6013, 7018 and 7024.

The 6013 rods are all-position AC or DC polarity for welding new, clean sheet metal
applications because they penetrate less but don’t burn through the metal.

The 7018 welding rods are used for pipe welding and structural steel welding and
repair welding. This low-hydrogen, usually DC, all-position electrode can also be
used with AC, which not many welders may know. The 7018 provides a good bead
appearance and smooth, strong welds. It also works on higher strength steels.
The AC/DC 225/125 offers AC arc welding but adds the smoother, more stable DC arc welding as well.

The 7024 welding rods, commonly referred to as Jet Rod, run well on AC. They are a
good general-purpose rod with a high deposition rate for flat and horizontal welds
and are typically used to make large welds. They have a heavy iron powder content.
The 7024 rods are used for general fabrication, including deep grooves and big ships
where a high-deposition rate is required.

Both the 7018 and 7024 rods are also known as “drag rod,” where the end burns off
slightly inside the flux coating, allowing the welder to drag the rod along the joint. The
heavy slag should just peel off leaving a smooth weld.

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