2nd Year Chemistry PDF

PROFESSOR SERIES
Professor easy notes for
12
CHEMISTRY
TH
10
20
30
40
50
Written By:
Muhammad Shahid
Muhammad Shahid (M.Sc Chemistry)
S.S.E Chemistry
Govt. High School No 4 Jauharabad
Designed by:
Mukhtar Graphics
Muhammad Asif Mukhtar (CA & OP)

Editions:
First published 2015
Second published 2016
Third published 2017
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A-One Professors Academy of sciences
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)‫اب‬ ‫ج‬
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No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or

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otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Acknowledgement:
A tribute to the Great teacher, The Great personality & The Great human
Prof. Khwaja Khalid Iqbal (late)
Associate Professor Govt. Post Graduate College Jauharabad. The founder of
A-One Professors Academy of Sciences Jauharabad
A Brief introduction of academy:

The academy was started by two great professors.
Sir Khwaja Khalid (Late) Associate professor of Chemistry and
Sir Akhtar Hussain (Late) Associate Professor of Physics in 1996
in Jauharabad District Khushab.
Preface:
The subject of chemistry has undergone a remarkable advancement at national
and international levels. These notes are according to NEW SYLLABUS &
PATTERN recommended for 12th class.
Important features of notes:

 These notes covers not only the whole book but also prepares students for the
examination according to new pattern.
 These notes contains several figures that help to understand the concepts of
topics.
 All the exercises & test yourself of textbook have been solved in an easy an
understandable way.
 Meanings of difficult words are also written.
 Short and long questions of previous SARGODHA BOARD papers are included
i.e.2008-2017.
 I wish you all the best of luck for your exams.
Do you know?
There are five states of matter.
 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas
 Plasma (Matter exists at very high temperature)
 Bose Einstein condensate (Matter exists at very low temperature)
CHAPTER # 1
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY 1 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
Chapter
# 01 Important Short questions
(1) Non-metallic character of elements increases along the period but decreases down the group. (2009)
Non-metallic character depends upon the size. It increases along the period because atomic size
decreases and incoming electron is attracted strongly while it decreases down the group because
atomic size increases. The incoming electron is not attracted strongly.
(2) Why the metallic character increases down in a group of metals? (2009)
In general all the metals have tendency to donate electron as we move down the group the atomic
size increases, with increase in size the removal of electron becomes easy, hence the metallic
character increases down in a group of metals.
(3) PbCl2 is mainly ionic and PbCl4 is fairly covalent, why? (2009) (2014)
PbCl2 is mainly ionic because in this the metal halide is in lower oxidation state, while PbCl4 is
fairly covalent because in this the metal halide is in higher oxidation state, as Pb4+ has high
polarizing power as compare to Pb2+.
(4) Why diamond is a non-conductor and graphite is fairly good conductor? (2009) (2015)
Diamond is non-conductor because all of its valence electrons are tightly bound tetrahedrally and
unable to move freely, while in the form of graphite, one of its four valence electrons is relatively
free to move, so graphite is fairly conductor.
(5) Define amphoteric oxides. Give an example. (2010)
Those oxides of oxygen which show properties of acidic and basic oxides are called amphoteric
oxides. For example ZnO.
(6) Basic character of oxides increases down the group. (2011)
Basic character of oxides depends upon the size. Atomic size increases down the group so basic
character also increases.
(7) Why the oxidation state of noble gases is usually zero? (2010)
Noble gases which are also called zero group elements, generally they have zero oxidation state
because no vacancy is present in their valence shell.
(8) Hydrogen can be placed over elements of VII-A group. Justify. (2011)
Hydrogen can be placed over elements of VII-A group due to following reasons.
 It is a gas like most of halogens.
 It exists in diatomic form (H2) like F2, Br2, Cl2 and I2.
 Both form stable ionic compounds with alkali metals.
 Hydrogen requires one electron to complete its valence shell just like halogens.
(9) How does Hydrogen resemble with elements of group IV A. Write two similarities? (2012)
The valence shell of hydrogen is half filled just like IV-A elements. Both these combine with
other elements by forming covalent bond. Hydrogen also have reducing property like IV-A
elements. CuO + H2  Cu + H2O.
(10) Why the ionization energy decreases down the group? (2012)
Ionization energy decrease down the group because with increase in size, there is more shielding
effect due to intervening electrons, hence the force of attraction of b/w nucleus & valence shell
decreases, so removal of electron becomes easy with less use of energy.
(11) Define electron affinity. Discuss its trend in periodic table. (2013)
The amount of energy released or absorbed when an electron is added to a gaseous atom to form a
negative ion.
F + 1e-  F- E.A = 337 kJ mol-1
Generally it increases from left to right in a period and decreases from top to bottom in a group.
(12) Write a note on blocks in periodic table. (2013)
On the basis of completion of a particular subshell, elements with similar subshell configuration
are referred as block. There are four blocks in the periodic table named after the name of subshell
which is in the process of completion by the electrons.
CHAPTER # 1
 s-block Muhammad Shahid

 p-block S.S.E Chemistry
 d-block Govt. High School No 4
 f-block Jauharabad Khushab
(13) Why ionization energy decreases down the group and increases along the period? (2015)
Ionization energy decrease down the group because with increase in size, there is more shielding
effect due to intervening electrons, hence the force of attraction of b/w nucleus & valence shell
decreases, so removal of electron becomes easy with less use of energy.
While in the period the outer shell remains the same where as effective nuclear charge increases
which makes the removal of an electron difficult hence ionization energy increases in the period.
(14) Define hydration energy. How does it vary in the periodic table? (2014) (2015)
The amount of energy/heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of gaseous ions dissolved in
water to make an infinitely dilute solution. e.g.
H+ (g) + H2O (l)  H3O+ (aq) ∆Hh = -1057 kJ/mol.
Hydration energy depends upon the charge to size ratio, this ratio decreases down the group so
Hydration energy decreases, whereas this ratio increases in a period so Hydration energy
increases.
(15) Hydration energy decreases in the group from top to bottom. Why? (2017)
Hydration energy depends upon the charge to size ratio. It can be calculate by using formula
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
H.E = . In a group from top to bottom the atomic size increases while charge remains
𝑺𝒊𝒛𝒆
same. So charge to size ratio also decreases therefore Hydration energy decreases in the group
from top to bottom.
(16) On what factor the hydration energy depends upon?
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
The hydration energy depends upon the charge to size ratio. H.E =
𝑺𝒊𝒛𝒆
(I) Greater the charge greater will be the energy and vice versa.
(II) Smaller the size greater will be the energy and vice versa.
(17) Why the value of second electron affinity of an element is usually shown with a positive sign?
(2015)
The value of second electron affinity of an element is usually shown with a positive sign because
when second electron is added to a uninegative ion, the incoming electron is repelled by the
already present negative charge, so energy is needed to overcome such repulsion b/w electrons.
(18) The first electron affinity of oxygen is negative, but the second is positive. Why?
The first electron affinity of oxygen is negative because 1st electron is added in neutral oxygen
atom. When second electron is added to a uninegative ion, the incoming electron is repelled by
the already present negative charge and energy is absorbed,
O + e-  O- E.A = -141 kJ/mol
O- + e-  O2- E.A = +780 kJ/mol
(19) Melting points of Group VII-A elements increases down the group. Why? (2016)
The melting of group VII-A increases down the group because their molecular size increases down
the group. Larger molecules have greater polarizability so they have stronger intermolecular forces
which results in increase in melting point.
(20) The oxidation states vary in a period but remain almost constant in a group? (2016) (2016)
The oxidation state depends upon the electronic configuration, as we move in a period the
electronic configuration changes, while in a group the electronic configuration remains same so
the oxidation states vary in a period but remains almost constant in a group.
(21) Ionic character of halides decreases from left to right in a period? (2016)
Ionic character depends upon the difference of electronegativity b/w halogen atom and the other
atom forming halides, along the period this difference decreases due to which ionic character of
also halides decreases.
CHAPTER # 1
(22) Alkali metals give ionic hydrides? (2017)

Alkali metals are highly electropositive elements as they have larger size. They can easily donate
electron, when they react with hydrogen they donate their electron to hydrogen and change into
metal ion, as a result hydride is formed, these alkali metal ions and hydrides combine to form ionic
hydrides.
(23) Why the ionic radii of negative ions are larger than the size of their parent atoms? (2017) (2017)
The ionic radii of negative ions are always larger than the size of their parent atoms because no of
electron increases but the nuclear charge on the nucleus remains same, moreover the addition of one
or more electrons in the shell of a neutral atom enhances (increases) the repulsion b/w the electrons
causing expansion of the shell. Therefore hold of nucleus on outer electrons decreases resulting the
increase in the ionic radius e.g. radius of F atom is 72 pm while that of F- ion is 136 pm.
(24) Dedifferentiate b/w Mendeleev & modern periodic law?
If the elements are arranged in ascending order of their atomic numbers, their chemical properties
repeat in a periodic manner, while If the elements are arranged in ascending order of their atomic
masses, their chemical properties repeat in a periodic manner.
(25) What are the improvements made in the Mendeleev Periodic table?
1- Firstly the elements arranged in ascending order of their atomic numbers.
2- Addition of an extra group (VIII) at the right end of the periodic table.
3- Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Zn, Cd, Hg were placed in the same group, while in modern periodic
table Be, Mg, Ca, Sr and Ba placed in IIA whereas Zn, Cd, Hg are placed in group IIB.
(26) Give brief reasons of the following:
 d and f block elements are called transition elements?
The d and f-block elements are present between the s and p-block elements in the periodic table,
and their properties are also in between s and p-block elements, moreover their orbitals are in the
process of completion, so these are called transition elements.
 Lanthanide contraction controls the atomic size of elements of 6th & 7th periods?
Lanthanides are present in 6th period and actinides are present in 7th period, when we move from
left to right in the period the atomic size of lanthanides gradually decreases with increase in
nuclear charge which pulls the valence electrons towards nucleus. This gradual decrease in atomic
size of lanthanides is called lanthanides contraction. The similar effect can be observed in 7th
period.
 The melting and boiling points of the elements increases from left to the right up to the
middle of s-and p-block elements and decreases onward?
The melting and boiling points of the elements increases from left to the right up to the middle of
s-and p-block elements and decreases onward because group IA provides one electron for
bonding, melting point of IIA are higher than IA because group IIA provides two electron for
bonding, in the same way carbon can form four bond so having very high melting & boiling point,
but as we proceed further the melting & boiling point decreases because group VA to VIIA, the
lighter elements exist as small covalent molecules which have very weak intermolecular forces, in
result having very low melting & boiling points.
 The hydration energies of the ions are in the following order Al3+ >Mg2+> Na+.
Hydration energy depends upon the charge to size ratio, Al3+,Mg2+ and Na+ are isoelectronic
species but the size of Al3+ smaller and have higher charge than Mg2+ and size of Mg2+ is smaller
and charge is higher than Na+, therefore hydration energy will be in the following order Al3+
>Mg2+> Na+.
 Although both sodium and phosphorus are present in the same period of the periodic table
yet their oxides are different in nature, Na2O is basic while P2O5 is acidic in character?
Na is electropositive in nature and is metal, while P is electronegative and non-metal, thus sodium
gives basic oxides e.g. Na2O, and phosphorus gives acidic oxides like P2O5.
(27) Write the families present in Modern periodic table.
There are following families present in the modern periodic table, alkali family, alkaline earth
family, halogen family and “noble gases” which are least reactive.
CHAPTER # 1
(28) Define Atomic & Ionic Radii with one example each?
Atomic radius is defined as “The average distance between the nucleus and outermost orbit of an
atom, while considering the atom spherical. e.g. Na has atomic radius 157 pm. While ionic radii
is defined as the radius of the ion while considering it spherical, e.g. Na+ ion has ionic radii 95
pm.
(29) Why the ionic radii of positive ions are smaller than the size of their parent atoms?
The ionic radii of positive ions are smaller than the size of their parent atoms because the removal
of one or more electron from neutral atom usually result in loss of outermost shell, it disturbs the
proton-electron ratio, moreover the effective nuclear charge increases, which reduces the size of
orbit by pulling the electron inwards. Hence the size decreases.
(30) Differentiate b/w ionization energy & electron affinity?
“The minimum amount of energy which is required to remove an electron from the valence shell
of isolated gaseous atom to form a positive ion is called ionization energy”
e.g. Na  Na+ + e- I.E = 496 kJ/mol whereas
“The amount of energy released or absorbed when an electron is added to a gaseous atom to form
a negative ion” e.g. F + e-  F- E.A = -337 kJ/mol
(31) Write the factors which affect the ionization energy?
Ionization energy depends upon the following factors, Muhammad Shahid
 Atomic size S.S.E Chemistry
 Shielding effect Govt. High School No 4
 Effective nuclear charge Jauharabad Khushab
 Nature of orbital.
(32) Write the factors which affect the electron affinity energy?
Electron energy depends upon the following factors,
 Atomic size
 Shielding effect
 Effective nuclear charge
 Vacancies in the outermost shell
(33) How metallic character is related to ionization energy?
Metallic character and ionization energy are inversely proportional to each other, higher the
ionization energy, greater the difficulty to remove electron from valance shell so lower will be
metallic character and vice versa.
(34) Why Sulphur has -2 oxidation states in H2S, while it has +6 Oxidation state in H2SO4?
Group VIA elements show two type of oxidation states,
 No of electron in valance shell (which is their group number)
 No of vacancies in valance shell.
In H2S Sulphur uses its valance shell vacancies, so have oxidation state -2, while in H2SO4
Sulphur show +6 oxidation state which is number of electron in valence shell.
(35) What is meant by shielding effect?
The effect of inner electron in decreasing the nuclear charge experienced by valance shell is
called shielding effect.
(36) Why do inert gases have highest values of ionization energy?
The inert gases also called noble gases, because they have complete their valance shell, the
removal of electron is becomes difficult so inert gases have highest values of ionization energy
(37) What are the characteristics of covalent hydrides?
I. The covalent hydrides are mostly gases or volatile liquid.
II. They have low melting & boiling points.
III. They are non-conductor.
IV. They dissolve in organic solvents.
V. Their stability increases from left to right in a period & decreases from top to bottom in a group.
CHAPTER # 1
(38) Metallic halides in their low oxidation state are ionic but in higher oxidation state are
covalent. Why?
Metallic halides in their low oxidation state are ionic but in higher oxidation state are covalent,
because of high polarizing power of higher oxidation state e.g PbCl2 is ionic while PbCl4 is fairly
covalent because Pb4+ has high polarizing power as compare to Pb2+.
Important Long questions

(1) Explain the following physical properties in the periodic table: (2012)
(a) Ionization energy (b) Oxidation state.
(2) Discuss the position pf hydrogen in Group IV-A of periodic table. (2013)
(3) Discuss the position pf hydrogen in Group 1st and VII-A of periodic table. (2013)
(4) Explain periodic trends in the following properties. (2014)
(i) Atomic radius (ii) Electron affinity.
(5) Define hydration energy. Give example. Explain its trend in the periodic table. (2014)
(6) Define periodic law. What were the improvements made in the Mendeleev’s periodic table by
Moseley? (2014)
(7) Define ionization energy. How does it vary in the group and periods of the periodic table? (2016)
(8) Discuss various periods in the modern periodic table. (2016)
(9) Define electron affinity. How does it vary in groups and periods generally in the periodic table? (2017)
(10) Why is diamond non-conductor while graphite is a good conductor of electricity? (2017)
(11) Write a note on oxides in the periodic table.
Things to remember:
CHAPTER # 1
CHAPTER # 2
s-BLOCK ELEMENTS 7 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
Muhammad Shahid
Chapter
# 02 Important Short questions S.S.E Chemistry
Govt. High School No 4
Jauharabad Khushab
(1) Give reasons that alkali metals are strong reducing agents. (2009) (2012)
Reducing agent is the specie which can lose electron easily and reduces others, alkali metals have
low value of ionization energy, they can lose electron easily, so these are good reducing agents.
(2) Why 2% gypsum is added in the cement? Or what is the role of gypsum in cement
industry? (2009) (2010) (2017)
2% gypsum is added to cement during cement formation because it increases the setting time of
cement and retard the rapidly setting process, this result in good strength of the mass which sets.
(3) Why lime water turns milky with CO2 but becomes clear with excess of CO2? (2009)
The lime water turns milky due the formation of white suspension of CaCO3, which is insoluble
in water.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2  CaCO3 + H2O
But when excess of excess of CO2 is passed it becomes clear due to the formation of calcium
bicarbonate Ca (HCO3)2, which is soluble in water.
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2  Ca (HCO3)2
(4) Why the aqueous solution of Na2CO3 is alkaline in nature. (2010) (2014)
The aqueous solution of Na2CO3 is alkaline in nature because hydrolysis of carbonate ion
produces the strong base and weak acid (carbonic acid)
Na2CO3 + 2H2O  2NaOH + H2CO3
(5) Alkali and alkaline earth metals are reactive elements of periodic table. Justify. (2011)
Alkali and alkaline earth metals are reactive elements of periodic table because they include the
most reactive electropositive elements.
(6) When sodium reacts with water the hydrogen which evolves catches the fire, why? (2012)
When sodium reacts with water, it form sodium hydroxide and liberate (produce) hydrogen, the
reaction is highly exothermic, and the produced energy can ignite the hydrogen so hydrogen
catches the fire.
2Na + 2H2O  2NaOH + H2
(7) What are the advantages of Down’s cell for the preparation of sodium on commercial
scale? (2012)
Following are the advantages of using Down’s cell
I. The metallic fog is not produced.
II. During the electrolysis, the material of the cell is not attacked by products.
III. At 600 ºC the liquid sodium can easily collected.
(8) Write the formula of the following. (Natron & Dolomite were asked in 2013)
Halite (NaCl), Natron (Na2CO3.H2O), Dolomite (MgCO3.CaCO3) Asbestos CaMg3 (SiO3)4 and
Chile saltpeter (NaNO3)
(9) How lime mortar is prepared? (2013)
Ordinary mortar is also called lime mortar, it is prepared by mixing freshly prepared slaked lime
Ca(OH)2 (one volume) with sand (three or four volume) and water to form a thick paste. This
material when placed b/w the bricks and stones hardens, in result bind the blocks firmly
together.
CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2 + CO2  CaCO3 + H2O
Ca(OH)2 + SiO2  CaSiO3 + H2O
(10) What happens when lithium carbonate is heated? (2013) (2015)
Lithium has low electropositive character, so its carbonate are not very stable and decompose to
form lithium oxide.
Li2CO3  Li2O + CO2
CHAPTER # 2
(11) Write a short note on role of gypsum in agriculture. (2013) (2016)

Gypsum plays very important role in agriculture,
 It is used as a source of calcium and Sulphur.
 Calcium supplied by gypsum has great importance in those areas where soil has subjected
to leaching.
 Sulphur compounds have beneficial effects on plant growth.
 Sulphur has also influence on the development of chlorophyll.
(12) Why CaCl2 is added in molten NaCl in Down’s cell. (2015)
The CaCl2 is added in molten NaCl in Down’s cell because it lowers the melting point of NaCl
(801ºC) and furnace operate at lower temperature i.e. 600ºC.
(13) What happens when (a) lithium nitrate in heated up. (b) Sodium nitrate is heated up.(2016)
On heating lithium carbonate (LiNO3) decomposes into lithium oxide (Li2O) nitrogen peroxide
(NO2) and oxygen (O2). Muhammad Shahid
4LiNO3  2Li2O + 4NO2 + O2 S.S.E Chemistry
On heating Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) gives NaNO2 and O2. Govt. High School No 4
NaNO3  NaNO2 + O2 Jauharabad Khushab
(14) BeO is amphoteric oxide. Show with two suitable reactions. (2016)
BeO is amphoteric in nature so it can react with acid as a base and vice versa. Following reaction
makes the idea clear,
BeO + H2SO4  BeSO4 + H2O
BeO + 2NaOH  Na2BeO4 + H2O
(15) Why BeO shows amphoteric nature? Justify. (2013) (2016) (2017)
BeO is amphoteric in nature since it can reacts with both acids and bases as shown in the
following equations.
BeO + H2SO4  BeSO4 + H2O
BeO + 2NaOH  Na2BeO4 + H2O
(16) Why lime is added to acidic soil? (2017)
Lime is actually CaO, when it dissolve in water it forms Ca(OH)2, which is basic in nature. So it
neutralizes the acidity of soil. It also has been found that use of lime in acidic soil increases the
amount of readily soluble phosphorus.
(17) What happens when gypsum is heated above 100 °C?
OR
(18) How gypsum is converted into Plaster of Paris? (2017)
When gypsum is heated under carefully controlled conditions above 100ºC, it loses its three
quarters of water of crystallization, giving a white powder called Plaster of Paris.
2CaSO4.2H2O  (CaSO4)2.H2O + 3H2O
OR
CaSO4.2H2O  CaSO4.1/2H2O + 3/2H2O
(19) What happens when lithium hydroxide is heated to red hot?
Hydroxide of lithium are unstable, when lithium hydroxide is heated to red hot, it decomposes
to lithium oxide and water.
2LiOH  Li2O + H2O
(20) What does happen if asbestos diaphragm is not used in Nelson cell?
If asbestos diaphragm is not used in Nelson cell the chlorine produced at anode will react with
hydroxide ions and produces hypochlorite ion.
Cl2 + 2OH-  OCl- + Cl- + H2O
(21) The O2 gas produced may contaminate with Cl2 gas, how it is prevented in Nelson’s cell?
The O2 gas produced may contaminate with Cl2 gas, it can be prevented by making the level of
brine anode compartment slightly higher, which keeps the direction of flow of liquid toward the
cathode and preventing the hydroxide ions to reaching the anode where Cl2 gas is produced.
CHAPTER # 2
(22) Why the alkali & alkaline earth metals are among the most reactive elements of the
periodic table.
OR
(23) Why alkali and alkaline earth metals are not present free in nature?
The alkali & alkaline earth metals are among the most reactive elements of the periodic table
because they have strong reducing property i.e. they can easily donate electron to others and
form relevant compounds.
(24) How lime and sand are used to make glass.
Lime has ability to react with sand at high temperature forming calcium silicate (CaSiO3),
which serves as important basis for glass manufacture
CaO + SiO3  CaSiO3
(25) Why group IA are called alkali metals?
The word alkali comes from Arabic, which means “The Ashes”. The Arabs used this term for
these metals due to presence of these metals especially sodium and potassium in the ashes of
plants. These are very reactive metals and produce strong alkaline solution.
(26) Why the group IIA elements are called alkaline earth metals?
The group IIA elements are called alkaline earth metals because they are abundantly present in
earth’s crust and produces alkalies in water.
(27) Why lithium does differs from its own family members?
Lithium differs from its own family members because it has
 Small radius
 High charge density
 Nuclear charge of Li+ ion is shielded only by two electrons, so unexpectedly it is less
electropositive from its own family members.
(28) How do you compare the solubility’s of hydroxides of alkaline earth metals?
The solubility’s of alkaline earth metal increases down the group because due to higher ionic
size and low lattice energy of hydroxides. Be(OH)2 is insoluble in water, Mg(OH)2 is sparingly
soluble. Other hydroxides are slightly soluble and this trend increases down the group.
(29) How KO2 (potassium superoxide) can be used by mountaineers?
KO2 (potassium superoxide) has the ability to absorb the CO2 from atmosphere while giving out
oxygen at the same time. So KO2 is used by mountaineer in their breathing equipment.
4KO2 + 2CO2  2K2CO3 + 3O2
(30) What is milk of magnesia and what is its use?
Milk of magnesia is suspension of Mg(OH)2 in water, it is used for the treatment of acidity of
stomach.
(31) What is meant by setting of plaster of paris?
Plaster of Paris when mixed with half of its weight of water, it forms a plastic type viscous mass
and then sets to hard porous mass within 10 to 15 minutes about 1% volume increases which
fills the moulds completely and a sharp impression is achieved.
(32) What is meant by dead burnt gypsum?
When gypsum is heated too strongly it loses its all water of crystallization and forms anhydrous
salt, which absorbs water slowly. This plaster is called “Dead burnt gypsum”.
(33) What is slaked lime?
Ca(OH)2 is called slaked lime and is prepared by the reaction of CaO and Water. This process
is called slaking of lime.
CaO + H2O  Ca(OH) 2
CHAPTER # 2
Muhammad Shahid
Important Long questions S.S.E Chemistry
Jauharabad Khushab
(1) Explain with diagram construction and working of Down’s cell for commercial preparation of
sodium. (2009)
OR
(2) Why molten table salt is used in Down’s cell but not aqueous solution? Describe the products
formed by this cell in different electrodes by balanced chemical equations. (2010)
OR
(3) Describe with diagram the manufacture of sodium metal by Down’s cell. (2011)
(4) Compare the chemical behavior of lithium with magnesium. (2012)
(5) Describe the process for the preparation of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) on commercial scale. (2014) (2017)
OR
(6) How NaOH is prepared from Nelson cell? (2013) (2016)
(7) Write the peculiar behavior of beryllium with respect to other members of II-A group. (2013)
OR
(8) Mention the properties of beryllium in which it does not resemble with its own family? (2015)
OR
(9) Explain the peculiar behavior of Beryllium. (2016)
(10) Write a note on carbonates of alkali and alkaline earth metals. (2015)
(11) Give the eight differences of Lithium from other alkali metals. (2017)
OR
(12) Discuss the peculiar behavior of lithium with respect to other members of alkali metals.
(13) Write down the role of lime in industry.
Things to remember:
CHAPTER # 3
GROUP III-A AND GROUP IV-A ELEMENTS 11 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
Muhammad Shahid
Chapter
Jauharabad Khushab
(1) Why CO2 is a gas at room temperature while SiO2 is a solid? (2009) (2010) (2015)
CO2 is a non-polar and linear molecule (O=C=O). Its diploe moment is zero. It have only weak
Van der Waals forces. So each CO2 will be at a large distance from other, hence it is a gas at room
temperature. Whereas in SiO2, each Si-atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms in a tetrahedral
pattern and every oxygen atom in turn bonded to two Si-atoms, in result it forms a network
structure of covalent linkage, hence it is solid at room temperature.
(2) What are semiconductors? Give any one use of them. (2009)
A semiconductor is a substance that has different resistance to the passage of current under
different circumstances, their conductivity is in between conductors and non-conductors.
These are used in photoelectric cells and solar batteries.
(3) What is chemical garden? (2009)
When crystals of soluble coloured salts like nickel chloride, ferrous sulphate, copper sulphate etc.
are placed in a solution of sodium silicate, they produce a very beautiful growth, like plant, which
is called chemical garden.
(4) Describe the chemistry of borax bead test. (2009)
OR
(5) Write the reaction of Borax with CuO. (2017)
Borax when fused, is decomposed into sodium metaborate and boric anhydride.
Na2B4O7  2NaBO2 + B2O3
The substance under examination on heating form metallic oxide, which react with B2O3 giving
the coloured metallic borates. e.g. with cupric oxide, the beads of borax give blue colour in the
oxidizing flame, because cupric borates are blue in colour.
B2O3 + CuO  Cu(BO2)2 (blue colour)
(6) Why liquid silicones are preferred over ordinary organic lubricants? (2009) (2011)
The liquid silicones are preferred over ordinary organic lubricants because
i. The viscosity of liquid silicones remains unchanged with change in temperature. If temperature
falls from 100 ºC to 0 ºC the viscosity of petroleum may increases one hundred times, whereas
the viscosity of silicones will increase less than four folds.
OR
ii. The viscosity of liquid silicones remains unchanged with change in temperature.
iii. These are highly stable and non-volatile in nature.
iv. In the presence of air or oxygen even at high temperature 300ºC silicone oils remain free from
acid formation, oxidation or similar phenomenon.
(7) White lead is not a good pigment. Give reason. (2011)
It is not suitable for use as a good pigment because it is darkened by the hydrogen sulphide which
is frequently present in the atmosphere.
(8) Write uses of sodium silicate. (2012)
OR
(9) Write four uses of sodium silicate. (2016)
I. It is used as a filler for soap in soap industry.
II. It is used in textile as a fire proffer.
III. It is used as furniture polish.
IV. It is also used in calico printing.
(10) Define inert pair effect. (2011)
The pair of valence electrons that do not readily take part in chemical combination is termed as
inert pair and this effect is known as inert pair effect.
CHAPTER # 3
(11) What is asbestos? Give its two uses. (2012)

Asbestos is hydrated calcium magnesium silicate CaMg3(SiO3)4.
It is commonly used in making incombustible fabrics and hard board.
(12) What is effect of temperature on semiconductor? (2012)
When a semiconductor is heated its resistance decreases and conductivity increases.
(13) Write down the formula of Tincal and Orthoboric acid. (2013)
Formula of Tincal and Orthoboric acid are given below:
Tincal (Borax) = Na2B4O7.10H2O
Orthoboric acid (Boric acid) = H3BO3
(14) Give first two stages of the heat effect on H3BO3. (2013)
OR
(15) What is action of heat on orthoboric acid (H3BO3)? (2016) (2017)
When H3BO3 is heated it changes into metaboric acid, then into Tetraboric acid and finally
changes to boric anhydride.
100 °C Muhammad Shahid
H3BO3 HBO2 + H2O
160 °C S.S.E Chemistry
4HBO2 H2B4O7 + H2O Govt. High School No 4
Red hot Jauharabad Khushab
H2 B 4 O7 2B2O3 + H2O
(16) Write down four uses of borax. (2014)
I. It is used to prepare borate glass which is heat resistant.
II. It is used in softening of water.
III. It is used in metallurgical processes.
IV. It is used in making washing powder.
V. It is used in leather industry for tanning and dyeing.
(17) How does orthoboric acid react with: (a) NaOH (b) C2H5OH. (2014)
Orthoboric acid react with alcohol to form ethyl borate.
H3BO3 + C2H5OH  (C2H5)3BO3 + 3H2O
It reacts with caustic soda (NaOH) and partially neutralized to form borax.
H3BO3 + NaOH  Na2B4O7 + 7H2O
(18) What are silicones? Give their two uses. (2014)
Silicones consist of O-Si-O chains in which the remaining bonding positions on each silicon are
occupied by organic groups such as CH3. Depending on the length of the chain and degree of cross
linking between chains, silicones can either oils or rubber like materials.
CH3 CH3 CH3
O Si O Si O Si O
CH3 CH3 CH3
These are used as lubricants.
These are used as water proof fabrics and also used in tubing and sheet formation.
(19) What are silicones? What are their properties? (2015)
Silicones consist of O-Si-O chains in which the remaining bonding positions on each silicon are
occupied by organic groups such as CH3. Depending on the length of the chain and degree of cross
linking between chains, silicones can either oils or rubber like materials.
CH3 CH3 CH3
O Si O Si O Si O
CH3 CH3 CH3
CHAPTER # 3
Properties:
v. The viscosity of liquid silicones remains unchanged with change in temperature.
vi. These are highly stable and non-volatile in nature.
vii. In the presence of air or oxygen even at high temperature 300ºC silicone oils remain free from
acid formation, oxidation or similar phenomenon.
(20) Why CO2 is non-polar in nature? (2015)
CO2 has linear structure O=C=O. In this structure of CO2 the C=O bonds are present opposite to
each other at an angle of 180º. The individual bond moments of C=O bonds cancel the effect of
each other. Therefore dipole moment of CO2 is zero hence it is non-polar in nature.
(21) Why diamond is nonconductor and graphite is fairly a good conductor? (2015)
Diamond is non-conductor because all of its valence electrons are tightly bound tetrahedrally and
unable to move freely, while in the form of graphite, one of its four valence electrons is relatively
free to move, so graphite is fairly a good conductor of electricity.
(22) How Al does becomes water soluble by using NaOH? (2013) (2015)
OR
(23) Write the reaction of Al with NaOH. (2017)
Aluminium dissolves in either sodium or potassium hydroxides to form a soluble aluminate with
evolution of H2 gas,
2Al + 2NaOH + 6H2O  2NaAl(OH)4 + 3H2
(24) Give equation of reaction of Al with Conc. H2SO4. (2011)
OR
(25) How does Aluminium reacts with (a) NaOH (b) H2SO4 (2016)
Aluminium dissolves sodium hydroxide to form a soluble aluminate with evolution of H2 gas,
2Al + 2NaOH + 6H2O  2NaAl(OH)4 + 3H2
Aluminium do not react with dilute Sulphuric acid. However it is oxidized by hot concentrated
H2SO4 to produce SO2 gas.
2Al + 6H2SO4  Al2(SO4)3 + 6H2O + 2SO2
(26) How clay articles are glazed? (2016)
Stoneware articles can be made less porous by the process of glazing. Glazing has following steps,
 In this process a salt is thrown upon hot articles.
 This produces sodium aluminate and sodium aluminosilicate which readily melts and cover the
whole surface.
 When the article is cooled, this covering solidifies by forming a smooth, compact and water
proof surface.
(27) How weathering phenomenon converts potassium feldspar into clay?
The following reactions explain the weathering phenomenon of feldspar.
K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2 + H2CO3 + H2O  K2CO3 + 4SiO2 + Al2O3.(SiO2)2.2H2O
This reaction happen when disintegration occur in those rocks which contain feldspar. The boiling
and freezing of water in the rocks and chemical action of water and carbon dioxide convert these
compounds into potassium carbonate, sand and clay.
(28) How carbon behaves differently from other members of its own family? (2017)
i. Carbon differs from its own family members because it is a non-metal in nature while other are
metalloids or metals.
ii. Carbon has capacity to form long chains, the phenomenon is known as catenation or self-
linkage while other cannot form long chains.
(29) Give properties and uses of boric acid.
Properties:
i. Boric acid is volatile in steam.
ii. It turns blue litmus to red. Its solution has no effect on methyl orange.
iii. On heating it gives different types of acids of boron.
iv. Boric acid reacts with caustic soda (NaOH) and partially neutralized to form borax.
CHAPTER # 3
H3BO3 + NaOH  Na2B4O7 + 7H2O Muhammad Shahid

Uses: (2017)
S.S.E Chemistry
i. It is used as antiseptic in medicine. Govt. High School No 4
ii. It is used in pottery as a glaze. Jauharabad Khushab
iii. It is used in candle industry for stiffening of wicks.
(30) What is action of aqueous solution of borax on litmus paper?
Borax turns the blue litmus paper into red.
(31) How will you convert borax into boric acid and vice versa?
In aqueous solution borax reacts with HCl or H2SO4 to form boric acid.
Na2B4O7 + 2HCl + 5H2O  2NaCl + H3BO3
Na2B4O7 + H2SO4+ 5H2O  Na2SO4 + 4H3BO3
Boric acid reacts with caustic soda (NaOH) and partially neutralized to form borax.
H3BO3 + NaOH  Na2B4O7 + 7H2O
(32) Why CO2 is acidic in nature?
CO2 is sparingly soluble in water, and form carbonic acid (H2CO3) which is a weak acid.
Moreover it neutralizes bases to form salts. Hence it’s acidic in nature.
CO2 + H2O  H2CO3
This acidic character gives the acidic taste to carbonated beverages.
(33) What is the effect of temperature on the viscosity of silicones?
The viscosity of liquid silicones remains unchanged with change in temperature. If temperature
falls from 100 ºC to 0 ºC the viscosity of petroleum may increases one hundred times, whereas the
viscosity of silicones will increase less than four folds.
(34) Give the names & the formulas of different acids of boron.
Following are the different acids of Boron.
i. Orthoboric acid H3BO3 or B2O3.3H2O
ii. Metaboric acid HBO2 or B2O3.3H2O
iii. Tetraboric acid H2B4O7 or 2B2O3.H2O
iv. Pyroboric acid H6B4O9 or 2B2O3.3H2O
(35) What are silicates?
The compounds derived from silicic acids are called silicates.
(36) Why is aluminum not found as a free element?
Aluminum is electropositive in nature, it has tendency to donate all the three electrons of valance
shell to form Al3+ and this ion is highly reactive so aluminum is not found as a free element.
(37) What is anodizing?
When Aluminium comes in contact with moist air it forms a layer of Al2O3. This layer on the
surface of Al is very useful and stop the further reaction and prevent the Al from corrosion. Same
type of layer can be deposited on the surface of aluminium by a process known as anodizing.
(38) How does Borax act as water softening agent?
Borax on hydrolysis yields NaOH and boric acid, OH- ions produced precipitate the Mg2+ ions
from hard water, thus it acts as water softening agent.
Na2B4O7 + 7H2O  2NaOH + 4H3BO3
Mg2+ + 2OH-  Mg(OH)2
(39) What is white lead? Also write its formula and uses.
It is an amorphous white pigment. It has formula 2PbCO3.Pb(OH)2. It is mixed readily with
linseed oil and has good covering power. If improperly prepared then it becomes crystalline and its
covering power reduces.
(40) What is litharge? Give its uses.
Reddish yellow crystalline form of PbO has tetragonal structure is called litharge.
It is slightly soluble in water. It is used for the preparation of flint glass. It is also used for
preparation of oils and varnishes.
CHAPTER # 3
(41) Write the properties of vitreous silica (silica glass).

i. It has high transparency to light. Muhammad Shahid
ii. It is excellent insulator. S.S.E Chemistry
iii. It is hard brittle and elastic in nature. Govt. High School No 4
Jauharabad Khushab
iv. It is insoluble in water and inert to many reagents.
v. It has very low thermal expansion.

(1) Write properties and uses of silicones. (2015)
(2) What are silicones? How are they produced? Outline two uses of silicones. (2016)
(3) How silicones are prepared? Write two properties and uses of silicones. (2016)
(4) Write the uses of aluminum.
(5) What is borax? Describe its commercial preparation.
(6) Write a detail note on semiconductors.
Things to remember:
CHAPTER # 3
CHAPTER # 4
GROUP V-A AND VI-A ELEMENTS 17 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
Muhammad Shahid
Chapter S.S.E Chemistry
# 04 Important Short questions Govt. High School No 4
Jauharabad Khushab
(1) Complete the following reactions. (a) H2S + NO  ? (b) NO2 + H2O  ? (2008)
H2S + NO  H2O + N2O + S
2NO2 + H2O  HNO3 + HNO2
(2) How would you justify that P2O5 is a powerful dehydrating agent. Prove by example. (2008)
OR
(3) P2O5 is powerful dehydrating agent. Justify it with two chemical equations. (2013) (2016)
(2017)
P2O5 is powerful dehydrating agent, following reactions proved the statement.
2HNO3 + P2O5  N2O5 + 2HPO3
H2SO4 + P2O5  SO3 + 2HPO3
C2H5OH + P2O5  C2H4 + 2HPO3
(4) Write down the comparison b/w oxygen and Sulphur. (2010) (2013)
Similarities: Both are usually divalent, both have same valence electronic configuration. Both
are typical non-metals.
Differences:
Oxygen Sulphur
Oxygen is a gas at ordinary room Sulphur is a solid at ordinary room
temperature temperature
Oxygen helps in combustion Sulphur is itself combustible
It is paramagnetic in nature It is diamagnetic in nature
It does not react with acid It is oxidized by conc. H2SO4 and HNO3
It can show variable valency e.g. -2, +2, +4,
It shows -2 oxidation state
+6
(5) Write two reactions of HNO3 in which it acts as an oxidizing agent. (2011)
OR
(6) Which metal evolve H2 gas upon reaction with Nitric acid? Illustrate with two chemical
equations. (2016)
Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca) and Manganese (Mn) on reaction with dilute nitric acid (HNO3
(dil)) produces hydrogen gas (H2).
Mg + 2HNO3 (dil)  Mg(NO3)2 + H2
Mn + 2HNO3 (dil)  Mn(NO3)2 + H2
(7) State the principle of contact process for the manufacturing of sulphuric acid. (2011)
Principle:
 SO2 is obtained by burning Sulphur or iron pyrites is oxidized to SO3 in the presence of V2O5
catalyst.
 The best yield of SO3 can be obtained by using excess of oxygen or air and keeping the temperature
between 400-500 °C.
 SO3 formed is absorbed in concentrated H2SO4 and “Oleum” (H2S2O7) formed can be converted to
sulphuric acid of any strength by mixing adequate quantity of water.
CHAPTER # 4
(8) How do the members of group VI-A (except oxygen) show +4 and +6 oxidation state? (2012)
OR
(9) Why the members of group VI-A (except oxygen) show more than two oxidation state.
The members of group VI-A (except oxygen) show +4 and +6 oxidation
state due to availability of d-orbitals in these elements. They show +2,
+4 and +6 oxidation state. +2 oxidation state is shown due to 2 unpaired
electrons in the p-orbital. +4 oxidation state is shown when 1 electron
from p-orbital is promoted to the next vacant d-orbital, while +6
oxidation state is shown when another electron from s-orbital is also
promoted to the next vacant d-orbital.
(10) Phosphoric acid is a weak tribasic acid. Give its three reactions of different salt formation
by its reaction with NaOH. (2012)
Phosphoric acid is a weak tribasic acid. It reacts with NaOH to give three series of salts.
H3PO4 + NaOH  NaH2PO4 + H2O
NaH2PO4 + NaOH  Na2HPO4 + H2O
Na2HPO4 + NaOH  Na3PO4 + H2O
(11) Write two reactions which prove that H2SO4 is a strong oxidizing agent. (2013) (2014) (2016) (2017)
H2SO4 act as a strong oxidizing agent, as shown in the following reactions.
It oxidizes C and S giving CO2 and SO2
C + 2H2SO4  CO2 + 2SO2 + 2H2O Muhammad Shahid
S + 2H2SO4  3SO2 + 2H2O S.S.E Chemistry
(12) Write four uses of H2SO4. (2013) (2016) Govt. High School No 4
Jauharabad Khushab
Uses of H2SO4 are given following,
i. It is used in the manufacturing of fertilizers like ammonium sulphate.
ii. In the refining process of petroleum, it removes Sulphur and nitrogen compounds.
iii. It is used in the manufacturing of HCl, HNO3 etc.
iv. It works as a dehydrating agent.
v. It is used as laboratory reagent.
vi. In storage cells and electrical batteries.
(13) Why SO3 dissolves in H2SO4 and not in water. (2013)
SO3 is not dissolved in water because large amount of heat is evolved resulting in the formation
of dense fog of particles of Sulphuric acid which does not condense easily. Therefore SO3 is
dissolved in conc.H2SO4 and oleum is obtained (H2S2O7) which is diluted by adding water
according to requirement.
(14) Write down reactions of nitric acid with zinc. (2013)
OR
(15) Zn + Conc. HNO3  ? & Cu + dil. HNO3  ? Complete these reactions.
Zn + Conc. 4HNO3  Zn(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O
3Cu + dill. 8HNO3  3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 4H2O
(16) How is phosphorus found in nature? Give its importance in living organisms. (2014)
Phosphorus word is derived from Greek language meaning ‘light bearing”. It does not exist in
Free State in nature. Mostly it is found in deposits of phosphate rock.
Importance: it is essential for normal growth. It occurs in seed, the yolk of eggs, brain and bone
marrow. In the form of calcium phosphate it is essential constituent of bones. Bone ash have
80% calcium phosphate, so it is important source of phosphorus.
(17) How does HNO2 act as reducing agent? (2014)
HNO2 decolourizes the colour of acidified KMnO4 and bromine water. So acts as a reducing
agent.
HNO2 + Br2 + H2O  HNO3 + 2HBr
2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 + HNO2  K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 3H2O + 5HNO3
CHAPTER # 4
(18) Write the reactions of NO2 with following. (I) KI (II) H2S (2015)
OR
(19) NO2 is a strong oxidizing agent, give two examples. (2015)
NO2 is a strong oxidizing agent and oxidizes the H2S to S and KI to I2.
H2S + NO2  H2O + S + NO
KI + NO2  KNO2 + I2
(20) Nitric acid behaves differently with Tin, when concentrations of nitric acid are different,
prove? (2015)
When dilute nitric acid reacts with tin it gives ammonium nitrate. With concentrated acid it gives
meta-stannic acid.
4Sn + 10HNO3 (dill.)  4Sn(NO3)2 + 2NH4NO3 + 3H2O
Sn + 4HNO3 (conc.)  H2SnO3 + 4NO2 + H2O
(21) Give the advantages of contact process for the manufacturing of sulphuric acid. (2017)
Advantages of contact process:
 It is easy to handle.
 It gives almost pure sulphuric acid.
 High yield product is obtained.
 It can also be used to prepare other substances like oleum and SO3.
(22) Write two reactions for the preparation of phosphorus acid. (2017)
It can be prepared by following reactions.
P2O3 + 3H2O  2H3PO3
PCl3 + 3H2O  H3PO3 + 3HCl
(23) How does nitrogen differ from other elements of its group?
i. Nitrogen is a gas while other elements of its group are solids.
ii. Nitrogen does not show the phenomenon of allotropy.
iii. It exist in Free State but others are not.
iv. Nitrogen does not form complexes while other can form.
v. Nitrogen can show a number of oxidation states like +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, -1, -2 and -3 but
other can’t show this type of oxidation state.
(24) Why does aqua regia dissolve gold and platinum?
When one volume of concentrated HNO3 is mixed with 3 volumes of concentrated HCl, aqua
regia is formed.
HNO3 + 3HCl  2H2O + Cl2 + NOCl
This NOCl decomposed to form NO and nascent Cl.
NOCl  NO + Cl
This liberated Cl reacts with noble metals such as gold and platinum and convert them into their
water soluble chlorides.
2Au + 3Cl  AuCl3
(25) What is meant by fuming nitric acid?
Concentrated nitric acid which is yellow in colour due to the presence of dissolved NO2 in it,
(NO2 is formed by photochemical reaction decomposition) is called fuming nitric acid. It is a
much strong oxidizing agent and nitrating agent as compare to conc.HNO3.
(26) What is “ring test”?
Nitric oxide (also called nitrogen oxide) gives a brown coloured addition compound with FeSO4,
a ring is formed at the junction of two solutions. This is called Ring test. This test is used to
confirm the presence of nitrates in the solution.
FeSO4 + NO  FeSO4.NO (brown ring)
(27) Why nitrous oxide (N2O) is called laughing gas?
When mixture of N2O and oxygen is inhaled for sufficient long time it produces hysterical
laughter hence it is known as “laughing gas”.
CHAPTER # 4
(28) How does N2O support the combustion of substances?

N2O is not combustible itself, but support combustion when burning substances such as Sulphur,
phosphorus etc. are taken in the cylinder containing this gas, because it readily decomposes into
its elements producing oxygen.
S + 2N2O  SO2 + 2N2 Muhammad Shahid
P4 + 10N2O  P4O10 + 10N2 S.S.E Chemistry
(29) What is effect of temperature on N2O4? Govt. High School No 4
N2O4 is converted into NO as follows. Jauharabad Khushab
140 °C 620°C
N2O4 2NO2 2NO + O2
Pale Reddish
Colourless
yellow yellow
(30) How NO2 is prepared from (I) lead nitrate (II) Cu + HNO3
NO2 is prepared in small quantities by heating the lead nitrate.
2Pb(NO3)2  2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
It is also prepared by the reaction of copper with conc.HNO3.
Cu + HNO3 (conc.)  Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2
(31) How is black phosphorus prepared?
Black phosphorus is prepared by heating red phosphorus to high temperature and pressure. It is
most stable phosphorus under ordinary conditions.
(32) What happens when H3PO4 is heated?
On heating the H3PO4 loses its water and changes into pyrophosphoric acid and metaphosphoric
acid.
2H3PO4 H4P2O7 2HPO3
orthophosphoric acid
-H2O pyrophosphoric acid metaphosphoric aicd
(33) Write down the equation for the reaction b/w conc. H2SO4 and Cu and explain what type
of reaction is it?
Hot concentrated H2SO4 reacts with Cu to give copper sulphate and SO2.
Cu + H2SO4  CuSO4 + 2H2O + SO2
It is a redox reaction in which copper is oxidized and Sulphur is reduced.
(34) Show that H2SO4 acts as dehydrating agent.
H2SO4 has great affinity for water so it act as dehydrating agent and eliminate water from
different compounds as shown in the following examples;
Conc. H2SO4
HCOOH CO + H2O
Conc. H2SO4
C2H5OH C2H4 + H2O
Conc. H2SO4
C6H12O6 6C + 6H2O
(35) Justify that H2SO4 is king of chemicals.
H2SO4 is used in almost all the industries. The industrial progress of country can be measured by
the annual consumption of H2SO4. Therefore it is known as king of chemicals.
(36) How red phosphorus is prepared?
Red phosphorus is prepared by heating white phosphorus in the presence of little iodine or
Sulphur as a catalyst at 250ºC in vacuum.
CHAPTER # 4
(1) Write three properties of white phosphorus. (2009)

(2) Write one method for the preparation of HNO2. Give its reaction with
(a) Bromine water, (b) urea, (c) Aniline (2015)
(3) Write Brikeland and Eyde’s process for the preparation of HNO3.
(4) Write down the contact process for the preparation of H2SO4.
(5) Write down the similarities and differences b/w oxygen and Sulphur.
Muhammad Shahid
Things to remember: S.S.E Chemistry
Jauharabad Khushab
CHAPTER # 4
CHAPTER # 5
THE HALOGENS AND THE NOBLE GASES 23 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
Chapter
(1) F2 has more oxidizing power than Cl2. Justify by a reaction. (2009)
Oxidizing power of F2 is higher, because it has low value of dissociation energy and high value
of hydration energy in its ions. Because of relative strength, it is possible for each halogen to
oxidizes the ions of other halogen in the halogen series, so
F2 + 2Cl-  Cl2 + 2F- is possible whereas Cl2 + 2F-  F2 + 2Cl- not possible.
(2) Why HI is stronger acid than other halogen acids? (2010)
The larger size of iodine allows for a better delocalization of the negative charge on the
conjugate base of HI, making HI the strongest acid in the H-X series.
(3) How halogen acids are ionized in water? Also give equation. (2010)
The halogen acids (HX) on hydrolysis in water gives H+ ion in water, the order of their strength
is given as following HF < HCl < HBr < HI.
HX + H2O  H3O+ + OH- Muhammad Shahid
(4) Write four uses of halogens. (2011) S.S.E Chemistry
Uses of halogens: Govt. High School No 4
Jauharabad Khushab
 Fluorine is used for the preparation of freons.
 Fluorides in toothpastes build a protective coating on teeth.
 Chlorine is used in manufacturing of bleaching powder.
 Silver bromide is used in photography.
 Iodine is used in pharmaceutical industry i.e. used to prepare tincture of iodine & iodex.
(5) How bleaching powder react with: (2011)
(i) Ammonia (ii) Excess of H2SO4
CaOCl2 + 2NH3  CaCl2 + 3H2O + N2
CaOCl2 + H2SO4 (Excess)  CaSO4 + H2O + Cl2↑
(6) Give two important applications of Helium. (2012)
OR
(7) Write any four applications of Helium (He) gas. (2016)
Helium is used in
1-weather balloons
2-in traffic signal light
3- Welding purpose
4- as a cooling medium for nuclear reactors.
(8) Write the reaction of NaOH with Cl2 in cold state. (2013)
OR
(9) What are disproportionation reactions?
A reaction in which a species undergoes oxidation and reduction reaction simultaneously are
called disproportionation reactions. When Cl2 dissolves in cold NaOH, it disproportionate into
Cl- and hypochlorite ion ClO- ion.
2NaOH + Cl2  NaCl + NaClO + H2O
(10) What are Freons and Teflon? (2013)
Fluorochlorocarbons are known as Freons. These are CCl2F2 and CClF3. These are used as
aerosol propellants and refrigerants. Whereas Teflon (-CF2-CF2-)n is a polymerized tetrafluoro
ethylene compound which is valuable plastic. Corrosion proof parts of machinery are made of
it.it is also used as a non-stick coating for cooking pans.
(11) What is iodized salt? Why is it essential for us? (2014) (2015) (2016)
The addition of some amount of potassium or sodium iodide to the common salt, this is called
iodized salt. It is essential for us because in case of deficiency of I2, a person can suffer from
goiter.
CHAPTER # 5
(12) HClO4 may cause explosion. Give reason. How it can be prepared? (2014)
HClO4 (Perchloric acid) is prepared by the reaction of mixture of potassium perchlorate (KClO4)
and conc.H2SO4.
KClO4 + conc.H2SO4  KHSO4 + HClO4.
When it is heated it decomposes explosively, that is why it is stored and used as 67% solution.
(13) In what respect, fluorine differs from other halogens? Give two point. (2014) (2015) (2017)
Fluorine differs from other halogens due to following reasons:
i. Small size of F atom and F- ion.
ii. Very high first ionization energy.
iii. Restriction of the valence shell to an octet.
iv. Direct combination with inert gases.
(14) What is Teflon? Give its uses. (2015)
Teflon (-CF2-CF2-)n is a polymerized tetrafluoro ethylene compound which is valuable plastic.
Corrosion proof parts of machinery are made of it. It is also used as a non-stick coating for
cooking pans.
(15) What is Halothane? Give its one use. (2016)
Halothane is actually a halogen compound, it is used as anesthetic. It has following formula
Cl
Br CH CF 3
Halothane
(16) Write reactions of bleaching powder (CaOCl2) with following. (2016)
(I) HCl (II) NH3
It oxidizes HCl to form Cl2 and NH3 into nitrogen.
CaOCl2 + 2HCl  CaCl2 + H2O + Cl2
(17) Give the major applications of iodine. (2017)
Application of iodine:
 It is used in pharmaceutical industry.
 It is used in the manufacture of tincture of iodine and iodex.
 It is used to prepare iodized salt.
(18) Complete the following reactions: (2017)
CaOCl2 + NH3 ?
CaOCl2 + dill.H2SO4 ?
CaOCl2 + dill. H2SO4  CaSO4 + CaCl2 + 2HClO
(19) Complete and balance the equations: (2017)
XeF6 + NH3  ?
XeF4 + Hg  ?
XeF6 + 4NH3  3Xe + 12HF + 2N2
XeF4 + 2Hg  Xe + 2HgF2
(20) Why HF is a weaker acid than HCl?
In HF, molecules are H-bonded in a zigzag manner. Thus H-atom is entrapped between two F-
atoms. Thus HF cannot donate its H+ ions easily. While HCl completely ionizes in aqueous
solution, so HF is weaker acid than HCl.
(21) Arrange the following in the increasing order of size.
F-, Cl-, I- and Br-
In the group ionic size increases down the group. F- has least size while I- has larger size, these
can be arranged in the following order. I- > Br- > Cl- > F-
CHAPTER # 5
(22) Why iodine has metallic lustre?

Iodine has metallic luster because of its larger size, at room temperature the electrons of iodine
takes energy and go to higher energy state, when excited electrons come back, it emit
radiations of a specific wavelength, therefore it appears as lustrous structure.
(23) Which halogen is used in Geiger counter?
Argon is used in the Geiger counter and also used In fluorescent tubes, in the radio tubes.
(24) Which halogen sublimes to violet vapours? Muhammad Shahid
Iodine sublimes to violet vapours. S.S.E Chemistry
(25) Which halogen is used as an antiseptic? Govt. High School No 4
Iodine is used as an antiseptic. Jauharabad Khushab
(26) Which halogen is used to kill bacteria in water treatment plant?
Chlorine is used to kill bacteria in water treatment plant.
(27) Name the gas, which is used for the earthquake prediction?
Radon gas is used for the earthquake prediction.
(28) Name the gas, which is used in bactericidal lamps.
Xenon gas is used in bactericidal lamps.
(29) Fluorine is a gas while iodine is a solid at room temperature, why?
F2 and Cl2, both are non-polar diatomic molecules and their molecules held together by
London dispersion forces. These forces increase with increase in size of I2 due to larger
polarizability than that of F2, therefore I2 is a solid at room temperature and F2 is a gas.
(30) Halogens are strong oxidizing agents. Justify it?
The substance which has tendency to accept one or more electron have the oxidizing property,
and acts as oxidizing agent. Oxidizing property depends upon the following factors,
(i) Energy of dissociation
(ii) Electron affinity of atoms
(iii) Hydration energy of ions.
Halogens having low dissociation energy, high electron affinity and higher hydration energy of
their ions, will acts as a strong oxidizing agents.
(31) What is bleaching powder? How it is prepared?
Bleaching powder is calcium chloro-hypochlorite, Ca(OCl)Cl or CaOCl2. It is prepared by
action of Cl2 with dry slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) by using Hasenclever’s method or Beckmann’s
method.
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2  Ca(OCl)Cl + H2O
(32) What is meant by available chlorine?
The amount of chlorine which obtained by the reaction of excess of (weak or strong) acids
with bleaching powder is known as available chlorine. A good sample of bleaching powder
has 35-40% available chlorine.
CaOCl2 + H2SO4  CaSO4 + H2O + Cl2↑
(33) Why is the viscosity of HF less than that of H2O?
HF is strongly hydrogen bonded and is a viscous liquid. The viscosity of HF is less than that of
water due to the absence of 3-D network of H-bonds which is present in water.
(34) How perchloric acid is prepared? How it is stored & used?
HClO4 (Perchloric acid) is prepared by the reaction of mixture of potassium perchlorate
(KClO4) and conc.H2SO4.
KClO4 + conc.H2SO4  KHSO4 + HClO4.
When it is heated it decomposes explosively, that is why it is stored and used as 67% solution.
It reacts violently with organic compounds.
(35) Give preparation of Two Fluorides of Xenon.
XeF2 can be prepared by the reaction of direct interaction of Xe and F2. The product form
should remove immediately, otherwise it will change into XeF4.
Xe + F2  XeF2
CHAPTER # 5
XeF4 can be prepared by heating the mixture of Xe and F2 in 1:5 in a nickel container at 6 atm
pressure for few hours.
Xe + 2F2  XeF4
(1) Write four points in which fluorine differs from other halogens. (2009)
(2) Why F2 can oxidize Cl2 and Br2. Give one reaction to explain it. (2009)
(3) Write reactions of bleaching powder with following.
(I) Conc. H2SO4 (II) NH3 (III) CO2 (IV) HI (2015)
(4) Write the commercial uses of Fluorine, Chlorine and their compounds. (2016)
(5) How bleaching powder is prepared by Hasenclever’s method? Give its reaction with HCl and
NH3. (2016)
(6) Write down reactions of CaOCl2 with: (2016)
(i) CO2 (ii) HCl (iii) NH3 (iv) H2SO4
(7) What are disproportionation reaction? Explain your answer with an example.
OR
(8) Describe the reaction of chlorine with cold & hot NaOH. Muhammad Shahid
(9) Write two methods for the preparation of P2O5. S.S.E Chemistry
(10) Write a note on oxy-fluorides of Xenon. Govt. High School No 4
(11) Write down the applications of noble gases. Jauharabad Khushab
Things to remember:
CHAPTER # 6
TRANSITION ELEMENTS 27 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
Chapter
(1) What is sacrificial corrosion? Explain with an example.

OR
(2) How does the process of galvanizing protect iron from rusting? (2008) (2009)
OR
(3) What do you mean by Galvanizing? (2017)
OR
(4) How is corrosion can be prevented by Galvanizing? (2017)
In galvanizing zinc chloride is used as a protective coating, when this coating is damaged, a
galvanic cell is established, in which iron acts as cathode and zinc acts as anode, electrons flow
from zinc to iron. As a result zinc decay occurs while Fe remains intact, this is called sacrificial
corrosion. In this way iron can be prevented from corrosion.
Fe2+ + Zn  Zn2+ + Fe
(5) What is difference between paramagnetic and diamagnetic substances? (2009)
The substances which are weakly attracted by strong magnetic field are called paramagnetic
substances while those substances which are weakly repelled by a strong magnetic field are called
diamagnetic substances.
(6) Give systematic names of the following complexes. (2010) Muhammad Shahid
(i) [Fe(CO)5] (ii) K2[Cu(CN)4] S.S.E Chemistry
[Fe(CO)5] Pentacarbonyliron (0) Govt. High School No 4
K2[Cu(CN)4] Potassium tetracyanocupperate (II) Jauharabad Khushab
(7) Under what conditions Aluminium corrode? (2010) (2015)
Aluminium corrodes only when it is in contact with those metals, which are lower in
electrochemical series than that of aluminium. In the presence of moisture a galvanic cell is
established in which Al releases its electrons and form Al3+ ion, which attracts the OH- ion, which
are released from the ionization of water, to form Al(OH)3 which starts to dissolve.
(8) What happens when H2SO4 is added to aqueous K2Cr2O7 solution?
OR
(9) What is chromyl chloride test? Also give chemical reaction. (2011)
When solid potassium dichromate is heated with metal chloride in the presence of conc.H2SO4, it
produces the chromyl chloride (CrO2Cl2), which is confirmatory test for the presence of chloride
ions.
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 4NaCl  2KHSO4 + 2CrO2Cl2. + 3H2O
(10) How the entrapped gases are removed from steel? (2012) (2015)
The entrapped gases are removed from steel by adding small amount of aluminum or Ferro-silicon.
The added aluminum removed the entrapped gases by forming nitride.
2Al + N2  2AlN
(11) Define ligand and give one example. (2013)
The atoms, ions or molecules which surround the central metal ion and donate electron pairs to
central metal atom. They may be anions or neutral molecules e.g. K4[Fe(CN)6], [Co(NO2)3(NH3)]
In these examples the CN- , NO2- and NH3 are ligands.
(12) What are chelates? Give an example. (2013)
When all the donor atoms of a polydentate ligand are coordinated with the same metal ion, a
complex compound is formed that contains one or more than one rings in its structure, it is called
Chelates, e.g. Dioxalato-platinate (II) ion.
CHAPTER # 6
2-
- -
O C O O C O
Pt
- -
O C O O C O
(13) Define co-ordination number with an example.(2014)

It is defined as “The number of lone pairs of electrons provided by the ligand to the central metal
atom or ion is called co-ordination number” e.g. K4[Fe(CN)6] in this complex the co-ordination
number of Fe is 6.
(14) What is meant by typical & non-typical transition metals? (2014)
The elements of group II-B and III-B are known as non-typical transition elements. Because they
do not have the typical properties of transition elements except complex formation. They have only
one electron in their d-subshell, so they are transition elements by definition. Whereas the elements
other than II-B and III-B are called typical transition elements, these have all the properties of
transition elements.
(15) Indicate the central metal atom or ion along with its oxidation number in the complexes. (2015)
(I) K4[Fe(CN)6] (II) [Ag(NH3)2]Cl
Potassium hexacyanoferrate (II) in this the central metal atom is Fe, having oxidation number is +2.
While in second example “Diamminesilver (I) chloride” the central atom is Ag having an oxidation
number is +1.
(16) What are interstitial compounds? (2016)
When small amount of C, H, B and N enter the interstices of transition metals and impart useful
properties to them, they are called interstitial compounds. These are non-stoichiometric
compounds.
(17) Why transitions metals show variable valencies? (2016)
Transitions metals show variable valencies because of they use their unpaired d electrons in
addition to s electrons in bond formation. In result all 3d series show variable valencies or
oxidation state.
(18) What is medium carbon steel? Also write its uses. (2016)
This is harder than mild steel.it has 0.2% to 0.7 % carbon. It is also malleable and ductile. It is used
in the manufacturing of rails, axels and castings.
(19) Write down the uses of potassium permanganate (KMnO4).
OR
(20) write any three uses of KMnO4. (2016) Muhammad Shahid
(I) It is as an oxidizing agent. S.S.E Chemistry
(II) It is used as disinfectant and germicide. Govt. High School No 4
(III) For the manufacturing of many organic compounds. Jauharabad Khushab
(21) Write the name of following complexes. (2015)
(i) K2[Cu(CN)4] (ii) K2[PtCl6]
K2[Cu(CN)4] Potassium tetracyanocupperate (II)
K2[PtCl6] Potassium hexachloroplatinate (IV)
(22) Define central metal ion in complex compounds. Give one example. (2017)
OR
(23) What are (a) Co-ordination number (b) central metal atom?
The number of lone pair provided by the ligand to the central metal atom or ion is called co-
ordination number of the central metal atom or ion e.g.
K4[Fe(CN)6] [Ag(NH3)2]Cl
In above given example the co-ordination number of Fe and Ag is 6 and 2 respectively.
A transition metal atom or ion surrounded by a number of ligands is called central metal atom or
ions. In the above given example the Fe2+ and Ag+ are central metal ion or Fe and Ag are the central
metal atoms.
CHAPTER # 6
(24) Name different forms of iron and which is purest? (2017)

Iron has following three forms.
 Pig iron or cast iron (2.5 to 4.5% carbon)
 Steel (0.25 to 2.5% carbon)
 Wrought iron (0.12 to 2.5% carbon)
Wrought iron is purest form of iron due to lowest percentage of carbon.
(25) How does damaged tin plated iron get rusted quickly?
The damaged tin plated iron get rusted quickly because when coating is damaged, then iron comes
in contact with moisture. A galvanic cell is established in which tin acts as a cathode and iron acts
as anode, the flow of electron occur from iron to tin, where they discharge as H+ ions, leaving OH-
ions in the solution. These OH- ion react with iron forming the Fe(OH)3 which dissolves rapidly in
water.
(26) Why compounds of transition metals show colour?
d-orbital in the transition metals is responsible for the colour development. When these orbitals
involved in bonding they split into two energy levels, one has lower energy as compare to other.
The electron in the lower energy level absorb part of visible light and jumps to high energy d-
orbital, this is called d-d transition. This energy difference varies from ion to ion. So every ion
absorb different wavelength and transmits the remaining part, which gives the different colour to
the ions. The solution of [Ti(H2O)6]3+ show violet colour.
Muhammad Shahid
S.S.E Chemistry
Jauharabad Khushab
(27) Give three important characteristics of transition metals.
i. All the transition elements are metals.
ii. Transition metal have several oxidation states.
iii. They form alloys with one another and also with other elements.
iv. Their compounds are oftenly coloured in nature.
(28) Define with an example the term Co-ordination sphere.
The central metal atom or ion along with ligands are collectively called as co-ordination sphere. It
is oftenly written in square brackets. e.g. K4[Fe(CN)6]
In this example the [Fe(CN)6]4- is called as co-ordination sphere.
(29) Write the chemical formula of
(a) Potassium hexacyanoferrate (II). (b) Triamine trinitro Cobalt (III)
The formulas of above given complexes are K4[Fe(CN)6], [Co(NO2)3(NH3)]
(30) Why Fe+3 show strong paramagnetic behavior?
Fe+3 show strong paramagnetic behavior because it has 5 unpaired electron.
(31) What is difference b/w wrought iron & steel?
Wrought iron is the purest form of iron. It have 0.12 to 0.25% amount of carbon.
Steel is alloy of iron having 0.25 to 2.5% of carbon and traces of S, P, Si and Mn.
(32) What happens when H2S gas is passed through acidified K2Cr2O7?
When hexavalent chromium ions are reduced Trivalent Chromium ions are produced.
K2Cr2O7 + 3H2S + 4H2SO4  K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 7H2O + 3S
(33) What is meant by substitutional alloys?
Transition metals have similarity in their size, they have capacity to replace one another in the
metallic lattice and form substitutional alloys, e.g. brass, bronze and coinage alloys.
(34) Why K2Cr2O7 and K2CrO4 show similar properties?
K2Cr2O7 and K2CrO4 show similar properties because in an aqueous solution Cr2O7-2 and CrO4-2
ions exist in equilibrium.
2CrO42- + 2H+  Cr2O72- + H2O
CHAPTER # 6

(1) Write down the formulas of the following complex compounds. (2009)
(i) Tetra amine chloro nitro-platinum (IV) sulphate (ii) Potassium hexacyanoferrate (III)
(2) Give systematic names of followings. (2010)
(i) K4[Fe(CN)6] (ii) [CO(NO2) (NH3)3]
(3) Describe and write an equation for formation of chromyl chloride. Give its applications. (2011)
(4)
(5) Write down any four rules for the preparation of naming complex compounds. (2012)
(6) Discuss electrochemical theory of corrosion. (2013)
(7) Define paramagnetism and discuss paramagnetic behviour in transition elements. (2013)
(8) Give any four properties of transition elements. (2014)
(9) How will you prepare Wrought iron from cost iron by Puddling process. (2017)
OR
(10) Describe manufacture of Wrought iron from cost iron. (2017)
(11) What is electrochemical theory of corrosion? How to prevent iron from corrosion?
(12) Write two methods for the preparation of KMnO4.
(13) What is difference b/w wrought iron and steel? Explain the Bessemer’s process for the manufacture
of steel.
Muhammad Shahid
S.S.E Chemistry
Things to remember: Jauharabad Khushab

CHAPTER # 7
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 31 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
Muhammad Shahid
Chapter
Jauharabad Khushab
(1) What is steam cracking? (2010)
(2) What are aromatic hydrocarbons? (2010)
(3) Define Tautomerism with example. (2010)
(4) What is meant by carbonization of coal? (2011)
(5) Octane number of gasoline can be improved by reforming. Explain. (2011)
(6) 1-Butene does not show geometrical isomerism, but 2-Butene does. Explain it. (2012)
(7) Write the name and structure of two aromatics heterocyclic compounds. (2012)
(8) Write name and structure of two aromatic heterocyclic compounds. (2012) (2013)
(9) Write down two characteristics features of organic compounds. (2013)
(10) What is catalytic cracking of petroleum? (2013)
(11) Explain thermal cracking. Write formulas of any two compounds obtained by this phenomenon.
(2013)
(12) What is meant by catalytic cracking? (2014)
(13) Define alicyclic compounds with an example. (2014)
(14) Define a functional group. Give examples of functional group containing oxygen. (2015)
(15) What is cis-trans isomerism? Give example. (2015)
(16) What is meant by Homocyclic compounds? Give examples. (2009)
OR
(17) How Homocyclic compounds are classified? Give an example. (2015)
(18) What is modern definition of organic compounds? (2015)
(19) Why vital force theory was rejected? (2016)
(20) What is natural gas? Write its two uses. (2016)
(21) What is the composition of natural gas? Give uses of natural gas. (2017)
(22) Define refinery. Mention oil refineries in Pakistan. (2017)
(23) What is the necessary and sufficient condition for a compound to exhibit geometric isomerism?
OR
(24) Why is restricted rotation necessary to show geometrical isomerism? (2016)
(25) Write Wohler’s work.
OR
(26) Describe the preparation of first organic compound in laboratory. (2016)
(27) Justify that coal is one of the major source of organic compound. (2017)
(28) Write a note on Metamerism. (2017)
(29) Define isomerism with examples.
(30) Write the types of Cracking?
(31) What is knocking of engine?
(32) Why there is no free rotation around a double bond and a free rotation around a single bond.
(33) What are the main sources of organic compounds?
(34) What is importance of Wohler’s work?
(35) Write the theory of formation of coal.
(36) Define Fractional distillation.
(37) How does carbon gain energy for excitation of electron from 2s to 2p orbital?
CHAPTER # 7
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 32 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
(1) Explain the type of bonds and shape of H3C - CH3 molecules by using hybridization approach.
(2010)
OR
(2) In alkanes sp3 hybridization takes place. Discuss in detail. (2011)
(3) Define hybridization and also describes the sp-hybridization with reference of ethyne. (2011)
(4) Describe structure of Ethene on the basis of sp2 hybridization. (Please also see other types) (2011)
OR
(5) Define atomic orbital hybridization and describes the structure of ethene in view of atomic
orbital hybridization. (2013)
OR
(6) What is sp2 hybridization? Describe structure of Ethene in the light of sp2 hybridization. (2017)
(7) Discuss geometric isomerism with at least two examples. (2012)
(8) Define isomerism. Discuss functional group isomerism and position isomerism in detail.
(2014)
(9) Write a note on reforming of petroleum. (2009) (2015)
(10) Explain the following. (i) Reforming of petroleum (ii) cracking of alkanes. (2016)
(11) Define isomerism. Discuss (i) geometrical isomerism (ii) Position isomerism (2016)
(12) Explain any four features of organic compounds. (2017)
(13) Write a note on cracking.
(14) Write important sources of organic compounds.
Things to remember:
CHAPTER # 8
ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS 33 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
Muhammad Shahid
Chapter
Jauharabad Khushab
(1) How does Ehtyne react with (i) AgNO3/NH4OH (ii) H2O HgSO4/H2SO4 (2009)
(2) Write the structural formula of the following compounds. (i) Vinyl acetylene (ii) iso-pentane (2010)
(3) How synthetic rubber is prepared from Ethyne?
OR
(4) How acetylene can be converted into chloroprene? Give its equation. (2010)
(5) How ethane can be converted into ethyl alcohol? (2011)
(6) Convert 1-Butene into 1-Butyne. (2012)
(7) How can Ethyne be prepared commercially from calcium carbide? (2012)
(8) Write the Hydroxylation of Ethene.
OR
(9) What is Bayer’s test? (2012)
OR
(10) What is Bayer’s test? Give its use. (2015)
(11) Why alkenes are more reactive than alkanes and alkynes? (2013)
(12) How does propyne react with (i) AgNO3/NH4OH (ii) Cu2Cl2/ NH4OH (2013)
(13) Define Markownikov’s rule. Give example. (2013)
(14) Why some hydrocarbons are saturated and others unsaturated. What type of reactions are
characteristics of them? (2013)
(15) Convert ethane to ethene. (2014)
(16) How Ethene reacts with H2SO4? (2015)
(17) Give the Kolbe’s electrolysis method for the preparation of Ethyne. (2015)
(18) How methane is converted into formaldehyde? (2016)
(19) How do you distinguish between Ethene and Ethyne? (2016)
(20) Write the preparation of Alkane by clemmensen reduction method. (2016)
(21) Define with example Hydrogenolysis. (2016)
(22) What are the following reactions? (i) Hydrogenolysis (ii) Wolf-Kishner reduction (2017)
OR
(23) What is effect of branching on boiling points of alkanes? (2017)
(24) What is Clemmensen & Wolf-Kishner Reduction?
(25) Write the method of hydrogenation for the preparation of Alkanes? (also called Sabatier and Sendern’s Reaction)
(26) Convert methane to ethane.
(27) Why alkanes are less reactive?
(28) Write shortly about the reactivity of alkenes.
(29) Write down uses of Ethane, Ethene and Ethyne.
(30) How ethene is prepared by Kolb’s electrolysis?
(31) What is Raney Nickel, how it is produced?
(32) What happens when vicinal dihalide is treated with alcoholic KOH?
(33) How will you convert Acetylene into Benzene?
(34) What you know about the Ozonolysis of Ethene? OR Ethene + ozone?
(35) What is Mustard Gas? How it is prepared?
(Please see the text book for the Nomenclature questions)
CHAPTER # 8
ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS 34 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES

(1) Give chemical and electrolysis methods of decarboxylation of sodium acetate. (2009)
(2) Write the reactions alkynes with (i) HBr (ii) HCN (iii) Na metal (iv) H2O (v) Cl2 (2010)
(3) Give preparation of ethyne by (i) Kolb’s electrolytic method (ii) dehydrohalogenation of vicinal
dihalides. (2011)
(4) How will you synthesize the following compounds starting from Ethyne? (2012)
(i) Acetaldehyde (ii) Ethane (iii) Benzene (IV) Methyl nitrile
(5) What happens when ethene is reacted with (i) KMnO4 (ii) O3 (iii) HBr (iv) S2Cl2 b (2013)
(6) Discuss any two general methods for the preparation of alkenes. (2013)
(7) What are photochemical reactions? Explain free radicle mechanism for the reaction of chlorine
with methane. (2014)
OR
(8) Write a note on halogenation of alkanes. (2017)
(9) How does ethyne reacts with: (i) Hydrogen (ii) Halogen acid (iii) Alkaline KMnO4 (iv)10%
H2SO4/HgSO4 (2015)
(10) Give uses of methane. (2015)
(11) Write mechanism of Kolb’s method to prepare alkyne. (2009)
(12)
(13) Write chemical equations of reactions of ethyne with, (i) Cl2 (ii) HCN (iii) NH3 (2016)
HgSO4
(iv) H2O
H2SO4
(14) Discuss acidic nature of ethyne. (2016)
(15) Describe the ease of dehydration of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols with suitable
reactions. (Hint: Preparation of alkene by dehydration of alcohols) (2017)
(16) Write four methods for the preparation of alkanes.
Things to remember:
CHAPTER # 9
AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS 35 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
Muhammad Shahid
Chapter
Jauharabad Khushab
(1) Write the IUPAC name of o-xylene and p-xylene. (2009)
(2) How nitration of benzene takes place. Give equation. (2009)
(3) Write mechanism of halogenation of benzene in the presence of a catalyst. (2010)
(4) How Glyoxal is produced through benzene ozonide? (2010)
(5) Compare the reactivates of alkenes and Benzene. (2010)
OR
(6) Justify that Ethene (C2H2) is more reactive than benzene (C6H6). (2017)
(7) Write mechanism of alkylation of benzene. (2011)
(8) Write the names and draw structures of three possible isomer of Xylenes? (2012)
(9) What happens when mixture of benzene vapors and air are passed over heated Vanidum
pentoxide. Give equation. (2012)
OR
(10) Write the catalytic oxidation of Benzene. (2012)
(11) What are Wurtz Reactions, give its uses?
OR
(12) Write the Wurtz fittig reaction for the preparation of benzene. (2015)
(13) What are monocyclic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons? (2013)
(14) Write down the formula of aniline and toluene. (2013)
(15) How Hexane and Heptane can give benzene and toluene respectively. (2013)
(16) How toluene can be converted into benzoic acid? (2013) (2015)
(17) How benzene is converted into Acetophenone, give its mechanism? (2014) (2015)
(18) How will you prepare m-dinitrobenzene from benzene in two steps? (2015)
(19) Give two addition reactions of benzene. (2015)
OR
(20) Write two reactions which show that Benzene has unsaturated structure. (2017)
(21) Write the structural formula of Naphthalene and Anthracene. (2009) (2016)
(Please also see the structure of Phenanthrene)
(22) Write two objections on Kekule formula of benzene. (2016)
(23) How toluene can be converted into benzoic acid? (2016)
(Hint: Please see side chain oxidation of benzene reactions)
(24) Give information that we get from X-ray analysis of benzene. (2016)
OR
(25) What information we get from X-ray study of benzene? (2017)
(26) Define Resonance and resonance energy. (2017)
(27) What is meant by directive influence of substituent? Give an example. (2017)
(28) What is meant by term: Aromatics, Halogenation, Nitration, Sulphonation, and Friedel Crafts
Acylation & Alkylation?
(29) What happen when:
 Benzene is heated with conc.H2SO4
 Chlorine is passed through in the presence of sun light
 Benzene is heated in free supply of air
CHAPTER # 9
AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS 36 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
Important Short questions
(1) Write down the mechanism for the following.

(i) Sulphonation (ii) Nitration of benzene (2009) (2012)
OR
(2) Write the nitration and Sulphonation reactions of benzene with mechanism. (2016)
(3) Write down the mechanisms of following reactions: (2011) (2017)
(i) Friedel-Craft’s alkylation (ii) Nitration of benzene
(4) Describe the mechanism of halogenation of benzene. (2013)
(5) Describe the mechanism of Friedel-Craft’s alkylation. (2013)
(6) Starting from benzene how will you prepare the following (2014) (2015)
(i) m-chloronitro benzene (ii) p- chloronitro benzene
(7) Discuss Friedel crafts reaction with mechanism. (2016)
(8) Predict the major product of bromination of following compounds. (2017)
(i) Toluene (ii) Nitrobenzene (iii) Bromobenzene (iv) Benzoic acid
(9) Write a note on resonance structure of benzene and also define the resonance energy.
(10) Write a note on ortho para directing group.
Things to remember:
CHAPTER # 10
ALKYL HALIDES 37 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
Muhammad Shahid
Jauharabad Khushab
(1) What are mono halo alkanes? Also give classification. (2010)
(2) Write two names and formulas of anti-knocking agents used in gasoline. (2010)
OR
(3) Convert C2H5Cl into T.E.L (Tetra ethyl lead). (2017)
OR
(4) Write the reaction of alkyl halide with Sodium Lead alloy (Na4Pb).
OR
(5) How antiknocking agents are prepared from alkyl halide.
(6) Give reason for reactivity of Grignard’s reagent. (2011)
OR
(7) The nature of alkyl group changes when alkyl halide is converted to Grignard’s reagent. (2016)
OR
(8) Write the reactivity of Grignard’s reagent.
(9) How is reduction of 1-chloropropane done to prepare propane?(Hint: Reduction of alkyl halide) (2012)
(10) How you will prepare n-butane by Wurtz reaction? (2012)
OR
(11) What is Wurtz synthesis? (2016) (2017)
(12) Write down any two methods for the preparation of alkyl halides. (2013)
(13) Explain mechanism of SN2 reaction. (2013)
(14) How will you carry this conversion: (2013)
H3C – CH3  (H3C-CH2)4N+Br-
OR
(15) How ethane is converted into quarternary ethyl ammonium bromide? (2015)
(Hint: See the reaction of Grignard’s reagent with NH3)
(16) What are primary, secondary and tertiary alkyl halide? Give examples. (2014)
OR
(17) Define primary alkyl halides and secondary halides, give example of each. (2016)
(18) Why the reactivity of alkyl halides depends upon bond energy? (2016)
OR
(19) Write the order of reaction C-X bond energy?
(20) Define β-Elimination reactions with examples. (2016)
(21) Write the best method for the preparation of alkyl halide?
OR
(22) Why thionyl chloride is best reagent to prepare alkyl halides from alcohols. Give an example. (2017)
(23) What is the role of stability of carbocation ion in the deciding the mechanism of substitution
reaction? (2017)
(24) How alkyl iodide is prepared?
(25) Differentiate b/w nucleophile & electrophile?
(26) Define molecularity?
(27) Write the preparation of Grignard’s reagent.
(28) How Propanoic acid is prepared by Grignard’s reagent.
CHAPTER # 10
ALKYL HALIDES 38 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
(1) Explain briefly two possible mechanisms of β-Elimination reactions. (2009)

OR
(2) Differentiate b/w E1 & E2 reactions.
(3) Write a detail note on the mechanism of bimolecular nucleophilic substitution reaction. (2010)
(4) Differentiate between SN1 and SN2 reactions. (2011)
(5) How will you prepare secondary and tertiary alcohol with the help of Grignard reagent? (2012)
(6) Write a note on SN1 reactions. (2013)
(7) Using Ethyl bromide as a starting material how will you prepare followings: (2013)
(i) n-Butane (ii) Ethene
O
(8) Write the reactions of CH3-CH2-Mg-Br with (i) CO2 (ii) H CH (2014)
(9) What are nucleophilic substitution reactions? Give the mechanism of SN1 reaction. (2015)
(10) Complete the following reactions. (2016)
Ether
I. H3C-CH2-Cl + Na ?
Pyridine
II. H3C-CH2-OH + SOCl2 ?
III. H3C-CH2-Cl + Na4Pb ?
IV. H3C-CH2-Cl + KOH (aq) ?
(11) Give reactions of Grignard’s reactions with (i) Alcohol (ii) CO2 (iii) Acetaldehyde. (2016)
(12) Write the reactions of Grignard’s reagent with followings: (2017)
(i) HCHO (ii) CH3CHO (iii) (CH3)2CO (iv) ClCN
(13) How will you prepare the following compounds from Ethyl bromide? (2017)
(i) n-Butane (ii) Ethane (iii) Ethene (See preparation of ethene) (iv) Propanoic acid.
Things to remember:
CHAPTER # 11
ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS AND ETHERS 39 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
Muhammad Shahid
Chapter
Jauharabad Khushab
(1) Write down the chemical formula of (i) Carbolic acid (ii) Picric acid (2009)
(2) Write the IUPAC names of the following compounds: (2009)
(i) (CH3)2CH-OH (ii) (CH3)2CH-CH2-OH
(3) What is Lucas test? Identify the secondary alcohol by this test. (2010)
(4) Write down the structural formulas and IUPAC names of the following compounds. (2010)
(i) Lactic acid (ii) Tartaric acid
(5) Give the structures of (a) Lactic acid (b) Tartaric acid. (2015) (2016)
(6) Why phenol is acidic? (2011)
OR
(7) Why phenol is acidic in nature but alcohol is not? (2014)
OR
(8) Why phenol is acidic in nature but alcohol is weaker. Justify. (2017)
(9) Prepare benzene and picric acid from phenols. (2011)
(10) Write down a chemical reaction to distinguish b/w methanol & ethanol? (2012)
OR
(11) How methanol and ethanol can be identified by Iodoform test? (2015)
(12) Write down the reaction for the preparation of Bakelite. (2012)
(13) Write down the two methods for the preparation of phenol. (2012)
(14) What are the important uses of alcohols? (2012)
OR
(15) Write 4 uses of C2H5OH alcohols. (2017)
(16) How ethanol is prepared from molasses? (2013)
(17) How silver oxide reacts with alkyl halides to give ethers. (Hint: see the ether formation) (2014)
(18) Convert ethanol into isopropyl alcohol. (2015)
(19) Write balance equation for reaction of C2H5OH with (i) PCl3 (ii) PCl5 (2015)
(20) How ethyl alcohol is denatured? (2016)
OR
(21) What do you mean by denaturing of alcohol? (2016)
(22) Define with examples dihydric and trihydric alcohol. (2016)
(23) Define (i) Fermentation (ii) Oxonium ion (2017)
(24) What is fermentation? Write necessary condition which increase the speed of enzyme activity.
(25) Write the physical properties of Ethers.
(26) Explain the following terms:
 Absolute alcohol, Methylated spirit, Rectified spirit, Denaturing of alcohols
(27) How will you distinguish b/w following? (Exercise)
 An alcohol and a phenol.
 An alcohol and an ether
 Methanol and ethanol
 A tertiary alcohol and a primary alcohol
 1-prpanol and 2- propanol
(28) Give the reasons for the following: (Exercise)
 Ethyl alcohol is a liquid while ethyl chloride is a gas?
 Ethanol has higher boiling point than diethyl ether.
 Absolute alcohol cannot be prepared by fermentation process. Justify (2011) (2013)
 Ethanol gives different products with conc.H2SO4 under different conditions. (2017)
 Water has higher boiling point than ethanol.
CHAPTER # 11
ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS AND ETHERS 40 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES

(1) Give two methods for the preparation of phenols. (2009)
(2) What is the action of followings on phenols? (2010)
(3) How will you prepare secondary and tertiary alcohol with the help of Grignard reagent? (2012)
[please also see fermentation from molasses]
(4) How does ethyl alcohol react with following, (a) Conc.H2SO4 (b) Na (c) PCl3 (d) CH3COOH (2014)
(5) What is fermentation? How Ethanol is commercially prepared by fermentation of starch. (2015)
(6) Write the chemical reactions of C2H5OH with followings with following conditions?
(i) SOCl2 (ii) HCl (iii) NH3 (iv) Na (2016)
(7) Give preparation of ethanol from molasses and starch. (2017)
(8) Give the reactions of phenols with followings: (2017)
(i) Zn (ii) Bromine water (iii) Conc. HNO3 (iv) Conc.H2SO4
(9) How would you convert CH3OH into C2H5OH?
(10) Write the reaction of phenol with following.
(i) Br2 (ii) HNO3 Heat (iii) CH3COCl (iv) HCHO (v) H2
Things to remember:
CHAPTER # 12
ALDEHYDES AND KETONES 41 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
Muhammad Shahid
Chapter
Jauharabad Khushab
(1) Why the formaldehyde does not give aldol condensation reaction? (2009)
(2) Give the mechanism of addition HCN in acetone. (2009)
(3) Distinguish between Ethanal and Propanone by a chemical test. (2011)
OR
(4) Write the reaction of iodoform formation by using acetone. (2012)
OR
(5) How will you distinguish between ethanol and propanal? (2013)
OR
(6) What is iodoform test? (2016)
(7) Write general mechanism of Base catalyzed addition reaction of carbonyl compounds. (2011)
OR
(8) Write the general mechanism for the base catalyzed addition reaction . (2017)
(9) Convert acetaldehyde into paraldehyde by a reaction which is done in the presence of dilute
H2SO4. (2012) (2017)
(10) Write down the formula of following: (2013)
(i) Acetophenone (ii) Acetone
(11) Prepare 2-Butenal from acetaldehyde in the presence of a base. (Hint: Aldol condensation reaction) (2013)
(12) What are the factors which make the Aldehyde more reactive than ketone? (2013)
(13) Discuss the reduction of Aldehyde with (i) NaBH4 (ii) H2/Pd.
(14) How acetaldehyde is prepared form ethyl alcohol in laboratory? (2013)
(15) Write the industrial preparation of acetaldehyde. (2013)
(16) Write four uses of acetaldehyde. (2013)
(17) Give four uses of formaldehyde. (2014) (2017)
(18) How acetone is prepared from calcium acetate? Give reaction. (2014)
(19) Give the mechanism of Cannizaro’s reaction. (2013) (2014)
(20) Which are those weak oxidizing agents, which can oxidize aldehydes but not the ketones? (2015)
(21) Discuss the addition of HCN on aldehyde and ketones as a base catalyzed reaction. (2015)
(22) Why only methyl ketones are able to give haloform reactions, but other ketones don’t? (2015)
(23) Describe preparation of formalin on commercial from methyl alcohol. (2016)
(24) Give reaction to produce α-Hydroxy acid from aldehyde. (2013) (2016)
Hint: See the reaction of aldehyde with HCN followed by hydrolysis by an aqueous acid.
(25) Write equation of reaction between formaldehyde and sodium bisulphite. (2016)
(26) How acetaldehyde does reacts with: (i) NH2OH (ii) C6H5-NH-NH2.
(27) Draw the structure of Lactic acid and tartaric acid. (2016)
(28) Fehling’s solution reacts with aldehydes to give red ppt. justify it. (2017)
(29) Convert acetic acid into ketones. (2017)
(30) Give reaction of acetaldehyde with I2/NaOH.
O
K2Cr2O7/H2SO4
H3C CH2 C CH3
(31)
(32) How aldehyde and ketones can be distinguished?
(33) Discuss the chemistry of Tollens’s reagent.
(34) Write the reactivity of carbonyl group.
(35) Define condensation reactions.
(36) Define Cannizaro’s reactions.
CHAPTER # 12
ALDEHYDES AND KETONES 42 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES

(1) Write reaction to make acetal from aldehydes. How the acetal is reconverted into relevant
aldehydes? (2009)
(2) Write two methods for preparation of formaldehyde. (2010)
(3) Define Cannizaro’s reaction. Explain its mechanism with suitable example. (2011)
OR
(4) What type of aldehydes give Cannizaro’s reaction? Give its mechanism. (2015)
OR
(5) Explain with mechanism Cannizaro’s reaction. (2016)
(6) Give the reaction of Acetone and acetaldehyde with: (i) Hydroxyl amine (ii) Hydrazine. (2012)
(7) Explain the mechanism of aldol condensation. (2013)
(8) Why oxidation of ketones does not occur easily? What strong oxidizing agent is used to oxidize
ketones. (2013)
OR
(9) Discus the oxidation of ketones with K2Cr2O7/H2SO4 (2015)
(10) Starting from acetaldehyde, How will you synthesize following. (2015)
(i) Acetic acid (ii) Ethyl alcohol (iii) Acetaldehyde Hydrazine (iv) Ethanal oxime
(11) Write an equation for the reactions of acetaldehyde with. (2016)
(i) HCN (ii) H3C-CH2-MgBr (iii) I2/NaOH (iv) NH2-NH-C6H5
(12) Write a brief note on Haloform reactions. (2016)
OR
(13) What are Haloform reactions? How iodoform test is useful? (2017)
(14) How will you make the following conversions? (2017)
(i) Ethene into Ethanal (ii) Ethanol into 2-Butanone
(15) Write iodoform reaction. (give three examples)
(16) Write four uses of formaldehyde and four uses of acetaldehyde.
Things to remember:
CHAPTER # 13
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS 43 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
Muhammad Shahid
Jauharabad Khushab
(1) What is peptide bond? Write the formula of dipeptide. (2009)

(2) What are acidic and basic amino acids? (2009) (2017)
(3) Draw dimmer of carboxylic acid. (2011)
(4) How hydrolysis of ester leads the formation of acetic acid. (2012)
(5) Discuss strecker synthesis for the preparation of amino acids. (2012)
(6) What are the essential and non-essential amino acids? (2013)
(7) Write general structure of peptide linkage. (2013)
(8) What are Aliphatic and aromatic carboxylic acids? Give one example of each. (2013)
(9) Prepare acetic acid from (i) Methyl nitrile (ii) Acetylene (2013)
(10) Write the structural formula of malonic acid and isophthalic acid. (2015)
(11) Write the mechanism of Ethanol with CH3COOH. (2015)
(12) How would you convert CH3COOH into CH3CONH2? (2016)
OR
(13) What are amides and how they are produced?
(14) Define and give example of neutral amino acids. (2016)
(15) Give trend of solubility of carboxylic acids in water. (2016)
(16) Write equation for preparation of acid anhydride. (2016)
OR
(17) How would you convert acetic acid into acetic anhydride?
(18) What are fatty acids? (2017)
(19) Convert acetic acid into ketone. (2017)
(20) How acetic acid can be converted into ethyl alcohol? (2017)
(21) How would you convert acetic acid into ethane?
(22) How would you convert acetic acid into ester?
(23) What is ninhydrin test?
(24) How will you differentiate b/w protein and polypeptide?
(25) How carboxylic acid can be converted into alpha-amino acids?
(26) What is zwitter ion?
(27) Write the formula of aspartic acid & Glycine.
(28) Give uses of acetic acid.
(29) What is vinegar?
(30) Why acetic acid is called Glacial acetic acid?
CHAPTER # 13
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS 44 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
(1) Write three methods for the preparation of Carboxylic acids. (2009)
(2) How would convert acetic acid into the followings: (2011)
(i) Methane (ii) Ethanol (iii) Ethane (iv) Acetic anhydride
(3) Write four methods for the preparation of Carboxylic acids. (2012)
(4) Write the reactions of acetic acid with these: (2013)
(i) Na2CO3 (ii) NaHCO3 (iii) NaOH (iv) Na
(5) What are amino acids? Give examples and write two methods of preparation of amino acids. (2014)
(6) What is Ninhydrin test? What is its application? (2015)
(7) Write the mechanism of reaction b/w Acetic acid and NH3?
(8) What happens when following compounds are heated? (i) Calcium Acetate (ii) Sodium acetate and
soda lime.
Things to remember:
CHAPTER # 14
MACROMOLECULES 45 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
Chapter
(1) What are the differences b/w DNA and RNA? (2008)
DNA & RNA has following differences,
i. DNA has 2-deoxyribose while RNA has ribose sugar.
ii. DNA has four nitrogenous bases which are 1-Cytosine 2-Guanine 3-Adenine 4-thyamine,
whereas RNA has Uracil instead of thyamine.
iii. DNA is double stranded while RNA is single stranded structure.
(2) What is difference between a glycosidic linkage and peptide linkage? (2009)
Glycosidic linkage is present in carbohydrates while peptide linkage is present in proteins.
(3) What are steroids? Write the structure of Steroid nucleus. (2009)
Steroids are naturally occurring lipids. Their parent nucleus has per-hydro-cyclo-pentano-
phenanthreen compound which consist of three six membered rings and one five membered ring.
The ring has total 17 carbon atoms. Its structure is given below.
R
CH3 17
12
11 16
1
CH3 13 Muhammad Shahid
2 9
8
14 15 S.S.E Chemistry
10 Govt. High School No 4
3
5
7
Jauharabad Khushab
4 6
Structure of steroid nucleus
(4) What are polyamides resins? Give the formation Nylon-6, 6. (2010)
Polyamide resins are formed by the polymerization of polyamides with aliphatic dicarboxylic
acid.Nylon-6,6 is the most important polyamide, nylon is used mainly as a textile fiber.
O O O O O O
Heat
NH C CH2 C NH CH2 HN CH3
HO C CH2 C OH + nH2N(CH2)6NH2 H3C C CH2 C NH CH2
6 6
4 -H2O 4 4
n-1
Adipic Acid Hexamethylenediamine Nylon-6,6
(5) Give importance of proteins. (2011)

Importance of proteins
a. Proteins are essential part of protoplasm, which is the essence of all forms of life.
b. Nucleoproteins are complex structure, with nucleic acid they act as carrier of hereditary
material.
c. Some have special functions like, Hemoglobin act as O2 carrier, gelatin is used in the
formation of bakery goods, and Caesein is used to manufacture buttons and buckles.
d. Enzymes are also proteinic in nature, without them life is not possible.
(6) Discuss the effect of temperature and pH on enzyme activity. (2011)
The enzyme reaction occurs best at or around 37 °C which is average normal body temperature.
The rate of chemical reaction is increases with increase in temperature but this is true only over a
limited range of temperature. The enzyme usually destroys at high temperature.
Just like temperature, there is also an optimum pH at which an enzyme will catalyzed the reaction
at the maximum rate. For example the optimum pH of salivary gland is 6.4 to 6.9.
(7) How does Hydrolysis of triglyceride occur to prepare glycerol? (2012)
Triglycerides are easily hydrolyzed to fatty acids and glycerol by an enzyme called lipase,
CHAPTER # 14
H2C O C R H2C OH
O O
HC O C R + 3 H2O HC OH + R C CH3
O
H2C O C R H2C OH
Triglyceride Glycerol Fatty Acids
(8) What do you meant by saponification number? Give example (2012) (2017)
Saponification number can be defined as “The number of milligrams of KOH required to saponify
one gram of the fat or oil. For example saponification number of glycerol tripalmitate is 208.
(9) What are monosaccharides? Give two examples. (2013)
Simple sugars which cannot be hydrolyzed and have empirical formula (CH2O)n are called
monosaccharides. Common examples are glucose and fructose.
(10) How the degree of polymerization helps to determine the molar masses of the polymer? (2013)
Molecular mass of a polymer can be determined with the help of degree of polymerization (D.P).
Molecular mass is the product of the molecular mass of repeating units and the D.P. For example
polyvinyl chloride, a polymer of DP 1000, has molecular mass.
Mol. Mass = Mol. Mass of the repeat unit × DP
= 63 × 1000 = 63000
(11) What is meant by rancidity of fats and oils? (2013)
The spoilage of fats or oils to give foul smell is termed as rancidity of fats and oils. It is due to
oxidative reactions which release foul smelling aldehydes and fatty acids.
(12) Write four points for the importance of lipids. (2014)
Importance of lipids:
i. Lipids are good source of energy.
ii. They have an insulating effect on nervous tissues.
iii. These are essential part of protoplasm and cell membrane.
iv. They are good energy reservoirs in the body.
v. These can act as precursors for different physiological compounds e.g. cholesterol is the
precursor of steroid hormones.
(13) What is meant by thermoplastic polymers? Give example. (2016)
OR
(14) What is PVC? Give example. (2017)
The polymer which can be softened by heating and hardened by cooling repeatedly with a little
change in properties are called thermoplastic polymers, for example PVC pipes plastic toys etc.
(15) What is meant by thermosetting polymers? Give two examples. (2014)
The thermosetting polymers are those which become hard on heating and can’t be soften again.
They decomposes instead of melting, e.g. synthetic varnishes and epoxy resins etc.
(16) What is acid number? (2014).
OR
(17) Define acid number. (2015)
The acid number is actually number of fat or an oil tells the amount of free fatty acids present in
that fat or oil, it can be defined as “The number of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize one
gram of fat is called acid number”.
(18) Give the classification of carbohydrates along with an example of each. (2015)
There are types of carbohydrates.
 Monosaccharides. Its common example is glucose fructose etc.
 Oligosaccharides. Its common example is sucrose, maltose etc.
 Polysaccharides. Its common example is starch, cellulose etc.
CHAPTER # 14
(19) What are lipids? (2015)

These are naturally occurring organic compounds of plants and animals origin. These are soluble in
organic solvents and belongs to a very heterogeneous group of substances. They are utilized by the
living organisms.
(20) Give the classification of Polymers. (2016)
OR
(21) How the polymers may be classified on the basis of variety of polymers?
There are three types of polymers which are:
(i) Homoplymer (ii) Copolymer (iii) Terpolymer. Muhammad Shahid
(22) Define iodine number. Give example. S.S.E Chemistry
OR
Jauharabad Khushab
(23) What is iodine number? (2016)
It tell us the extent of unsaturation in a fat or an oil and can be defined as “number of grams of
iodine which will add to 100 grams of a fat or an oil.
Dependence:-
It depends upon the number of double bonds present in the acid components of glycerides. Those
glycerides which have no double bond have zero iodine number.
(24) Write the structure of amylopectin. (2016)
Amylopectin has following structure.
(25) Give formula of Nylon-6,6. (2016)

Nylon-6, 6 is the most important polyamide, nylon is used mainly as a textile fiber.
O O O O O O
Heat
NH C CH2 C NH CH2 HN CH3
HO C CH2 C OH + nH2N(CH2)6NH2 H3C C CH2 C NH CH2
6 6
4 -H2O 4 4
n-1
Adipic Acid Hexamethylenediamine Nylon-6,6
Define condensation polymerization. Give the equation for the formation of polyester.(2016)
It can be defined as “The type of polymerization in which two functional groups react with each
other which usually involves removal of water molecule”. Polyester formation is an example of
condensation polymerization.
O O O O
n HO C C OH + HO CH2 CH2 OH O C C O CH2 CH2 O

+ 2nH2O
n
Polyester
CHAPTER # 14
(26) What is meant by copolymer?

OR
(27) Define copolymer. Give one example. (2017)
A polymer formed by the polymerization of two monomers is called copolymer.
H2C CH + HC CH CH2 HC CH HC CH2 HC
OCOCH 3 COOBu COOBu OCOCH 3 COOBu COOBu OCOCH 3
Vinyl Acetate Butyl maleate Copolymer
(28) Draw two cyclic forms of glucose. (2017)
CH 2OH CH 2OH
H O H H O OH
H H Muhammad Shahid
OH H OH H S.S.E Chemistry
HO OH HO H Govt. High School No 4
Jauharabad Khushab
H OH H OH
α-D-Glucose β-D-Glucose
(29) What are Epoxy resins? (2017)
The Epoxy resins are fundamentally polyethers but retain their name on the basis their starting
materials and the presence of epoxides group in the polymer. These are made by condesnig
epichlorohydirn with diphenylol propane.
O CH3
H2C CH CH2 Cl HO C OH
CH3
Epichlorohdrin
Diphenylolpropane
(30) Define Homopolymer with example. (2017)
A homopolymer is formed by the polymerization of a single type of monomer. For example the
polymerization of vinyl acetate.
H2C CH CH2 HC CH2 HC CH2 HC

OCOCH 3 OCOCH 3 OCOCH 3 OCOCH 3
Vinyl Acetate Homopolymer (Polyvinyl acetate)
(31) What are macromolecules? Give examples.
These are very large molecules having molecular masses that may be several millions of atomic
units, collectively known as macromolecules. For example lipids, proteins and carbohydrates.
(32) What is degree of polymerization?
The number repeating units in the chain which determines the length of polymer chain is called
degree of polymerization (DP).
(33) How the polymers can be classified on the basis of thermal properties of polymers?
On the basis of thermal properties, the polymers can be classified as
(i) Thermoplastic polymers (ii) Thermosetting polymers.
(34) How will you classify the polymers depending upon the way the polymers are formed?
The polymers classify depending upon the way the polymers are formed i.e.
(i) Addition polymerization (ii) Condensation polymerization
CHAPTER # 14
(35) How polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polystyrene are obtained?

PVC is an addition polymer, which is obtained by the polymerization of vinyl chloride at 52ºC and
9 atm.
n H2C CH CH2 CH CH2 CH
n-1
Vinyl Polyvinyl
chloride Cl chloride Cl Cl
Polystyrene is also an addition polymer, it is prepared by the polymerization of styrene in the
presence of catalyst.
n H2C CH CH2 HC CH2 HC
n-1
C 6H 5 C 6H 5 C 6H 5
Styrene Polystyrene
(36) Name the important monomers of acrylic resins.
The most important monomers of acrylic resins are acrylic acid (CH2=CHCOOH), Acrylonitrile
(CH2=CH-CN), butyl acrylate and methyl-methacrylate.
(37) What are carbohydrates?
Polyhydroxy compounds of aldehydes and ketones are collectively called carbohydrates. These
may be regarded as hydrates of carbon, their empirical formula is Cn(H2O)n or (CH2O)n. These are
commonly known as sugars.
(38) Write down the open chain and cyclic form of glucose.
CHO
H C OH
HO C H CH 2OH CH 2OH
H C OH O H O OH
H H
H C OH H H
OH H OH H
CH2OH
HO OH HO H
Glucose H OH H OH
(α-D-Glucose) Cyclic form (β-D-Glucose)

(39) Write down the open chain and cyclic form of fructose.
CH2OH
C O CH 2OH OH
O
HO C H
H HO
H C OH
OH CH 2OH
H C OH
OH H
CH2OH
Fructose (Open chain) Fructose (Cyclic)
(40) What is starch?
It is most important source of carbohydrates in human balance diet. The major commercial sources
of starch are wheat, rice, maize, potatoes and barley. It is a polymer of α-D-glucose.
(41) How will you distinguish b/w amylose & amylopectin?
Amylose is soluble in water and gives a deep blue colour with iodine whereas amylopectin is
insoluble in water and gives no colour with iodine.
CHAPTER # 14
(42) What is cellulose? What is its structure?

Cellulose is the main structural material of trees and plants. It is polymer of β-D-glucose. In this β-
glycosidic linkages between C-1 of one glucose and C-4 of the next glucose unit.
Muhammad Shahid
S.S.E Chemistry
(43) How proteins are classified?
Jauharabad Khushab
Based on physico-chemical properties, proteins can be classified as
(i) Simple proteins, (ii) Compound or conjugated proteins, (iii) Derived proteins.
(44) What are the characteristics of lipids?
Lipids have following characteristics,
a. Fatty acids and glycerols are building blocks of lipids
b. These are utilized by living organisms.
c. These are insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar solvents like ether, chloroform and
benzene etc.
(45) What are oil and fats?
The most important lipids are oils and fats, they are one of the major source of energy for human
body. The fats are solid triesters of glycerols. The glycerides which have saturated long chain are
tend to be solid or semisolid in nature and known as fats. While oils are liquid triesters of glycerols,
they have long chains of unsaturated glycerides.
(46) What is meant by hardening of oil?
The conversion of unsaturated glycerides (oils) by passing H2 gas through it in the presence of Ni
catalyst to form a semisolid glyceride (fat) is called as hardening of oil.
(47) What are enzymes?
Enzymes can be defined as “The reaction catalysts of biological systems, produced by living cells
and have ability to catalyze a chemical reaction”.
(48) Name the factor which affect the enzyme activity?
Following factors which affect the enzyme activity
(i) Concentration, (ii) temperature, (iii) pH, (iv) Presence of other substances, (v) radiation.
(49) What is the importance of enzymes?
The importance of enzymes is given as following,
a. Enzymes are very important biological components.
b. These help in the diagnosis of different diseases e.g. alkaline phosphatase increases in rickets.
c. They prove very useful as a drug e.g. thrombin is used locally to stop bleeding.
d. These are used for cancer treatment e.g. L-asparaginase has proved very useful in the
treatment of blood cancer in children.
Important Short questions

Q1. Describe two chemical properties of oils and fats. (2009)
Q2. Describe various factors affecting enzyme activity. (2010)
CHAPTER # 15
COMMON CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES IN PAKISTAN 51 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
Muhammad Shahid
Chapter
# 15
Important Short questions S.S.E Chemistry
Jauharabad Khushab
(1) Define cement. Give the average composition of two major components of Portland cement. (2009)
OR
(2) Define cement. Give its essential components. (2013)
Cement is the material obtained by the burning mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials at
sufficiently high temperature to produce clinkers, these clinkers are then ground to a fine powder
with gypsum. Lime (62%) and silica (22%) are two major components of Portland cement. Other
includes gypsum, alumina, magnesia etc.
(3) What is digester in paper industry? Which type of process is used in paper manufacturing in
our country? (2009)
Digester is the main unit of the process. It is usually 10 meters in length and 2 meters in diameter. It
is made of steel and wrought iron. The digestion may batch or continuous. In our country batch
process is mostly used.
(4) Give the reaction of urea formation from CO2 and ammonia. (2009)
Gaseous CO2 is mixed with ammonia in the ratio of 1:2 by volume to produce ammonium
carbamate. Dehydration of ammonium carbamate gives urea.
O
CO 2 + 2NH3 H2N C ONH 4

Ammonium carbamate
O O
H2N C ONH 4 H2N C NH2 + H2O

urea
(5) What are common bleaching agents used in paper industry in Pakistan? (2010)
The common bleaching agents used in paper industry in Pakistan are chlorine dioxide, sodium
hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide.
(6) Define macro and micronutrients with examples. (2011)
Macro-nutrients are those substances which are required by plants in larger amount ranging from 5
kg to 200 kg. e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium etc. While micro-nutrients are those
substances which are required by plants in small amount ranging from 6 grams to 200 grams. e.g.
zinc, copper iron and chlorine etc.
(7) Contrast wet process and dry process for manufacturing of cement. (2011)
Wet process is free from dust, grinding is easier and composition of the cement can easily be
controlled while dry process is cheaper but needs excessive grinding. This process is suitable for
hard materials.
(8) What are fertilizer? Why are they needed? (2012)
These are the substances which are added to the soil to make up the deficiency of essential
elements like nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus. These are required for proper growth of plants.
(9) What are prospect of the cement industry in Pakistan? (2012)
In Pakistan the demand of cement is increasing day by day, efforts were made to build more
factories build and currently 22 cement plants are working in private as well as government sector
which have 9,578,802 metric tons/annum production.
(10) Discuss reaction taking place in first 24 hours during setting of cement. (2013)
OR
(11) Discuss reaction taking place in first 24 hours in cement manufacturing. (2015)
When cement is mixed with water, tri-calcium aluminate absorbs water and forms a colloidal gel.
Gypsum reacts with this gel to form the crystals of calcium sulpho-aluminate.
CHAPTER # 15
(12) What are macro nutrients? Give their name. (2013)

OR
(13) Name macronutrients needed by plants. (2016)
The nutrients which are required by plants in large amount for growth of plants are called
macronutrients. They are ranging from 5 kg to 200 kg. e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium etc.
(14) What are clinkers? (2013)
OR
(15) How clinkers are formed during cement manufacture? (2016)
Raw material (slurry) is introduced into the rotary kiln by a conveyer. The charge is heated in the
rotary kiln by passing through different temperature zones (i) drying or pre-heating zone
(ii) decomposition zone (iii) burning zone (iv) Cooling zone. The resultant product obtained from
the kiln is known as cement clinker.
(16) What do you mean by setting of cement? (2014)
When we mixed cement with water, it absorbs water and the mass becomes hard and very resistant
to pressure. This is known as setting of cement.
(17) What do you mean by dry cleaning in paper manufacturing? (2014)
The dry cleaning in paper manufacturing is an important step. In this process air is blown through
the raw material, which removes unwanted particles.
(18) What is lignin? (2015)
Lignin is an aromatic polymer and causes paper to become brittle. Muhammad Shahid
(19) Write four essential qualities of a good fertilizer. (2015) (2017)
S.S.E Chemistry
OR Govt. High School No 4
(20) Give any two important qualities of fertilizers. (2016) Jauharabad Khushab
OR
(21) What is a need for fertilizers? (2016)
I. The nutrients elements present must be readily available to the plant.
II. It should not alter the pH of the soil.
III. It should be cheap.
IV. It should not injurious to plants.
V. It must be stable so that it should available for longer time for the growing plants.
(22) What are phosphatic fertilizers? Write the formulas of two phosphatic fertilizers. (2017)
These fertilizers provides phosphorus to the plants or soil. Phosphorus is required to stimulate early
growth, to accelerate the seed and fruit formation. It also increases resistance to diseases. The two
most important phosphatic fertilizers are super phosphate (Calcium super phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2)
and triple phosphate (Diammonium phosphate (NH4)2HPO4 commonly known as DAP).
(23) Write the name of four non-wood raw materials. (2017)
OR
(24) Name any four non-woody raw materials used for the preparation of paper. (2017)
The non-woody raw materials are given below
 Wheat straw
 Rice straw
 Cotton silk
 Grasses
 Bamboo
 Kahi grass
(25) What are the important steps for the manufacturing of urea?
Following steps are involved in the manufacturing of urea,
I. Preparation of hydrogen.
II. Preparation of Ammonia.
III. Preparation of ammonium carbamate.
IV. Preparation of urea
V. Concentration of urea.
CHAPTER # 15
VI. Prilling (changes into small granules like structure)

(26) How is diammonium phosphate prepared?
Diammonium phosphate prepared by the reaction of pure phosphoric acid and anhydrous ammonia
at 60-70 ºC and pH 5.8-6.0.
2NH3 + H3PO4  (NH4)2HPO4 + Heat
This is an exothermic reaction. The heat of reaction vaporizes the water and the crystals of
diammonium phosphate are taken out, centrifuged, washed and dried. This contain 75% of plants
nutrient.
(27) Define paper.
Paper is a sheet material made up of network of natural cellulosic fibers which have been deposited
from an aqueous suspension. The product obtained is a network of intertwining fibers.
(28) Name the steps in the manufacturing of cement.
Following steps are involved in the manufacturing of Cement,
I. Crushing and grinding of the raw material.
II. Mixing of the raw material in correct proportion.
III. Heating the prepared mixture.
IV. Grinding the heated mixture known as clinker.
V. Mixing and grinding of cement clinker with gypsum
(29) Why 2% gypsum is added in the cement?
During the manufacturing of cement there is added 2% gypsum, because it increases the setting
time of cement and retard the rapidly setting process, this result in good strength of the mass which
sets.

(1) How urea is manufactured in the industries? Support your answer with two chemical
equations. (2009)
Things to remember:
CHAPTER # 15
CHAPTER # 16
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 55 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
Chapter
(1) What is smog? What are the causes of reducing smog? (2008)
Smog is a combinations of two words, i.e. the smoke and fog. If it contains high content of SO2 it
is called reducing smog. The main cause of reducing smog is combustion of coal because it
produces SO2 which is also produced from volcanoes and burning of other fossil fuels.
(2) Define acid rain or acid deposition. (2009) (2016)
Due to presence of CO2 in the atmosphere the natural rain itself forms carbonic acid (H2CO3). In
the atmosphere the NOX and SOZ changed into their relevant acids, which get mixed with rain
water. The resultant product is called as acid rain or acid deposition.
CO2 + H2O  H2CO3
SO2 + ½ O2 + H2O  H2SO4
(3) What is lithosphere? (2009)
It consists of rigid rocky crust of earth crust. It extends to the depth of 100 km. The mantle and
core are the heavy interior of the earth, making up most of the earth’s mass. The 99.5% of the
lithosphere is made of 11 elements.
(4) What is effect of acid rain on earth? (2009) Muhammad Shahid
Effect of acid rain S.S.E Chemistry
i. It makes the soil and rocks slightly acidic. Jauharabad Khushab
ii. It leach metal ions such as Al, Hg, Pb, and Ca.
iii. These metal ions get accumulate in gills of fishes, and causes health hazards for humans and
birds, when they eat them.
iv. It also damaging the building materials, e.g. tomb of Quaid-a-Azam. Taj-Mahal.
(5) Which nitrogen oxides are air pollutants? How are they produced? (2010)
(6) NO and NO2 are generally called NOX. They are produced by bacterial action, mainly NO. By
human activities these are produced by combustion of coal, oil, natural gas and gasoline
(7) Write the names of treatments for purification of H2O in various stages. (2010)
OR
(8) How raw water is purified, write down steps.
Raw water is purified in the following step.
i. Aeration
ii. Coagulation
iii. Precipitation and removal of solid matter
iv. Water disinfection by chlorine.
(9) Name the components of environment. (2011) (2012)
There are four components of environment.
i. Atmosphere ii. Hydrosphere iii. Lithosphere iv. Biosphere
(10) Why is the ozone layer depleting? (2012)
OR
(11) Write role of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in destroying ozone. (2017)
Chlorofluorocarbons used as refrigerants in air conditioners and aerosol sprays. It slowly diffuses
into stratosphere, where they generate free radical of chlorine, this free radical of chlorine reacts
with ozone, in result the ozone layer is depleted. A single chlorine free radicle can destroy up to
100,000 ozone molecules.
CFCl3  CFCl2 + Cl°
Cl° + O3  ClO° + O2
ClO° + O  Cl° + O2
CHAPTER # 16
(12) What are the main sources of SO2 as air pollutants? (2012)
OR
(13) How is sulphur dioxide is produced by human activities? (2017)
The main sources of SO2 as an air pollutant are following:
Natural source of SO2 is volcanoes and Sulphur containing gases produced by decomposition of
organic matter.
It is also produced by human activities from the combustion of coal, crude oil and other fossil
fuels in petroleum industry and power plants.
(14) What do you meant by aeration of raw water? (2014)
The aeration of water mean the process in which air is passed from the water in order to remove
the dissolved gases such as foul smelling H2S, organosulphur compounds and VOCs (Volatile
organic compounds). Aeration increases the level of dissolve oxygen in water.
(15) How water in the hydrosphere is distributed in different parts? (2014)
The water in the hydrosphere is distributed in different parts in the following way:
Oceans contain 97%, polar ice and glaciers have 2% and 1% is available as fresh water. 69% of
1% is sued in agriculture, 23% in industry, and 8% for domestic purposes.
(16) What do you meant by smog? (2015)
Smog is a combinations of two words, i.e. the smoke and fog. If it contains high content of SO2 it
is called reducing smog. If it contains high content of oxidants like ozone, then it is called
photochemical smog.
(17) How detergents create water pollution? (2015)
Detergents are used extensively at domestic and industrial level as a cleaning agent. Their amount
in waste water is rising day by day, which greatly affect the aquatic life. Because these mobilizes
the bound toxic ions of heavy metals such as Pb, Cd and Hg from sediments into water.
(18) What is COD? (2015)
COD is the abbreviation of chemical oxygen demand. The organic content of water which
consumes oxygen during chemical oxidation is called its chemical oxygen demand
(19) What are the conditions for the formation of smog? (2016)
The following conditions are required for the formation of snog,
i. There must be sufficient NO, hydrocarbons and volatile organic compounds emitted by vehicles.
ii. Sunlight must be present.
iii. The movement of air must be less or stopped so that reactions are not disturbed.
(20) Why “CO” carbon monoxide is highly poisonous gas? (2016)
OR
(21) What is the major health effect of pollutant CO?
Carbon monoxide causes suffocations. It is highly dangerous and poisonous gas, if it is inhaled
for sufficient time it binds with hemoglobin and makes strong bonding as compare to oxygen. It
reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin. In severe cases death may occur.
(22) Define ecosystem. (2016)
It can be defined as “Ecosystem is a smaller unit of biosphere which consist of community of
organisms and their interaction with environment”.
(23) Differentiate between primary and secondary air pollutants. (2017) (Both are given separately)
OR
(24) What are primary pollutants? Give examples. (2015)
The harmful substances which directly mix in the atmosphere from their sources are called
primary pollutants e.g. SO2, CO, CH4, NOX.
(25) What are secondary pollutants? Give examples.
Those pollutants which are formed by the reaction of various primary pollutants are called
secondary pollutants. For example Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Nitric acid HF and PAN
(peroxyacetyl nitrate).
CHAPTER # 16
(26) What are the effects of dumping waste in sea and rivers? (2017)
The dumping of waste material in water has damaged the marine environment and caused health
hazards to human beings.
(27) What is hydrosphere?
All the water bodies (resources) like oceans, rivers, streams, lakes, polar ice caps, glaciers and
ground water are collectively called Hydrosphere.
(28) Why is rainwater naturally acidic?
Due to presence of CO2 in the atmosphere the natural rain itself forms carbonic acid (H2CO3). In
the atmosphere the NOX and SOZ changed into their relevant acids, which get mixed with rain
water and make it acidic in nature.
(29) How water is polluted by livestock waste?
The livestock wastes are being dumped on open land, into sewage, canals or rivers. This makes
the surface and ground water sources polluted. Chemical and bacterial action on this waste causes
various infectious diseases such as dysentery, typhoid and hepatitis.
(30) What is DO?
DO is the abbreviation of dissolve oxygen in water. In water the most important oxidizing agent
is dissolved molecular oxygen (O2). The concentration of which ranges from 4-8 ppm. The
organic matter in water is oxidized with the help of this oxygen. It is a parameter to check the
quality of water. The dissolved oxygen values less than 4 ppm indicates that water is polluted.
(31) What is BOD? How it is measured?
BOD is the abbreviation of biochemical oxygen demand. It is the capacity of organic matter in
natural water to consume oxygen within a period of five days. The value of BOD is the amount of
oxygen consumed as a result of biological oxidation of dissolve organic matter in the sample. The
oxidation reaction is catalyzed by microorganisms which are already present in natural water.
Measurement:
It can be measured experimentally by calculating the concentration of oxygen at the beginning
and at the end period of five days. During this the sealed water sample is maintained in the dark at
constant temperature either at 20 °C or 25 °C.
(32) How COD is measured?
Chemical oxygen demand of water is measured by its direct titration with dichromate ions Cr2O72-
which is a powerful oxidizing agent. The organic matter in water is oxidized, while the remaining
dichromate is determined by volumetric method. Higher value of COD will indicate more
pollution.
(33) What is meant by solid waste management?
Solid waste management is defined as the disposal of domestic, commercial and industrial solids
or semisolid materials. The domestic solid wastes mostly contains papers, vegetables, plastics,
wood, glass, rubber, leather, textile, metals and food wastes.
(34) NOX is a pollutant. Comment on it.
NO and NO2 are represented by NOX. Due to photochemical reactions the NOX are converted into
HNO3 which is carried down in either rain fall or as a dust.
(35) What is leachate?
The ground water and liquid from the waste itself seeps through the landfill. This is known as
leachates. It contains dissolved, suspended and microbial contaminants. It is actually a mixture of
volatile organic acids such as acetic acid, various fatty acids, bacteria heavy metals and different
salts of inorganic ions such as Ca2+.
(36) How oil spillage affecting the marine life?
Sea water is polluted by accidental oil spillage and leakage from cargo oil tankers in sea, pipeline
leakage and leakage from underground storage. This oil spillage affects the marine life severely
often causing death, the light transmission is affected in result the process of photosynthesis is
disturbed.
CHAPTER # 16
(37) What is meant by incineration?

The process in which solid waste is burned at high temperature ranging from 900ºC to 1000ºC is
termed as incineration. This burning reduces the mass of solid waste.
(38) What is meant by depolymerization of plastics?
The depolymerization is a process in which a used plastic is converted back into original
components by chemical or thermal process so that it can be polymerized again to different
products.
(39) What is meant by transformation of plastics?
The transformation is a process in which a used plastic is converted into lower quality substances
which is used latter for the production of other materials.
(40) How pesticides are dangerous to human beings?
Wide spread use of pesticides in order to get larger yield of crop, if not controlled properly, has
adverse effects on human health, when these are ingested by food, drinking water, they cause
health problems such as nausea, dizziness, tremors and blindness. These pesticides have no safe
level, they are dangerous even at very low concentration.
Important long questions

(1) How oil spillage is affecting the marine life? (2009)
(2) Write a note on smog. (2012)
(3) Write a note on incineration of industrial and hazardous waste. (2012)
(4) Why is ozone layer depleting? What will happen when the concentration of ozone will be
decreased? Muhammad Shahid (2012)
OR S.S.E Chemistry
(5) Why is ozone layer depleting? Explain. Govt. High School No 4 (2014)
OR Jauharabad Khushab
(6) Discuss the location of ozone in atmosphere. How ozone layer being depleted? (2017)
(7) What are the main sources from which surface and ground water is polluted? Write only four. (2017)
(8) What is meant by solid waste management? Explain incineration of municipal solid waste.
(9) What is smog? What is oxidizing and reducing smog. Give conditions for the formation of smog.
(10) How flouro-chloro carbons affect the ozone layer?
Things to remember:
Other Good Notes of
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PROFESSOR SERIES

Professor easy notes for

Muhammad Asif Mukhtar (CA & OP)

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or

A-One Professors Academy of Sciences Jauharabad

A Brief introduction of academy:

Important features of notes:

 s-block Muhammad Shahid

(22) Alkali metals give ionic hydrides? (2017)

Important Long questions

(11) Write a short note on role of gypsum in agriculture. (2013) (2016)

(11) What is asbestos? Give its two uses. (2012)

H3BO3 + NaOH  Na2B4O7 + 7H2O Muhammad Shahid

(41) Write the properties of vitreous silica (silica glass).

Important Long questions

(28) How does N2O support the combustion of substances?

Important Long questions

(1) Write three properties of white phosphorus. (2009)

(22) Why iodine has metallic lustre?

Important Long questions

(1) What is sacrificial corrosion? Explain with an example.

(13) Define co-ordination number with an example.(2014)

(24) Name different forms of iron and which is purest? (2017)

Important Long questions

Things to remember: Jauharabad Khushab

Important Long questions

Important Long questions

Important Short questions

(1) Write down the mechanism for the following.

Important Long questions

(1) Explain briefly two possible mechanisms of β-Elimination reactions. (2009)

Important Long questions

Important Long questions

(1) What is peptide bond? Write the formula of dipeptide. (2009)

Important Long questions

(5) Give importance of proteins. (2011)

(19) What are lipids? (2015)

(25) Give formula of Nylon-6,6. (2016)

n HO C C OH + HO CH2 CH2 OH O C C O CH2 CH2 O

(26) What is meant by copolymer?

H2C CH CH2 HC CH2 HC CH2 HC

(35) How polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polystyrene are obtained?

(α-D-Glucose) Cyclic form (β-D-Glucose)

(42) What is cellulose? What is its structure?

Important Short questions

CO 2 + 2NH3 H2N C ONH 4

H2N C ONH 4 H2N C NH2 + H2O

(12) What are macro nutrients? Give their name. (2013)

VI. Prilling (changes into small granules like structure)

Important Long questions

(37) What is meant by incineration?

Important long questions

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