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BIO 2 REVIEWER Homo sapiens- members of genus Homo with high

forehead and thin skull bones
ORGANISMAL BIOLOGY (TAXONOMY)
KINGDOMS OF LIFE
 Taxis – arrangement
 Nomos – laws  Protists
 TAXONOMY – identifying, classifying and  Eubacteria
naming organisms.  Archaebacterial
 Animalia
ARISTOTLE’s CLASSIFICATION  Plantae
 Fungi
LIVING THINGS:
ANIMAL CHARACTERISTICS AND
 PLANTS – small, medium, large CLASSIFICATION
 ANIMALS – land, water, air
 Most animals are multi-cellular organisms
CAROLOUS LINNAEUS  Most animals are heterotrophs
 Animals move and respond to its
-He based the classification on the morphological environment
and behavioral characteristics of the organisms.  Most animals have some form of symmetry
PHYLOGENETIC SPECIES CONCEPT  Animals reproduce their kind through
asexual or sexual means
BINOMIAL SYSTEM OF NAMING
ANIMALS ARE SPLIT INTO TWO MAJOR
 Two-part name – first letter word is capital GROUPS
and second name is in small caps  VERTEBRATES
 Genus + specific epithet - Animals with backbone
 Scientific name should be written either in - There are five groups of vertebrates
italics or underlined
1. Amphibians
KINGDOM 2. Birds
3. Fish
Animals- organisms able to move on their own
4. Mammals
PHYLUM 5. Reptiles

Chordates- animals with backbone

CLASS  FISH
- Have wet scales
Mammals- chordates with fur or hair and milk - Lay eggs in water
glands - Lives in water
- Have gills
ORDER
 AMPHIBIANS
Primates- mammals with collar bones and grasping
- Have moist skin
fingers - Lay jelly coated eggs in water
FAMILY - Lives in water and land

Hominids – primates with relatively flat face and ORDER ANURA- FROGS AND TOADS
three-dimensional vison  AN-without ; OURA- tail
GENUS  Frogs generally are more aquatic with
smooth skin compared to toads
Homo- s-curved spine, hominids with upright
posture and large brains. ORDER URODELA- SLAMANDERS

SPECIES  Tailed amphibians

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 Birds -There are eight significant groups of

- Have feathers and hallow bones invertebrates
- Lay hard sheltered eggs
- Warm blooded  Mollusca
 Flatworms
 Annelids
 Roundworms
 Mammals – Class Mammalia  Sponges
- Have hair and produce milk  Echinoderms
- Give birth to live offspring – no eggs  Cnidarians
- Warm blooded  Arthropods
THE 3 MAIN TYPES OF MAMMAL (Monotreme, 9 ANIMAL PHYLA
Marsupial, Placental)
 Phylum Porifera
Order monotremata – only mammals that  Phylum Cnidaria
lay eggs  Phylum Mollusca
Order artiodactyla – hoofed mammals with  Phylum Annelids
an odd number of toes  Phylum Platyhelminthes
- Sheep, pigs, deer  Phylum Nematoda
Order Perissodactyla  Phylum Arthropada
-hoofed mammals with an even number of toes  Phylum Echinodermata
 Phylum Chordata
-horses, zebra, rhino
Order Rodentia
ANIMALS’ SPECIALIZED STRUCTURES
-Gnawing mammal’s incisors continue to grow
throughout their lives HISTOLOGY

-squirrels, hamsters, rats - It is the study of animal and plant tissues. It

involves the preparation of thin tissue
Order carnivore sections, differentially stained and examined
under the microscope.
-large canines
TISSUES
-generally meat eaters (panda is an exemption)
- A group of similarly specialized cells which
-Raccoon, dogs, tiger, lion
form a particular function.
Order Primata
-Opposable thumbs, large brains, have social
 EPHITELIAL TISSUES
groups
-form the covering of all body surfaces, line
-Chimpanzee, human, gorilla, orangutan
body cavities and hollow organs
Order Cetacea
-specialized for protection, absorption, and
-Aquatic mammals secretion
-With blowhole and uses echolocation 1. Simple Squamous
– Single layer of cell
Reptiles – Order reptilian -Allows materials to pass through by
-have dry scales diffusion and filtration
-Can be found in the thin barriers where
-Ley leathery shelled eggs exchange of gasses occur
-Cold blooded Stratified Squamous
 INVERTEBRATES -Lines in esophagus, mouth and vagina
-Protects against abrasion
-Animals without a backbone
2. Simple cuboidal

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-Single layer of cube-shaped cells larger
than cytoplasm
-Function is to secrete and absorb
materials
-Found in kidney tubules and duct of
most glands
Stratified Cuboidal
-Sweat glands, salivary glands and
mammary glands
-Protective Tissue
3. Simple Columnar
-Single layer of elongated cells ideal for
absorption
-Ciliated tissues including bronchi,
uterine tubes, and uterus; smooth (non-
ciliated tissues) are in digestive tract
bladder
Stratified Columnar
-Secretes and protects
-The male urethra and the ducts of
some glands
Pseudostratified
-Falsely stratified
-Columnar cells that are tall and thin and
has irregular shapes
-Found on upper respiratory tract
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE
-It is the most prevalent tissue in the body and
connects other tissues together
-Dispersed cells and large extracellular spaces
TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. Connective tissue proper
 Loose Connective Tissue Proper
 Areolar connective tissue
 Watery matrix, collagen, elastic and
reticular fibers, and fibroblasts
 Found beneath epithelial tissues
 Binding, supporting, protection, and
storing body fluids
 Dense Regular Connective Tissue
 Closely packed bundles of collagen
fibers
 Less flexible
 Provides strength to withstand the
pulling of muscles in one direction
(for tendons and ligaments)
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 Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
 Dense irregular fibers
 Allows skin to be resilient and
flexible
 Reticular Connective Tissue
 Reticulocytes (specialized
fibroblasts)
 Gives support to soft organs like
spleen and lymph nodes
 Provides support for bone marrow
 Elastic Connective Tissue
 Branching elastic fibers and
fibroblasts
 Highly flexible- can stretch and still
return to original shape
 Can be found in lung tissue, vocal
cords aorta and ligaments between
vertebrate
 Adipose Tissue
 Fat tissues
 Found everywhere in the body
 Serves as energy reservoir for
organs and provide insulation
2. Supportive connective tissue
 Cartilage
 Cells are called chondrocytes –
cartilage producing cells
-Chondrification- cartilage
making
 Gives strength, support, and
protection to soft parts of the body
 Bone Tissue
 Hardened connective tissue
 Serves as structural framework of
the body; site for blood formation
(bone marrow)
 Osteocytes – bone-producing cells
 Ossification – hardening of cartilage
to bones
 Compose of calcium phosphate
magnesium, and fluoride ions
3. Fluid connective tissue
 Blood
-Blood plasma – erythrocytes,
leukocytes, and thrombocytes
MUSCLE TISSUE
 Skeletal Muscle Tissue
 Muscles attached to the skeleton
(tendons)
 Long, cylindrical, unbranched, and
contains multiple nuclei
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 Striated INTEGUMENTARY EXCHANGE OR CUTANEOUS

 Responsible for movement
 Voluntary control
 Smooth Muscle
 Non-striated
 Involuntary
 Spindle-shaped muscles, single
nucleus, unbranched
 Found in walls of stomach, small
intestine, uterus, and blood vessels
 Cardiac Muscle
 Striated
 Involuntary control
 Fibers, branching, with one nucleus
NERVOUS TISSUE
 Nerve cells – neurons
 Conduct impulses to and from the brain
 With 3 parts- dendrites, cell body and axon
 Neuroglia – cells that protect,
structurally support, and metabolically
support neurons
 Neurons – excitable cells; the
communication unit of the nervous sytem
BODY SYSTEM
RESPIRATION
 Invertebrate like sponges (phylum porifera),
jellyfish (phylum cnidarian) and earthworms
(phylum annelida) uses their skin for gas
exchange.
 Must keep their surface moist for
faster diffusion
-For Phylum Annelida –
skin is very thin, and highly
vascular for faster gas
exchange
-For Phylum Porifera –
diffusion happens through
the pores
-For Phylum Cnidaria –
diffusion happens at the first
layer of their body surface –
ectoderm, then goes to the
second layer – endoderm
 Class amphibia also uses their skin in gas
exchange
 Must keep their skin moist, highly vascular
 Uses their skin only when they are in water
or during hibernation

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
RESPIRATION refers to the obtaining of sufficient ANIMALS THAT USES TRACHEAL SYSTEM
oxygen and expelling excessive amounts of (CALSS INSECTA)
carbon dioxide  Branched internal tubes
1. External Respiration – between  Oxygen passes through tiny openings called
environment and lungs spiracles
 Spiracles- trachea – tracheole – cells
2. Internal Respiration – between lungs PHYLUM MOLUSSCA (CLASS GASTROPADA)
and the blood
 Uses pnuemostome as passageway of the
3. Cellular Respiration – actual oxygen inside the body
utilization of oxygen by the cells  For land snail – uses lungs
 For aquatic snails – uses gills; some
MAJOR TYPE OF GAS EXCHANGE organisms have external gills
 Through their skin or body PHYLUM MOLUSSCA (CLASS CEPHALOPODS)
surface(integumentary exchange or
cutaneous respiration)  Uses siphons in getting oxygen
 Through cell  Gills inside the mantle of the organism
 Through gills
 Through trachea FISH (CLASS PISCES)
 Through lungs  Gills are feather-like
 Mechanism of gas exchange is
countercurrent exchange

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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF BIRDS (CLASS  Involves the lungs as oxygen supplier –

AVES) when deoxygenated blood goes to the lungs
to get oxygen
 Has 3 components- posteriors sacs, anterior
sacs, and lungs SYSTEMATIC CIRCULATION
 Gas exchange is through crosscurrent flow
 Involves the heart, blood vessels and all
ANIMALS THAT USES LUNGS body parts
 Class Mammalia CORONARY CIRCULATION
FACTORS AFFECTING GAS EXCHANGE  How our heart gets its own supply of blood
– coronary arteries and coronary veins
 Pressure (Fick’s Law of diffusion)
 Temperature ANIMALS THAT DON’T NEED A TRANSPORT
 Presence of solutes in the air SYSTEM
 Presence of oxygen – binding proteins
(hemoglobin)  Phylum Porifera (sponges)
 Phylum Cnidaria (jellyfishes and hydra)
VENTILATION  Worms
 The process involved in the bringing of THE HUMAN HEART
oxygenated water or air into contact with
respiratory organs  Systolic (systole) – the pressure in the
 For unicellular organisms, gas exchange arteries when the heart beats (when the
happens through surfaces in the process heart muscle contracts)
called DIFFUSION  Diastolic (diastole) – measures the pressure
in the arteries (when the heart muscle is
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM resting between beats and refilling with
blood)
FUNCTIONS:
BLOOD
 Nutrition
 Waste removal  Circulating nutrients and transport oxygen,
 Cellular communication nutrients and wastes
 Immunity  7-8% of our total body weight
 Respiration  4-5 L in female; 5-6 L in males
 Thermoregulation  Two components
Liquid- plasma
OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Solid- blood cells
 For mollusks and arthropods BLOOD VESSELS
 Fluid is pumped through open ended
vessels and transported among the cells  The tubes where blood flows throughout the
with no distinction between the circulating body
fluid (Blood) and the interstitial fluid -arteries
(hemolymph) -veins
 Have tubular hearts -capillaries
 Carry blood to the different tissues
CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM  Exchange of nutrients and gasses
 Transport of antibodies, hormone, enzymes
 For vertebrates and complex invertebrates  Blood pressure
 The blood is confined within blood vessels  Direct blood flow
separated from the intestinal fluid. Different
blood vessels move the blood away from ARTERIES
and to the heart, body organs and tissues
 Have irregular shaped heart  Blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood
away from the heart to the different parts of
PULMONARY CIRCULATION the body
 Arterioles – smaller arteries
 Pulse – arteries near the skin
 Aorta- largest artery

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CAPILLARIES  EPITOPE is a portion of a foreign protein, or

antigen that is capable of simulating
 Narrow arterioles that penetrate the body immune response
tissues
 Smallest and thinnest blood vessels WHITE BLOOD CELLS (LEUKOCYTES)
 Smallest molecules dissolved in the blood
easily passed through the membranes of Agranular
capillaries wall  Lymphocytes – 20-25%
VEINS o T-Cell
o B-cell
 From capillaries, deoxygenated blood o NK Cell
enters the veins  Monocytes – 3-8%
 Veins carry deoxygenated blood to the
heart Granular

IMMUNE SYSTEM  Basophil - .5-1%

 Neutrophils- 60-70 %
FUNCTION:  Eosinophil – 2-4%
 Filters out organisms that causes disease, ANTIMICROBAL PROTEINS
produces certain white blood cells and
generates antibodies  Antigen (immune response)
 Defense against microbes  Cytokines (signal)
 Defense against the growth of tumor cells  Interferon (virus)
-Kills the growth of tumor INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
cells
 Homeostasis  Histamines
-destruction of abnormal or  Prostaglandins
dead cells  Interleukin-1
BASIC CONCEPTS HUMORAL IMMUNE RESPONSE
 Immunology- the study of structure and  Macrophages recognize an antigen
function of the immune system  Macrophage presents antigen to helper T-
 Immunity – resistance of a host to cell
pathogens and their toxic effects  An activated helper T-cell presents a
 Immune response – collective and processed antigen to B-cell
coordinated response to the introduction of  Activated B-cells divides rapidly into
foreign substance in an individual mediated memory and plasma cells
by the cells and molecules of the immune  B-Cells will remain in the body creation your
system immunity
TWO TYPE OF IMMUNITY VACCINES
1. INNATE (non-adaptive/non-specific)  In 1796 he inserted pus taken from Sarah
Nelmes, a milkmaid with cowpox, into a cut
 First line of immune response made in the arm of a local boy, James
 Relies on mechanisms that exist before Phipps. Several days later, Jenner exposed
infection the boy to smallpox. He was found to be
2. ACQUIRED (adaptive/specific) immune. Jenner called his new method
‘vaccination’ after the Latin word for cow
 Second line of response (if innate fails) (vacca)
 Relies on mechanism that adapt other
infection DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Handled by T- and B- lymphocytes FUCNTIONS:
 One cell determines one antigenic
determinant (epitope) 1. Take in food
2. Breakdown the food

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o Mechanical (mastication)
o Chemical (enzymes driven)
3. Absorbed digested molecules
4. Provide Nutrients
5. Eliminate Waste
DIGESTIVE PROCESS
1. Mechanical Digestion
 Mouth and stomach
 Food is broken down mechanically
 Teeth – bite, cut, tear, grind, and marsh
 Stomach and intestine – mix the food
physically by muscular movement
(peristalsis)
2. Chemical Digestion
 Digestive enzymes are needed to change
food into their simplest form
1. Carbohydrates – glucose
2. Proteins – amino acids
3. Fats - fatty acids and glycerol
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Mumps – infection of the parotid glands
 Peptic ulcer – caused by helicobacter pylori
 Liver cirrhosis
 Gall bladder stone – contains cholesterol
crystal that hardened by precipitation of in
organic slats
 Appendicitis
 Hemorrhoids – inflammation of the rectal
veins
ANIMALS WITH NO DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Sponges
 They absorb water through their pores
 Inside their bodies, specialized cells catch
the food particles in the water, and digest
them in the cytoplasm
ANIMALS WITH DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 In almost all animals (with the exemption of
sponges), digestion is carried out by a
digestive system.
 It is separated into three stages:
o Food is crushed by mechanical
means. The molecules of nutrients
are broken down through chemical
process
o Nutrients are absorbed and carried
to the calls
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o The materials that cannot used are
eliminated
ANIMALS WITH GASTRVASCULAR CAVITIES
 Cnidarians and Platyhelminthes.
 Their gastrovascular cavities are bag-
shaped and are sometimes branched.
 They have only one opening, which is used
both to ingest food and to eliminate waste
 Digestion takes place inside the cavity. The
cells lining the cavity walls absorb nutrients.
ANIMALS WITH DIGESTIVE TRACTS
 A digestive tract is a long tube with an
opening for food to go in (mouth) and
another opening for indigestible material to
go out (anus)
 The simplest digestive tracts, like those
found in annelids, have parts that specialize
in grinding food, but they do not have
digestive glands
 The most complex digestive tracts, like
those found in mollusks, arthropods and
vertebrates, have specialized parts and
digestive glands that produce the substance
which break down the molecules of
nutrients
DIGESTION IN A RUMINANT
 The animal ingest food without chewing and
it passes to the rumen
 Inside the rumen, microorganisms begins to
digest the food
 Parts of the food get sent back to the
animal’s mouth to be chewed. This is calling
chewing cud, or ruminating
 The chewed food is swallowed again, but
this time it passes to the reticulum, the
omasum and the abomasum, where
digestion is completed
 The food passes to the intestine, where
nutrients are absorbed and faces are
formed
DIGESTION IN A SNAIL
 Digestion begins with the snail ingesting
food with a sort of toothed tongue called the
radula
 Food the passes to the mouth, where it
mixes with saliva
 The short esophagus transports the food to
the stomach. Although the salivary glands
surround the stomach, the saliva is released
in the mouth
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 From the stomach, food passes to the CHARACTERISTICS OF URINE

spiral-shaped intestine, and is expelled
through the anus which is surprisingly close  Color usually pale yellow (urochrome)
to the snail’s head  Odor: ammonia-like
 Transparency: clear
DIGESTION IN A BIRD  Ph: close to neutral, may vary between
4.6 – 8
 Food passes through the mouth to the  Volume: 1-2 L per day (adults)
esophagus, where there is a pouch called a
crop. This is where food is moistened and CONTENTS OF URINE URINALYSIS (UA) INFO
softened to facilitate digestion. Sometimes IMPORTANT TO KNOW, BUT NOT ON THE
birds regurgitate this softened food for their TESTS
young.
 Food then passes to the stomach, which is  .05% AMMONIA
made up of proventriculus, which separates  .18% SULPHATE
digestive fluids and a gizzard which has a  .12% PHOSPHATE
vascular wall to finish grinding the food  .6% CHLORIDE
 From there, the food goes to the intestine,  .01% MAGNESIUM
where it is mixed with fluids in the liver and  .015% CALCIUM
pancreas  .6 POTASSIUM
 The intestine ends in the cloaca  .1 CREATININE
 .03 URIC ACID
FEEDING MECHANISMS  2% UREA
 95% WATER
 Suspension feeders
 Filter feeders URINE COLOR (UROCHROME)
 Substrate feeders
 Fluid feeders  Dark urine – dehydration
 Bulk feeders  Colorless urine – over hydration
 Bloody urine – hematuria
EXCRETORY SYSTEMS  Dark orange to brown – jaundice
 Bright yellow – vitamin
FUNCTIONS:  Green urine – asparagus
 Essential for carrying out the different bodily  Pink urine – beets
function in organisms URINARY TRACT INFECTION
 Elimination of metabolic waste products
from an organism’s body which includes  A bacterial infection that affects part of the
CO2 and H2O and nitrogen urinary tract (E. Coli and S. Saprophyticus)
 Common in women than men
KIDNEY THE MAIN EXCRETORY ORGAN  Painful urination burning sensation
 Bean-shaped organ found at the lower back  Frequent urination (even if no urine present)
just above the hips and bloody or brown urine
 The blood cleansing organ  Can lead to chills, fever, nausea, vomiting
 Micturition – voiding the urine and abdomen tenderness
 Nephrons – kidney’s main filtering unit ANIMAL’S EXCRETORY ORGANS
o Tiny filters that control the chemical
composition of the blood  Segmental Nephridia (earthworms)
 Malphigian Tubules (Insect)
PROCESSES INVOLVED IN EXCRETION  Epidermis (Hydra)
 FILTRATION – waste are strained through  Flame Cells (Planaria)
the walls of the blood vessels onto tiny  Contractile Vacuole (Amoeba)
tubes, called tubules NERVOUS SYSTEM
 REABSORPTION AND SECRETION –
useful substances from the urine are FUNCTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
reabsorbed in the blood
 URINE FORMATION (Vertebrates animals and Invertebrate animals)
 SENSORY INPUT

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 INTEGRATION
 HOMEOSTASIS
 MENTAL ACTIVITY
 CONTROL OF MUSCLES AND GLANDS
THE NUERONS
 The nerve cells
 Basic building blocks of the nervous
systems
 Responsible for communicating
information in both chemical and
electrical forms
 Stop reproducing shortly after birth;
neurons die but are not replaced
SYNAPSE
 Average human brain has about 100 billion
neurons
 Each neuron may be connected to up to
10,000 other neurons, passing signals to
each other via as many as 1,000 trillion
synaptic connections
 A structure that permits that permits neuron
to pass an electrical or chemical signal to
another cell
TRANSMISSION OF A NERVE IMPULSE
 Calcium gates open
 Releasing a neurotransmitter
 The neurotransmitter binds with receptors
on the neuron
 Excitation or inhibition of the membrane
occur
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
 Chemicals which allow the transmission of
signals from one neuron to the next across
synapses
NEUROGLIA/GANGLION/GLIAL CELLS
 Nonneuronal cells of the CNS and PNS
 More numerous that neurons
 Most retain the ability to divide
3 MAJOR ORGANS OF THE BRAIN
 BRAINSTEM – connects the spinal cord to
the brain
o Medulla oblongata – regulates heart
rate, blood vessel diameter,
swallowing, breathing, coughing,
vomiting, sneezing, balance, and
coordination.
o Pons – chewing and salivation
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o Midbrain – coordination of eye
movement
o Reticular Formation – regulates
cyclical motor functions
 Cerebellum – “little brain”, responsible for
learning motor skills
o Coordination of the muscle actions
and maintaining balance – posture,
learning new task, motor skills
o Hypothalamus – maintains
homeostasis, control body
temperature, hunger and thirst,
sensation, emotion response to
nervousness, controls hormonal
functions pituitary gland.
o
 Diencephalon – located between brainstem
and cerebrum
o Thalamus – largest; influences mood
and pain
o Epithalamus – emotional and
visceral response to odors
o Cerebrum – largest part of the brain;
cognition
o Cerebellum – proprioceptive and
kinesthetic functions
LIMBIC SYSTEMS
 Responds to olfactory stimulation by
initiating survival instincts
o Hippocampus – consolidation of
short term to long term and spatial
memory
o Amygdala – processing of
information
o Meninges – tissues that protect the
brain and spinal cord
o Cerebrospinal fluid – bathes the
brain and spinal cord
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Sensory division (afferent) – picks up
sensory stimuli
 Motor division (efferent) – sends directions
from your brain to muscles and glands
SENSORY DIVISION
 Gather information in the surrounding and
perceiving stimuli
 Presence of receptors
 Sense Organs
o Somatic sense – gather information
about the body and environment
o Visceral sense – gather information
about internal organs
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TYPES OF RECEPTORS  Parathyroid hormone

 Mechanoreceptor
 Chemoreceptor
 Electromagnetic receptor (light)
 Somatosensation (tactile sense)
o Pressure receptor (proprioceptor)
o Heat and cold receptor
(thermoreceptor)
o Pain receptor (nociceptive receptor)
o Barpreceptors
MOTOR DIVISION
 Somatic – transports information from skin,
organs to CNS
 Autonomic – controls bodily fucntions;
controls the involuntary processes and
function of the nervous system
 Symphathethic – fight or flight response
 Parasymphathetic – rest and digest
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS:
 Water balance
 Uterine contraction and milk release
 Growth, reproduction, and tissue maturation
 Ion regulation
 Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
 Blood glucose control
 Immune system regulation
 Reproductive function control
ENDOCRINE GLAND
 Are ductless glands that secrets hormones
directly into the bloodstream
 Pituitary Gland
o Pituitary (Anterior)
 Prolactin thyroid
 Stimulating hormone
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone
 Follicle-stimulating hormone
 Luteinizing hormone
o Pituitary (posterior)
 Antidiuretic hormone
(vasopressin)
 Oxytocin
 Thyroid and parathyroid glands
o Thyroid
 Thyroxine (T4)
 Triiodothyrorine (T3)
(metabolism)
 Calcitonin (reduces calcium
level
o Parathyroid
(increases calcium level)
 Adrenal gland
o Adrenal (Cortex)
 Aldosterone (increases blood
Na+ level)
 Cortisol, cortisone,
corticosterone(increase
blood glucose level)
o Adrenal (Medulla)
 Epinephrine/adrenaline (fight
of flight response)
 Norepinephrine
 Pancreas
o Insulin (reduces blood glucose level)
o Glucagon (increases blood glucose
level)
 Pineal Glands
o Melatonin (regulates circadian
rhythm)
 Thymus Gland
o Thymosin (development of T-Cells)
EXOCRINE GLAND
 Release their secretion through ducts or
tubes
o Example of exocrine glands are
sweat glands, salivary glands, and
tear (lacrimal) glands
TYPES OF HORMONES
NON-STEROID HORMONES
 Such as adrenaline, are composed of either
proteins, peptides, or amino acids
 These hormone molecules are not fast
soluble, so they usually do not enter cells to
exert their effect. Instead, they bind to
receptors on the surface of target cells
 This combination substance then triggers a
specific chain of chemical reaction within
the cell
STEROID HORMONES
 Such as cortisol, are manufactured from
cholesterol.
 Each type of steroid hormone is composed
of a central structure of four carbon rings
attached to distinctive sides chains that
determine the hormone’s specific and
unique properties
 Within the endocrine cells, steroid
hormones are synthesized in the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum

JUDAHS