Article 7
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Why Should Students Learn Evolution?
BnmN J. Alrpns a,NIo SnNIonn M. Alrens
"lUhen vou c'ombine tlrc luck of emphasis rm evoltttion
in kindergarten thntugh lZth g,rade, vvith the immense
populari\ of creationisnT among, the puhlic, und the
industm tliscrediting evolution, it's eusv to see whv hulf
t,J the populution believes humans were created 10.000
yeurs aso und lived with dinosuurs. lt is bv lor the biggest
lhilure r2l'science educution.fntm top k, botktm."
Moore, EJitor. Tlte Americun
-Randy
Biologlt Teacher
"'fhis is un important urea rl'science, with purticular
.;iqniJtcance .fbr a developmental psvchologist like me.
Unless one hus some understaruling of the kev notions
t variation, natural s e lection, odaptation, und
fi' s pec ie s,
the like (und how these "have been discovered), unless
tne uppreciates the perennial stntggle among individuals
tund populations) Jbr survival in a particular ecob,qical
niche, one cannot urulersland the living world ofwhich
*,e are a ptrt."
Gurdner. Prot'essor. Harvard Graduate
-Howard
School of Education
ith all of the controversy over the teaching of evolu-
tion reported in the media. with parents contiont-
ing their children's science teachers on this issue,
rrnd with students themselves cont'ronting their instructors in
high schools und colleges, would it be best-and easiest-to
just delete the teaching of evolution in the classroom? Can't
:tudents attain a well-rounded background in science without
learning this controversial topic'l The overwhelming consensus
of biologists in the scientitic community is "no," Why, then.
should science students learn about evolution'l
A simple answer is that evolution is the basic context of all the
biological sciences. Take away this context, and all that is left is
disparate t'acts without the thread that ties them all together. ftrt
another way. evolution is the explanatory tramework, the unify-
ing theory. It is indispensable to the study of biology, just ir"s the
rutomic theory is indispensable to the study of chemistry. The char-
lrcteristics and behavior of atoms and their subatomic puticles
forrn the basis of this physical science. So, ttn, biokrgy can he
rrnders(xxl tirlly only in an evolutic>nary c()ntext. ln cxplaining how
I
the <lrganisms of ttxlay got to be the way they are, evolution helps
rnake sense out of the history of litb and explains relationships
xmong species. [t. is a uset'ul and otten essential tiamework within
which scientists organize and interpret observations, and make pre-
dictions about the living world.
But this simple answer is not the entire reason why students
should learn evolution. There are other considerations as well.
Evolutionary explanations answer key questions in the bio-
logical sciences such as why organisms across species have so
rnany striking similarities yet are tremendously diverse. These
key questkrns ere the wftv questions of biology. Much of biology
explains /row organisms work . . . how we breathe. how tish
swim. or how leopard tiogs produce thousands of eggs at one
time . . . but it is up to evolution to explain the why behind these
mechanisms. In answering the key ruftv questions of biology,
evolutionary explanations become an important lens through
which scientists interpret data. whether they are developmental
biologists, plant physiologists, or biochemists. to mention just a
iew of the many t'oci of those who study life.
Understanding evolution also has practical considerations
that affect day-to-day life. Without an understanding ol natural
selection. students cannot recognize and understand problems
birsed on this process. such as insect resistance to pesticides
or microbial resistance to antibiotics. In a report released in
iune. 10fi). Dr. Cro Harlem Brunddand. Director-General of
the World Health Organization. stated that the world is at risk
oi losing drugs that control many int'ectious diseases because
of increasing antimicrobial resistance. The report goes on
to give examples. stating that 98Vo of strains of gonorrhea in
Southeast Asia are now resistant to penicillin. Adtlitionally.
l-1,000 people die each year trom drug-resistant int'ections
ircquired in hospitals in the United States. And in New Delhi.
India. typhoid drugs are no longer effective against this disease.
Such problems tace every person on our planet. and an under-
standing of natural selection will help students realize how
important their behavior is in either contributing to or helping
stem this crisis in medical progress.
Evolution ntlt only enriches and provides a conceptual
foundation tbr biological sciences such as ecology, genetics,
developmental biology, and systematics, it provides a tiame-
work tbr scientitlc disciplines with historical aspects. such as
anthropoklgy, astronomy, geology, and paleontology. Evolution
is theret'ore a unitying theme among many sciences, providing

students rvith a framework by which to understirntl the natural
world f'rom rnany perspectives.
As scientists search tbr evolutionary explunations to the many
questions of lif'e. they develop methods and tbrmulate conceprs
that are being applied in other tields, such as molecular biology.
rnedicine. and statistics. For example. scientists studying molec-
ularevolutionary change have developed methods to distinguish
variations in gene sequences within and among species. These
methods not only add to the toolbox of the molecular biologist
but also will have likely applications in medicine by helping to
identify variationsthat cause genetic diseases. In characterizing
and analyzing variation, evolutionary biologists have also devel-
oped statistical methods. such as analysis of variance and path
analysis. which are widely used in other tields. Thus. methods
and concepts developed by evolutionary biologists have wide
relevance in other fields and influence us all dailv in wavs we
cannot realize without an understanding of this important and
central idea.
Evolution is not only a powert'ul and wide-reachinr concept
among the pure and applied sciences, it also permeates other
disciplines such as philosophy, psychology. literature. and
the arts. Evolution by means of natural selection. articulated
amidst controversv in the mid-nineteenth centurv, has reached
the twenty-tjrst century having had an extensive and expansive
impact on human thought. An important intellectual develop-
ment in the historv of ideas. evolution should htrld a central
place in science teaching and learning.
Why is evolution the context of the biological sciences-A
unifying theory?
First. how does evolution take place? A key idea is that some of
the individuals within a population of organisms possess ntea-
surable changes in inheritable characteristics that tavor their
survival. (These characteristics can be morphological. physi-
ological. behavioral. or biochemical.) These individuals are
more likely to live to reproductive age than are individuals not
possessing the favorable characteristics. These reproductivelv
advantageous traits (called adaptive troils or udoptatio,ts) ure
passed on fiom surviving individuals to their offspring. Over
time. the individuals carrying these traits will increase in num-
bers within the population, and the nature of the population as
a whole will gradually change. This process oi survival ol'the
most reproductively fit organisms is called nutural selcctiort.
The process of evolutionary change explains that the organ-
isms of today got to be the way they are, at least in pan, as the
result ofnatural selection over billions ufyears and even hillions
tn()re generations. Organisms ore relal.etl to one another. sonlc
more distantly, branching tionr a c()mmon ancestor long ago.
and some more recently, branching liom a common ancestor
closer to the present day. The fact that diverse oruanisnrs have
descended from common ancestors accounts tbr the similarities
exhibited among species. Since biology is the story of lit'e, then
evolution is the story ol'biologv and the relatedness of all lil'c.
How do evolutionary explanations answer key questions in
the hiological sciences?
Evolution answers the question of the unitv and similaritv of
lit'e hv its relatedness and shared history. But rvhat abour irs
]I
Article 7. Why Should Students Learn Evotution?
tliversity'? And how does evolution answer other key ques-
tions in the biological sciences'/ What are these quesrions
and how does evolution answer the u.y'rr question inherent
in each'.)
Evolution explains the diversitv of lif'e in the same way
that it explains its unity. As nrentioned in the preceding para-
graphs. some individuals within a population of organisms
possess measurable changes in inheritable characteristics that
t'avor their survival. These adaptive traits are passed on from
surviving individuals to their ott.spring. Over time, as popula-
tions inhabit difterent ecological niches. the individuals car-
rying adaptive traits in each population increase in numbers.
and the nature of each population eradually changes. Such
divergent evolution. the splitting of single species into mul-
tiple. descendant species. accounts fbr variation. There are
difl'erent modes. or patterns. of divergence. and various repro.-
ductive isolating mechanisms that contribute to divergent evo-
lution. However. the result is the same: Populations split from
common ancestral populations and their genetic dit'ferences
accumulate.
What are some other key questions in biology that are
answered by evolution'? One key question asks why fbrm is
adapted to tunction. Evolutionary theory tells us that more
organisms that have parts of their anatomy (a long. slender
beak, fbr instance) better adapted to certain tunctions (such as
capturing tbod that lives deep within holes in rotting tree trunks )
will live to reproductive age in greater nunrbers than those with
less-well-adapted beaks. Theretbre. the organisms with better-
adapted beaks will pass on the genes tbr these fearures to grearer
numbers of off'-spring. Eventually. atier numerous generations.
natural selection will result in a population that has long slender
beaks adapted to procuring t'ood. Thus. anatomical. behavioral.
or biochemical traits (the "tbrms") tlt their functions because
fbrm titting f'unction is adaptive. But this idea leads us to yet
another important question: Why do organisms have a vari-
ety of nonadaptive t'eatures that coexist amidst those that are
rdaptive'l
During the course of evolution. traits that no longer cont'er
a reproductive advantage do not disappear in the population
unless they are reproductively disadvantageous. A population of
beice beach birds that escaped predation because of protective
coloration will not change coloration if this population becomes
geographically isolated to a grasslands environment. unless the
now useless beise coloration ailows the birds to be hunted and
killed more easily. ln other wcrrds, if beige coloration is not a
liability in the new environtnent, the genes that code frlr this
trait will be passed on by all surviving birds in this grasslands
niche. Even as the population of birds changes over Senerations.
the genes lirr bcige leathers wrll be retained in the population
as long as this trait cont'ers no reprocluctive disadvantage (and
lus long as nrutation and genetic dritt do not result in such a
change ).
These preceding examples do nrx cover all the key questions
of biol<lgy (of course), but do show that sr.rch kev questions are
really questrorrs atrout evolution and its mechanisnrs. ()nly evo-
lutionary theory can rnswer the nlry questions inherent in these
thcnres of litc.
ANNUAL EDITIONS
How does understanding evolution help us understand
processes that alfect our health and our day'to'day lit'e? and
How are evolutionary methods upplied to other tields?
, \i lnentioned earlier. without an understanding of ttatural sclcc-
tion. students cannot recognize and tlllderstand problems based
on this process. such as insect resistance to pesticides or micro-
bial resistance to antibiotics. Additionally, it is tlnly through
such understanding that scientists can hope to tind solutions
to these sclious situations. Scientists knorv that the uttderly-
irtg cause <'ri microhial resistance to antibiotics is impnlper use
of these drugs. As explained in the World Health Organization
report (/r,(,r.t nr i n q A n t inr ic' ro h i a I R e,r i s t a nc e, i n prxrr countries
rurtibiotics are otien used irr ways that encourage the develop-
rnent of resistance. Unable to atlbrd the tull course of treat-
rnent. patients otien take antibiotics only until their symptoms
uo away-killing the most susceptible microbes while allow-
ing those more resistant to survive and reproduce. When these
rnost resistant pathogens int'ect another host. antibiotics are less
against the more resistant strains. In wealthy coun-
".f'fective
rries such as the United States, antibiotics are overused. being
prescribed fbr viral diseases tbr which they are ineft'ective and
being used in agriculture to treat sick animals and promote rhe
growth of those that are well. Such misuse and overuse of anti-
biotics speeds the procesd whereby less resistant strains of bac-
teria are wiped out and rnore resistant strains tlourish.
In addition to developing resistance to antibiotics and other
therapies. pathogens can evolve resistance to the body's natural
det'enses. The virulence of pathogens (the ease with which they
cause disease) can also evolve rapidly. Understanding the co-
cvolution ot the human immune svstem and the pathoeens that
attack it help scientists track and predict disease outbreaks.
Understanding evolution also helps researchers understand
the tiequency. nature, and distribution of genetic disease. Cene
lrequencies in populations are atfected by selection pressures,
rnutarion. rnigration. and random genetic dritt. Studying _cenetic
diseases tiom an evolutionary standpoint helps us see that even
lethal genes can remain in a population if there is a reproduc-
rive advantage in the heterozyeote. as in the case of sickle-cell
rrnemia and malaria.
Sickle-cell anemia is one of the most common genetic disor-
,lers among African Americans. having arisen in their Afiican
ilncestors. It has been observed in persons whose ancestors came
t'rorn fhe Mediterranean basin. the Indian subcontinent. the
C.rribbean. and parts of Central antl Scluth America { particularly
ilruzil). The sickle-cell sene has persisted in these populations.
rven though the disease eventually kills its victims. because cirr-
r'iers who inherit a sinele det'ective gene are resistant to malaria.
flrt>se rvith the sickle-cell gene have a survival advantage in
r'egions ol the world in which malaria is prevalent. which are the
regions of the ancestral populations listed previously. Although
rnany of these peoples have since miqrated tiom these areas.
this ancestral gene still persists within rheir populations.
Scientists are also working to identity gene variations that
cluse genetic diseases. I{olecular evolutionary biologists have
,leveloped rnethods to distinguish between variations in cene
\L'quences that atfbct reproductive iitness and variations that
rkr ntlt. To tlo this, scientists analvze human DNA sequences
l2
an<i DNA scquences rlnong closely reluted species. lhe Human ET
(lenoure Project. a rvorlthvide etlbrt to map the positions ot all pl
the genes und to secluence the ovL.r -1 [riltion DNA base pairs ol itr
ttre humun {enorne. is providing rnuch of the data filr this et}'ort b1
and also is allowins scientists to study the relatittnships between
the structure of senes and the proteins they produce. (On June io
16, 1000. scientists unnounced the completion of the "working Iu
dratt", of the humun gcnonle.'lhe rvorking drutt covers 85% of it
the -genornc's cotling regions in rough tirrnr.;
Sr.rrne tliseases are caused hy interaction between genes and SL
cnvironment (lit'estyle) tactors. Genetic tactors may predispose G
l person to a disease. Rrr exarnple. America's uurnber one kill- es
ers. cardiovascular disease and cancer. have both genetic and ol
cnvironmental causes. However. the complex interplay between to
genes and envimnmental tactors in the development of these at
tliseases makes it ditlicult tor scientists to study the genetics o[ hi
these diseases. Nevertheless. using evolutionary principles and
rpproaches. scientists have developed a technique called gene
lree uwlvsis to discover genetic markers that are predictive of \,r
certain diseases. (Genetic rnarkers are pairs of alleles whose ()l
inheritance can be traced through a pedigree Itamily tree].) lr
Analyses of gene trees cf,n help medical researchers identity the qr
mutations in genes that cause certain diseases. 'Ihis knowledge ir
helps medical researchers understand the cause of the diseases E
to which these genes are linked and can help them develop treat- s(
rnents tbr such illnesses. N
u
How is evolution indispensable to the subdisciplines of it
biology and How does it enrich them? b
Organizing lit'e, fbr example. a process on which Linnaeus sr
worked as he grouped organisms by rnorphological character- L
istics. continues today with processes that retlect evolutionary
relationships. Systematics. the branch of hioloey that studies
the classitlcation of lit'e. does so in the context of evolution-
ary relationships. Cladistics. rhe predominant method used in
svstematics today. classities organisms with respect to their
phylogenetic relationships-those based on their evolutionary
historv. Therefbre, students who do not understand evolution
cannot understand modern methods of classitication.
Developmental biology is another example of a bioloei-
cal subdiscipline enriched by an evolutionary perspective. In
tirct. some embrvological phenomena can be understood only
in the light of evolutionary history. Rrr example. why terres-
trial salarnanders go rhrough a larval stage wirh -qills and t'ins
lhat are never used is a question answered by evolution. Dur-
ing evolution. i-ls new species (e.g.. terrestrial salamanders)
cvolve tiom ancestrul tbrms (e.g.. aquatic ancestors), their new
developmental instructions are otten added to devektpmental
instructions already in place. Thus, patterns of deveklpment in
sroups of orqanisms were built over the evolutionary history of
those rr<lups. thus retaining ancestral instructions. This process
results in the embryonic stages of particular vertehrates reflect-
inq the embryonic stages t.rf those vertebrates' tncestors.
'Ihe study of animal behavior is enriched
by un evolution-
ary perspective as well. Behavioral traits ulso evolve, anrJ like
rnorphological traits they are often most similar amonq closely
related species. Phylogenetic studies of hehavior have provirled

examples of how complex behaviors such as the courtship dis-
plays of some birds have evolved tiom simpler ancestral behav-
iors. Likewise, the study of human behavior can be enhanced
by an evolutionary perspective. Evolutionary psychologists
seek to uncover evolutionary reasons fbr many human behav-
iors. searching through our ancestral programming to determine
how natural selection has resulted in a species that behaves as
it does.
There are many sciences with signiticant historical aspects,
such as anthropology, astronomy, geology, and paleontology.
Geology, for example. is the study of the history of the earth,
especially as recorded in the rocks. Paleontology is the study
offossils. Inherent in the work ofthe geologist and the paleon-
tologist are questions about the relationships of modern animals
and plants to ancestral fbrms. and about the chronology of the
history of the earth. Evolution provides the framework within
which these questions can be answered.
What do science and education societies say about the study
of evolution?
Instructors otten look to scientific societies fbr answers to many
questions regarding their teaching. There is one aspect of teach-
ing on which the scientific societies agree and are emphatic.
Evolution is key to scientifrc study, and should be taught in the
science classroom. The National Research Council, part of the
National Academy of Science. identified evolution as a major
unifying idea in science that transcends disciplinary boundar-
ies. Its publication Nationul Science Educution Standards lists
biological evolution as one of the six content areas in the life
sciences that are important tbr all high school students to study.
Likewise, the American Association for the Advancement of
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Article 7. Why Shoutd Students Learn Evolution?
Science identifled the evolution of life as one of six major areas
of study in the lit'e sciences in its publication Benchmarks .for
Scientific Literacy. The National Science Teachers Association.
the largest organization in the world committed to promoting
excellence and innovation "in science teaching and learning.
published a position statement on the teaching of evotution in
1997, which states that "evolution is a major unifying concept
bf science and should be included as part of K-College science
fiameworks and curricula." The National Association of Biol-
ogy Teachers, a leading organization in life science education,
also issued a position statement on the teaching of evolution
in 1997. which states that evolution has a "central, unifying
role. . . in nature. and therefbre in biology. Teaching biology
in an effective and scientifically honest manner requires class-
room'discussions and laboratory experiences on evolution."
Evolution has been identified as the unifying rheme of biology
by almost all science organizations that focus on the biological
sciences.
So why should students learn evolution? Eliminating evolu-
tion tiom the education of students removes the context and
unifying theory that underpins and permeates the biological
sciences. Students thus learn disparate facts in the science
classroom without the thread that ties them together. and they
miss the answers to its underlying wlrv questions. Without an
understanding of evolution, they cannot understand processes
based on this science. such as insect resistance to pesticides and
microbial resistance to antibiotics. Students will not come to
understand evolutionary connections to other scientific fields.
nor will they fully understand the world of which we are a part.
Evolution is. in fact. one of the most imponant concepts in
attaining scientifi c literacy.