Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Bookl
Sets, relations and
mappings
T.S.BLYTH o E.F.ROBERTSON
University of St Andrews
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521272858
© Cambridge University Press 1984
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
Preface vii
Background reference material IX
l:Sets 1
2: Relations 6
3: Mappings 13
Solutions to Chapter 1 24
Solutions to Chapter 2 37
Solutions to Chapter 3 56
Test paper 1 90
Test paper 2 92
Test paper 3 94
Test paper 4 96
Preface
TSB,EFR
St Andrews
Background reference material
In [2] the author writes mappings on the right, and uses 'one-to-one' for
injective and 'onto' for surjective. In [6] the author uses C for set inclusion
(where we use c). In [7] mappings are written on the right. In [17] the
definition of (partial) order differs from ours in that the axiom of reflexivity
is missing.
1: Sets
We assume that the reader has a basic knowledge of elementary set theory
and we shall use standard (i.e. the most commonly accepted) notation. Thus,
for example, we shall denote the complement of a subset A of a set E simply
by A' except when confusion can occur in which case we shall write CE(A).
If A and B are subsets of E then the difference set AC\B' will be denoted
by A \ B (some authors use A—B), and the symmetric difference set
(A C\B') U (A* C\B) will be denoted by.4 AB.
Some questions in this section are best dealt with using the algebra of
set theory, with which we assume that the reader is familiar. For example,
this includes the distributive laws
A n(Buc) = (A nB)U(A nc)
and
AU(BC\C) = (AUB)n(AU C),
and the de Morgan laws
(AnB)'=A'UB' and (AU B)' =Af HB'.
Other questions, particularly those dealing with set-theoretic identities, are
best dealt with using Venn diagrams.
Other standard notation that we shall employ includes P(iT) for the power
set of E (i.e. the set of all subsets of E); \A\ for the number of elements in
the set A; A x B for the cartesian product of A and B (i.e. the set of ordered
pairs (a, b) with a £A and b€B); and the following for particular subsets
of the number system:
IN = {0, 1, 2,...} for the set of natural numbers;
Z = {..., — 2, - 1 , 0, 1, 2,...} for the set of integers;
<D = {a/b \a,beX,b=£0} for the set of rationals;
1
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
1.13 If A, B, C are sets prove that A n(BU C)C(A HB)U C, with equality if
and only if CCA.
1.14 For sets E, F, G prove, using a Venn diagram, that
(E n F)U (F n G)u (G n E) = (E u F) n(Fu G) r\(G u E).
1.15 Give an example of sets A,B,C,D with
1.16 Given two objects x, y one may define the ordered pair (JC, y) by
(*,JO = {{*},{*,;>}}.
Use this definition to prove that (x,y) = (**, >>*) if and only if x = x* and
j ; = j ; * Prove also that, for every object x,
{*}x {*} = {{{*}}}..
1.17 Prove that if A, B, C are sets with^4 andi? not empty then
1.21 If A, B, C are sets prove, using Venn diagrams, that A \ (BUC) = (A\ B)U
(A \ C) if and only if A A (B U C) = (A AB) U (A A C). Find sets A, B, C
with
A A(BU C) = (A AB)U (A AC);
,4 A (B U C) =£ (A A 5) U 04 A C).
1.22 Let^x,... ,Am be subsets of a set #. Define^, ...,Bm recursively as follows:
1.24 An examination in three subjects algebra (A), biology (B), chemistry (C)
was taken by 41 students. The following table shows how many students
failed the various combinations of subjects.
Subjects A B C A,B A,C B,C A,B,C
No. of failed students 12 5 8 2 6 3 1
How many students passed all three subjects?
1.25 At least 70% of a class of students study algebra, at least 75% study calculus,
at least 80% study geometry, and at least 85% study trigonometry. What
percentage (at least) must study all four subjects?
1.26 Let E be a set consisting of n elements. If X, Y are subsets of E such that the
number of elements in the sets i n r j ' n y j n Y\ X' n Y' are p, q, r, s
respectively, prove that p + q + r + s = n.
In a sixth form of n girls and boys each pupil is either an arts student or
a science student. If the proportion of arts students among the girls is greater
than the proportion of arts students among the boys, show that the proportion
of girls among the arts students is greater than the proportion of girls among
the science students.
1.27 UA = { J C G Z | Qy G Z)x = 2y) and£ = {fl£Z I (3b, cG Z)a = 6b + 10c}
prove that A = B.
1.28 For whichS G {IN, Z, CD, IR, C} are the following statements true?
1: Sets
(c){xGS\x2 = -!} = $.
1.29 Given n G IN defineriZ.= {nx \ x G Z}. Is it true that given nu n2 G IN there
exists m G IN with
1.30 Let .4 =
(a) How many subsets does A have?
(Z>) How many subsets of A contain at least one even integer?
(c) How many subsets of A contain exactly one even integer?
(Hint: consider separately the cases n even, n odd.)
[0] ={...,-2n,-/i,0,?i,
[1] = { . . . , - n + l, l,w +
O3
O2
O 1
on A by
x2 +y2 <4,x>y.
Sketch the graphs of these relations.
2.5 Let the relation p on a set A have the properties
(a) apa for every a E A;
(b) ifapb and bpc then cpa.
Prove that p is an equivalence relation on A. Does every equivalence relation
on A satisfy (a) and (b)l
2.6 Consider the relation R = {(a, b), (a, c), (a, a), (b, d), (c, c)} defined on the
set X = {a, b, c, d}. Find the minimum number of elements of X x X which
must be adjoined to R in order to make R
(a) reflexive;
(b) symmetric;
(c) an equivalence relation.
Answer the same questions for S = {(a, b), (a, c), (a, a), (c, c)}.
2.7 How many different equivalence relations can be defined on the set {a, b, c}l
2.8 Given relations R, S on a set A, define the product relation RS by
(x,y)eRSo(3zeA)((x,z)eS*nd(z,y)eR).
Give an example of relations R, S with RS = SR and an example of relations
is r an equivalence relation?
2.13 Consider the relation ~ defined on € \ {0} by
zi ~ 22 o \Zi\(\z2 \2 4-1) = \z2 \(\Zl\2 + 1).
Prove that ~ is an equivalence relation. If aG IR is such that 0 <a<\,
sketch on the Argand diagram the ~-class of a.
2.14 Consider the relation ~ defined on C \ {0} by
zx~z2<* zxzx(z2 + z2) = z 2 z 2 (zi + zO.
Prove that ~ is an equivalence relation. If a is a non-zero number on the real
axis, give a geometrical description of the ~-class of a.
2.15 Let S = {(x,y) G IR x IR | JC =£ 0,y ¥= 0} and define a relation - on S by
(xuyO-ix^y^ox^iixl - y\) = x2y2{x\ -y\).
(a) Show that ~ is an equivalence relation.
(b) If (a, b) is a fixed element of S show that
y b y a
(x,y)~(a,b)o-=- or - = --.
x a x b
{c) Sketch the ~-class containing (2,1).
2.16 If a is a given real number consider the relation/on IR given by
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
(x,y)ef*>y = x2 +ax+a2.
(a) By considering the graph o f / prove that if A ={xG IR | (x,
then
(i) A = 0 if and only if \a \ > 2/\fa;
(ii) \A | = 1 if and only if \a | = 2/V3;
(iii) | A | = 2 if and only if |<z | < 2/V3.
(Z?) Prove that the relation S defined on IR by
x = y(S)<>x3 — y3 =x~y
is an equivalence relation. Deduce from the above that the £-class of x E IR
consists of
(i) a single element if and only if | x | > 2/\/3;
(ii) two elements if and only if \x | = 2/\/3 or \x \ = l/\/3;
(iii) three elements otherwise.
2.17 (a) Prove that trie relation/? defined on IR by
xRy<>x2 —y2 = 2(y—x)
is an equivalence relation. Determine the R-class of 0 and the /^-class of 1.
(b) The following argument leads to a false conclusion. Explain where it
is incorrect.
Since x2 —y2 = (x + y)(x —y) it follows that if x2 —y2 = 2(y—x) then
(x + y)(x —y) = —2(x —y) and so x + y = —2. Hence the relation S defined
by xSy^x 4- y — — 2 is also an equivalence relation, and from lSl we have
2=-2.
2.18 Let M be a set of mn + 1 positive integers. Let = be the relation on M
defined by
a = b<*a | b,
and let S be the relation on M defined by
aSb <>a^b and b ^ a .
Show that M contains either a subset {ax, a2, . . . , tfm+i) with #,- = 0/+i for
Ki<m or a subsetj^, b2,. ..,bn+1} with bjSbk for ji=k. (Note: this
question is quite hard.)
2.19 Let Au A2,.. .,An be subsets of a set X. For each ^4,-, let A® denoteylf and
let A} denote the complement of Af in X. A constituent of X with respect
1 ? . . .,An is defined to be a non-empty subset of the form
10
2: Relations
where each e,- is either 0 or 1. Prove that the constituents of X are disjoint
and that they partition X.
Suppose now that A, B, C are subsets of X. Write the subset A\(B\C)
as a union of constituents of X with respect to A, B, C. If = is the equivalence
relation defined on X by the partition of constituents, is it possible to have
x = y when x EA \ (B \ C) andj> G {A Pi B) \ C?
2.20 Define a relation p on IR + = {x G IR | JC > 0} by
(a,b)Gp^a-y/(a + 1)<b -\ <a + y/(a 4-1).
Is p reflexive? Is p symmetric? Is p transitive?
2.21 A set contains 1000 elements and is partitioned into m 4- 1 subsets. The
smallest subset in the partition contains n elements, the largest contains
« + m elements, and no two members of the partition contain the same
number of elements. Find all possible positive values of m and n.
2.22 Let£ = {O,.y)GIR x IR | x¥- 0,y =£0}. Define a relation ~ on E by
(x,y)~(a9b)*(xb)2=(ya)2.
Verify that ~ is an equivalence relation. Prove that (x,y) ~ (a, b) if and only
if there is a non-zero real number k such that x = ka, y = ±kb. Sketch the
^-class of the element (2, 1).
11
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
2p< 2qo
(c) the relation < defined by p < q if and only if p = q or p<q
where
[ there is a prime t G E such
(e) /f = {0,{0},{0,
2.27 Draw the Hasse diagram for the set of positive divisors of 210 ordered by
divisibility.
2.28 Let E = {xtj | 1 < / < m , Kj<n) be a set of mn distinct positive real
numbers. For every / € [1, m] define j>z- = max {xtj \ 1 < / < « } , and for
every/ G [1, n] define z;- = min {xy 11< i < m}. Prove that
min {j;,- | 1 < i < m} > max {ZJ | 1 < / < «}.
A regiment of soldiers, each of a different height, stands at attention in
a rectangular array. Of the soldiers who are the tallest in their row, the
smallest is Sergeant Mintall; and of the soldiers who are the smallest in their
column, the tallest is Corporal Max Small. How does the height of Sergeant
Mintall compare with that of Corporal Max Small?
2.29 Let E be a set on which there is defined an order relation <. Let = be an
equivalence relation on E. Suppose that the conditions x = z and x < y < z
together imply that x=y = z for x, y, zGE. Let E={[x]\xGE} and
define a relation R on E by
12
3: Mappings
13
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
injective if and only if every line parallel to the x-axis meets the graph of
/ in at most one point; and / is surjective if and only if every line parallel
to the x-axis meets the graph of / in at least one point. Hence/is bijective if
and only if every line parallel to thex-axis meets the graph of/precisely once.
By way of example, consider the mapping/: \R -> CR given by x ->f(x) =
Ixj where [JC] is defined to be the greatest integer that is less than or equal
to JC. The graph of / i s as shown in Fig. 3.1 (in which each arrow Indicates
a constant value throughout an interval of the form [n,n + 1 [).
Fig.3.1
/(*)•
This mapping is not injective (for example, the linej> = 1 meets the graph
in infinitely many points), nor is it surjective (for example, the line y = \ does
not meet the graph at all). Note, however, that I m / = Z and that /induces
a surjective mapping from [R to Z also given by the prescriptions -> \x\.
3.1 Let S, P, C be the functions from IR to IR given by Six) = x2, P(x) = 2X and
C(x) = cos x. Express each of the following functions/ : IR —> IR in terms
of S, P, C using • and o (where / • g is defined by ( / • g)ix) = /(x)g(x)):
(a) (f)f(x) =
(b) (g) /(x) = cos(cosx) 2 ;
2
(c) /(x) = (cosx) ; (h) fix) = (cos 2COS*)2;
(J) f(pc) = cos x2; (i) /(x) =
(e) f(x) = cos cos x;
3.2 Let X = [R \ {0, 1}. Define^ : X^X for 1< i < 6 by
14
3: Mappings
x-l
A(x) = x, f2(x)=l-x, f3(x) =
x 1—x x—1
Show that/- o ff G {fk | 1 < k < 6} for all ij.
3.3 Let / : [R -• [R be defined by
15
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
3.8 Find the domain and image of the following relations on IR. Are any of
them mappings?
(a) {ix,y)\x2 + 4y2 = l};
(b){(x,y)\x2=y2};
(c) {(x,y)\y>O,y<x,x+y<lh
id) {(x9y)\x2 +y2<\,x>Q}\
00 {(x,y)\y = 2x-l).
3.9 Let/be the subset of <Q x Z given by
/ = {(x,y) I y is t n e least integer withj> >x}.
Determine the domain and image of / Is / a mapping? Answer the same
question for the subset of Z x Q given by
/ = {(x,y) I x is the least integer withx >y}.
3.10 Sketch the function/: [R -> [R given by
= 11*-II-II.
3.11 If / : m -+ [R is defined by
f(x) = 2x2 + 6x + l
determine the set {x G [R | fix) < x + 5}.
3.12 Let / : [R -> [R. Show that there exist mappings g, h : [R -> IR such that
f = g + h with £(x) = g(-^:) and /z(x) = - A ( - J C ) for allx G IR.
3.13 Let/,g : [R -> IR be given by
fix) = ix + \)2, gix) = 2x-L
Determine the mappings fog,gof and the set
16
3: Mappings
determine Im d.
3.15 Sketch the subset S of IP x IP given by
S = {(x9y)\\x\ + \y\>\ and x2+y2<\).
If the mapping / : S -» IR is given by
determine I m /
3.16 Let S= {(x,y)G IP x IR \x2+y2- 10x4-16 = 0) and let / : S-> IR be
given by
y
x
By considering this mapping geometrically, determine I m /
3.17 Let S= {(x, y)e\R x IP | x 2 4 / -6x- 8y 4 21 = 0) and let / : £ - * IR
be given by
17
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
3.20 If X and Y are sets denote by Yx the set of all mappings from X to Y. Show
that, for all sets A, B and C, it is possible to find a bijection between
(a) (AxB)cmdAcxBc;
(b) (A ) and A x ;
(c) ABUC mdABxAc if B nC=ty.
If there is a bijection between ABUC and AB x Ac is it necessary for B n C
to be empty?
3.21 Describe explicitly a bijection
0 ) from [0,1] to [1,2];
(b) from [0, l ] t o [0,2];
(c) f r o m ] - l , l [ t o IR;
(d) from [0, l ] t o [0,1 [;
(e) from [ - 1 , l ] t o IR.
(Hint: for (d) consider a map that acts as the identity map except on some
set of rationals.)
3.22 The functions/: IR -> IR andg- : IR -> IR are defined by
' Ax 4- 1 if x '..
x if x
3x if x>0;
1x4-3 if x < 0.
Show that g of is a bijection and give a formula for (g of)'1. Show also
t h a t / o #• is neither injective nor surjective.
3.23 The functions/: IR -> IR and# : IR -> IR are defined by
(f 1l - x; if x > 0 ;
I Xx2 if x < 0,
x if x>0;
\x - 1 if x < 0.
Find a formula for / o g and draw its graph. Show t h a t / o g is a bijection
and find its inverse.
Find also a formula forg-o /and draw its graph. Show thatg o / i s neither
injective nor surjective.
3.24 L e t / : IR -> IR be given by
f(x) = x\x\.
18
3: Mappings
Prove that / is injective and find two distinct mappings g, h : IR + -> IR+ such
a bijection?
3.28 Prove that if IN* = IN \ {0} then the m a p p i n g / : IN* -> Z given by
1=1 !</
19
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
Let A and B be finite sets with \A\= m and \B\ = n. How many mappings
are there from A to Bl How many injections are there from A to Bl Show
that there are
surjections from A to B.
3.31 Give an example of non-empty sets A, B and C with the property that there
are injections
Sketch the graph of/. Find an interval^ = [—k9 k] on the x-axis such that
(a) \f(x) \xE.A) = Im/;
(b) g : A -* Im/given by g(a) =f(a) for every a GA is a bijection.
Obtain a formula forg-"1 : Im/-» A
3.33 Sketch the graph of the function/: IR -> IR given by
A.)-1
I ( 2 ) if x<0,
is a bijection, and find its inverse.
20
3: Mappings
21
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
22
3: Mappings
23
Solutions to Chapter 1
1.1 Each of the statements is true. Since 0 is a subset of every set we have 0 C A.
From the definition of A we see that 0GA and {0}GA, and these give,
respectively, {$}CA and {{0}}CA Since 0 and {0} are elements of A it
follows that {{0}, 0 } C A Finally, {{0}, 0}={0, {0}} is, by definition, an
element of A.
1.2 The only subset of 0 is 0 and so P(0) = {0}. It follows that P(P(0)) = {0, {0}}.
Finally,
P(P(P(0))) = {0,{0},{{0}},{0,{0}}}.
13 The subsets of E = {1, {1}, 2, {1, 2}} are
0, {1}, {{1}}, {2}, {{1,2}}, {1,{1}}, {1,2}, {1, {1,2}},
«1},2}, {{1}, {1,2}}, {2, {1,2}}, {1,{1},2}, {{1},2,{1,2}},
{1,{1},{1,2}}, {1,2, {1,2}}, E
From this list we see that E n ?(E) = {{1}, {1, 2}}.
1.4 Four examples are
0, {0}, I0,{0}}, {0,{0U0,{0}}).
7.5 Yes. For example, take A = 0, B = {0} and C = {0, {0}}.
1.6 (a) False; consider, for example,^ = {1},B = {2}, and C = {{I}}.
(b) False;consider^ = {l},£ = {2},C = A
(c) False; considers = {1},£= {{1}, 1},C= {{1}, 2}.
(d) False;consider^ =B = C={1}.
(e) False; consider A = {1},B,= {1, 2}, C= {{1, 2}, {1}}.
(/) False; consider^ = {1, 2},B = {2, 3}, C= {2, 4}.
(g) False; consider A = {!},£ = {0}, C = {2}.
24
Solutions to Chapter 1
= A'U(BUA')'
= A'U(B'nA)
= (A'UB')n(A'UA)
= (A'UB')nX
= A'
f
1.9 The expression (A nB')U(A HB) is none other than A AB. The Venn
diagram for A A B is as shown in Fig. Sl.l.
Fig.Sl.l
25
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
Fig.S1.2
Fig.S1.3
(d) The Venn diagram for A A (B O C) is shown in Fig. SI.4 and that for
(AAB)D(AA C) is shown in Fig. SI .5.
26
Solutions to Chapter 1
Fig.S1.4
Fig.S1.5
i.e. if and only if A n B C C and A PiCCB, which is the case if and only if
A n B = A n c.
7J7 We have
Also,
I B) | 041 5) = CE(A n 5) | CE{A n 5)
= AC)B,
27
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
and
= CECE{A UB) = CE(CE(A) n CE(B))
= CE(A) I CE(B)
= (A\A)\(B\B).
1.12 {A,B} = {C, D} implies (i) A = C and B = D,ox (ii) A = D and B = C. In
case (i), ^ O 5 = C n i ) ; and in case (ii), APiB = DC)C=C(~)D. Argue
similarly for U.
1.13 We have A n(BU C) = (A DB)U (A DC) the right hand side of which is
contained in (A O B) U C since i O C C C If now C C A then ,4 n C = C
and we have equality in the above. Conversely, if the equality^ fi(5UC) =
(A C\B)U C holds then since the left hand side is contained in A and the
right hand side contains C we have that CCA.
1.14 As is readily verified, each side of the equality is represented by the Venn
diagram shown in Fig. SI .6.
Fig.S1.6
} = {**} and{*,;;}={
= x* and>> =y*,
so the result holds in this case.
28
Solutions to Chapter 1
=7* =x(=y).
This establishes the result in this case. The only other case to consider is
that in whichy* = x*9 and this is similar to the case in whichy — x.
Finally, we have
{x} x {x} = {(x9 x)} = {{{x}, {x, x}}} = {{{x}}}.
1.17 If A =B = C then clearly (A xB) U {B x A) = Cx C Conversely, suppose
that this equality holds and let aGA and bGB. Since (a, b) belongs to
the left hand side, it belongs to the right hand side, s o c G C and b EC.
Thus A C C and B C C. However, if xGC then (x, x)ECxC, so either
(x, x)GA x B or (x, x)GBx A. In either case, xGA a n d x G B from which
we conclude that C = A and C = B.
1.18 Observe that
XC\Y = X\(X\Y).
1.19 IfX, YE & then (X\Y)\(Y \X)G(J^°)°. But clearly
Thus ^
Consider now &= {X, 7, Z} where X = {1,2}, Y = {2, 3, 4}, andZ = {4}.
We have
^o = { { 1 } ) { i 5 2},{4},{2,3},{3,4},0}.
Since (e^"0)0 contains {2} and^" 0 does not, the desired inequality follows.
1.20 (a) True;for
29
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
1.21 The Venn diagrams for A\(BUC) and (A\B)U(A\C) are shown in
Figs. SI.7 and SI.8, respectively.
Fig,S1.7
Fig.S1.8
Fig.S1.9
30
Solutions to Chapter 1
Fig.Sl.10
7.22 Assume, without loss of generality, that / < / . From the definition we have
Bi CAt and Bj=Aj \ UfetiAk. Now BfCAi C UfclV** so jfy ££,- and it
follows that 5 / 0 ^ = 0.
Since Bt CA( for every i, we have U ^ ^ f C UfLiAf. Now let x G UgL^,-.
Let ^ be the least integer such that x G i f and x^At for z <t. Then xGBt
and so x G UJ^i^/, showing that UgL^/ C U ^ ! ^ .
7.25 Consider the subset of 5 given by X = B\A. Clearly, X n ^ 4 = 0 and
I U i = 5 , so a subset with the given properties exists. To show that it is
unique, let Y be a subset of B with these properties. Since YC\A = 0 we
have that YCB\A. But 7D ( 7 U ^ ) \ ^ = B\A whence we have that
Y = X.
1.24 Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the given information, putting numbers
in the appropriate places to indicate the failures (see Fig. Sl.l 1).
31
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
Fig.Sl.ll
From the diagram we see that the number of students who failed in any
of the subjects is 15. Consequently 41 — 15 = 26 passed in all three subjects.
1.25 Let A, C, G, T signify algebra, calculus, geometry and trigonometry respec-
tively, and let \X\ denote the number of students who study subject X.
Assume, without loss of generality, that there are 100 students in the class.
Then from the fact that
\A orB\ = \A\ + \B\-\A and£|
we have, from the information given,
\A andC| = | ^ | + | C | - | i 4 o r C |
> 70 + 75 - 1 0 0 = 45,
\GdndT\ = \G\ + \T\-\GoiT\
> 80 4- 85 - 1 0 0 = 65.
Consequently we have that
\A and C and G and T\
= \A andCI + \G and T\ - \(A andC) or(G and T)\
> 45 + 65 - 1 0 0
= 10.
A Venn diagram illustrating this minimum percentage of 10 is shown in
Fig. SI.12.
1.26 For each subset A of E let \A\ denote the number of elements in A. We
make use of the formula
32
Solutions to Chapter 1
Fig.Sl.12
T
—i
20
15 10 30
25
Arts xn Y XHY'
33
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
34
Solutions to Chapter 1
= Z 0*-O=
35
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
1.32 One must treat separately the cases where (x 4- l)(x — 4) > 0 ar
(x + l)(x — 4) < 0. The given set can be expressed as A U B where
A = {x G IR | (x + 1)(JC - 4) > 0}
O {x G IR I (JC + l)(x - 4) > -4},
B={xe\R |(X + 1 ) ( J C - 4 ) < 0 }
n {* G IR | (x + l)(x - 4) < -4}.
Now
A={xG\R |(JC + 1 ) ( J C - 4 ) > 0 }
= {*GIR |JC<-1}U{JCGIR |JC>4}
= ]-oo,-l[U]4,oo[,
and similarly
B={xG\R | (JC + 1)(JC — 4) < —4>
= {JCG IR U 2 - 3 J C < 0 }
|JC(X-3)<0}
36
Solutions to Chapter 2
Fig.S2.1
o—l — x<y< 1 —x
we see that the graph is as shown in Fig. S2.2.
37
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
Fig.S2.2
(b) 2x2 + 3xy -2y2<0 if and only if (2x ~y)(x + 2y) < 0, which is
the case if and only if either 2x — y > 0 and x + 2y < 0, or 2x — y < 0 and
JC 4- 2y > 0. The required graph is therefore as shown in Fig. S2.3.
Fig.S2.3
y - 2x
38
Solutions to Chapter 2
Fig.S2.4
y=x
(d) The various inequalities are satisfied by the points (x,y) contained
in the region indicated in Fig. S2.5.
Fig.S2.5
39
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
Fig.S2.6
2.3 The graphs of R and S are depicted in Fig. S2.6 in which those points (a, b)
that belong to the graph of R are denoted by (•) and those that belong
to the graph of S are denoted by X •
2.4 The graph of Rx is shown in Fig. S2.7 and that of R2 is shown in Fig. S2.8.
Fig.S2.7
-10
2.5 Property (a) is clearly the reflexive property. To prove that p is symmetric,
suppose that apb. Combining this with the fact that bpb (from (a)), we
obtain from (b) that bpa. As for transitivity, suppose that apb and bpc. By
(b) we have cpa, whence ape since we have shown that p is symmetric. Thus
apb and bpc together imply that ape, so p is transitive, and hence is an
equivalence relation on A
40
Solutions to Chapter 2
Fig.S2.8
y-
y =x
41
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
of two classes; and only one with a partition consisting of three classes.
These are depicted in Fig. S2.9.
(•b) [cm)
42
Solutions to Chapter 2
43
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
we deduce that
b _d _ /
2 2
7 ~7~7 '
whence e2b = a2fand hence (a, b)p(e,f). Thus p is an equivalence relation.
Now, since
4*aW
C I
2
- - - x
~ c2 •
Thus we see that each a-class consists of a pair of parabolae, one of these
being above the x-axis and the other consisting of its reflection in the x-axis
(with, as before, the point ( 0 , 0) deleted). Hence each a-class consists of
two p-classes.
Finally, r is not an equivalence relation on IR x IR since, for example,
we have ( 1 , l ) r ( 0 , 0) and (0, 0 ) r ( 0 , 5), but ( 1 , 1), (0, 5) are not r-related.
2.13 That ~ is reflexive and symmetric on € \ {0} is immediate from the definition.
To show that ~ is transitive, let z x ~ z 2 and z 2 ~ z 3 . Then we have
|Z 1 | 2 + 1 = | Z 2 1 2 + 1 _ | Z 3 | 2 + 1
1*1 I 1*2 I 1*3 I
from which we see that zx~ z3.
If now a E IR is such that 0 < a < 1 we have, writing z = x 4- iy, that
44
Solutions to Chapter 2
o (x2 + y2-a2)(a2x2 + aV - 1 ) = 0
Fig.S2.10
2.14 Observe first that for zG(C\{0} we have zz — |z| 2 =£0. Consequently we
can write
zx + zi z2 + z 2
z2z2
from which it is easy to see that ~ is an equivalence relation.
If now a is a non-zero number on the real axis we have, writing
z — x + iy,
2x 2a 2
x'+y" a' a
+y22 =ax
_
Thus the ~-class of a is a circle with centre at the point ($a, 0) and of radius
^ ( F i g . S2.ll).
45
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
Fig.S2.11
46
Solutions to Chapter 2
(c) We have
y i y
- = - or
- = -
x 2 x
so the ~-class of (2, 1) can be described geometrically as the perpendicular
line-pair y = \x, y = — 2x with the origin deleted (since (0, 0)&S). See
Fig.S2.12.
Fig.S2.12
y = -2x\
2.16 (a) Use calculus to sketch the graph of / (Fig. S2.13). The minimum
value of x2 4- ax + a2 is attained when 0 = 2x + a, i.e. when x = —\a. The
minimum value is then \a2.
Fig.S2.13
V-
-ia X
Al
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
if |JC| > 2 / V 3 .
(ii) The S-class of x consists of two elements if and only if either the
equation x2 +xy +y2 = \ has only one solution (which is the case precisely
when \x\ = 2/\/3), or if the equations y —x and x2 + xy + y2 — 1 have
a solution in common (which is the case precisely when |JC| = l/\/3).
(iii) The S-class of x consists of three elements otherwise.
2.7 7 (a) We have that
xRy o x2 + 2x = y2 + 2y,
from which it is immediate that R is an equivalence relation on IR. Since
so thei?-class of 1 is {1,-3}.
(b) The given argument breaks down at the point where cancellation by
x — y takes place. This step is valid only when x — y ¥= 0. In fact the relation
S is far from being an equivalence relation since, for example, we have xSx
if and only if x = —1.
2.18 Suppose that M contains no subset {bx, b2,..., bn+1} ofn + 1 elements with
48
Solutions to Chapter 2
the property that bjSbk for / =£ k. Let B be the subset of M consisting of the
n-\-\ smallest integers in M. There must be a smallest bnEB such that
bn divides some element of B. Replace bn inB by the next smallest element
of M and place bn into a set ^4X. Again there is a least element b inB which
divides some other element of B. lfbn = b then denote b by bn and put it
into Ax\ if bn^b then denote b by Z?2i and put it into a set^ 2 - Now add to
B the next smallest element of M and continue the process.
Note that at most n sets Ai,A2,.. -,An can be built up in this way since
each time we remove an element b from B we leave an element b G B with
b = b and at this stage B contains n elements.
Since M contains mn + 1 elements, one of the subsets At must contain
at least m 4-1 elements when the process is complete. If this subset is
{au a2,..., am + 1} then by its construction we have at = ai+i for 1 < i < m.
2.19 Let U, V be distinct constituents. Then there is an At with^4f appearing in
U and Af appearing in V. Then UCAt and VQA\ and so
E/Ti VCAt r\A't = 0,
whence the constituents are pairwise disjoint. Consider now any J C G I
Either x E^4X or x G^4[; and either XELA2 OV X GA[', and so on, so for each
/ there is an e/E{0, 1} with xEAp. Thus x belongs to some constituent
and the constituents partition X.
The Venn diagram for A \(B\C) is as shown in Fig. S2.14.
Fig.S2.14
49
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
50
Solutions to Chapter 2
\a b )\a b,
which is the case if and only if
x y x y
—= - or —= .
a b a b
Writing x/a = k, these equations can be written in the form x — ka,y — ±kb,
which is of course the line-pair j> = ±(b/a)x.
The ~-class of (2, 1) is represented in Fig. S2.15 as a line-pair with the
origin deleted.
Fig.S2.15
2,1)
51
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
Thus the = -class of (1, m) consists of the line-pair y = mx, y = x/m with the
origin deleted (Fig. S2.16). The equivalence class containing a general point
(a, b) is the same as that containing the point (1, m) where m = b/a.
Fig.S2.16
Since we can assume that 1 < / : < # + b and 1 < k' < a + b, this gives k = kf
as required.
If a, b fail to be coprime then by definition each fk is a multiple of
d = hcf(#, b) and the set of fk does not form a complete set of representa-
tives, since the class of 1 contains no integer divisible by d and hence no
fk. In this case there exists c such that ac = d (mod a + b) so that, modulo
a + b, d =fc. It follows that pd =)^c ( m °d 0 + £) and hence every multiple
of d is some fk (mod 0 + b).
2.25 (a) See Fig. S2.17.
52
Solutions to Chapter 2
Fig.S2.17
• 10
Fig.S2.18
2«
Am
6J
8«
\0m m 1
9m
lm
si
A
(c) See Fig. S2.19.
Fig.S2.19
• 6 • 10
53
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
• • •
(e) \E\ = 3 so \?(E)| = 2 3 = 8. Hasse diagram : |\/
<i
2.27 The set of prime factors of 210 is {2, 3, 5, 7}, and there are 16 positive
divisors, as shown in the Hasse diagram (Fig. S2.20).
Fig.S2.20
• 210
54
Solutions to Chapter 2
By definition, yt is the greatest element in the zth row; and Zj is the least
element in the /th column. Thus we have
It follows that, for all/, min {j>z- | 1 < i < m > zj and hence that
min {yt | 1 < / < m\ > max {ZJ \ 1 < / < « } .
Applying the above argument to the problem of the soldiers, it is clear
that Sergeant Mintall is taller than Corporal Max Small.
2.29 It is immediate from x <x that [x\R [x\, so thatR is reflexive. Suppose now
that [x]i?[j>] and [.y]i?[x]. Then for every aE. [x] there exists b E [y]
with a<b; and for every bf E [j>] there exists 0' E [x] such that b' <a .
Taking b'= b and using the given property, we obtain a = b and hence
[x] — [y]. Thusi^ is anti-symmetric. Finally, if [Jt]/?[.y] and [.y]Z?[z] then
for every 0 E [x] there exists b E [y] with a<Z?, and for every b E [j;]
there exists c E [z] with b < c. Thus, for every 0 E [JC] there exists c E [z]
such that a<c, whence [x]7^[z] and R is transitive. Thus R is an order
relation on E.
55
Solutions to Chapter 3
5.7 (a) PoC;(b)Co />; (c) SoC;(d)Co S; (e) C o C; (/) C o [i> • (P o C)];
(?)CoSoC;(/i)5
(POS).
3.2 We have, for example,
/ 1 \ 1—x
(f6°fs)(x)=f6 =—
\ 1—xI 1
-1
1-JC
l-(l-jc)
/l h k h u fs fe
k h /i U h h fs
h h U fs h fx U
h U fs h h h h
fs fs n fx h h k
f6 h h h fs u /l
56
Solutions to Chapter 3
57
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
For a general (a, b) ^ ( 0 , 0) we have that (x, >>) belongs to the ify-class of
(a, b) if and only if
x _ a y b
2 2 2 2
y/(x +y )~y/(a +b ) ™ V(* + / ) ~V(^ + ^ 2 ) '
2 2
These conditions give j / x = &/# where x, a have the same sign andj, b have
the same sign. This last equation may be written y = (b/a)x. We conclude
that the Rf -class of (a, b) is the half-line from (but excluding) the origin
which passes through (a, b). For (a, b) = (0, 0) the ify-class is the singleton
/ ^
58
Solutions to Chapter 3
(d) x-2<y<x + l
(i) See Fig. S3.4.
(ii) The domain is IR.
The image is IR.
(iii) It is not a mapping.
59
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
Fig.S3.6
(i) See Fig. S3.6.
(ii) The domain is IR.
The image is IR.
(iii) It is a mapping.
(h) x + | j ; | = l Fig.S3.8
(i) See Fig. S3.8.
(ii) The domain is {x E IR | x < 1}.
The image is IR.
(iii) It is not a mapping.
60
Solutions to Chapter 3
Fig.S3.9
(i) See Fig. S3.9.
(ii) The domain is [—1, 1].
The image is [—1, 1].
(iii) It is not a mapping.
Fig.S3.10
(i) See Fig. S3.10.
(ii) The domain is [—1, 1].
The image is [—1, 1].
(iii) It is not a mapping.
-l l x
\ :
61
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
2
3.8 (a) x + 4y2 = 1 (Fig. S3.12) Fig.S3.12
The domain is [—1, 1]. y
The image is [—\, \
It is not a mapping.
(b) x2=y2(Fig.S3A3)
The domain is IR.
The image is IR.
It is not a mapping.
(c) Fig.S3.14
(Fig. S3.14)
The domain is [0, 1].
The image is [0, \\.
It is not a mapping.
62
Solutions to Chapter 3
(d) Fig.S3.15
(Fig. S3.15)
The domain is [0, 1],
The image is [—1, 1].
It is not a mapping.
63
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
Fig.S3.20
64
Solutions to Chapter 3
Fig.S3.21
y'
-l
Fig.S3.22
3.11 We have
2x2 4- 6x + 7 < x + 5 o 2x2 + 5x + 2 < 0
65
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
g + h=f. Moreover,
g(-x) = \[f(-x)+f(x)]=g(x)9
3.13 We have
f[g(x)]=f(2x-l) =
g[f(x)] =g[(x + I) ] = 2(x + I)2 - 1 = 2x2 + Ax + 1,
2
and so
/ [g(x)] = g [f(x)] * 2x2 - Ax - 1 = 0
-l
66
Solutions to Chapter 3
67
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
3.18 (a) Injective, since 7x\ + 1 = 2x2 + 1 implies xx = x2. Not surjective: for
example, ^ G 5 = (D but there is no x E Z with/(x) = \.
(b) Injective since (xx — 1, 1) = (x2 — 1, 1) impliesxl = x2. Not surjective:
for example, n o x G Z maps to (0, 0).
(c) Injective, in fact
x\ —x\ =(x1 — x2)(xl + xlx2 +x\)
and so if x\ = x\ we must have either Xi = x2 or x\ + X\X2 + x\ = 0, and
the only solution to the latter equation in IR is xx = x2 = 0. Also surjective:
given anyj G 5 = IR we have/Xjy173) = y.
(d) Not injective: for example,/(I) = / ( i ) = 1. Not surjective: there is
no c E C such that/(c) = —1 since |c| > 0 for all c E (D.
(e) Not injective: for example, /(0) =/(TT). Surjective; probably the best
way to prove this is to use continuity : the function * ->x sin x is continuous
and, given any k E IR we can find xx E IR with f(xi) > A: (take for example
= 2rii7T + \n > /:), and x 2 E IR with (take for example
*2 = 2«27T + 2n < /:), whence by continuity/(x) takes the value k.
(/) Not injective: for example, / ( l ) = / ( 0 ) = 0. Surjective; in fact the
graph of/is as shown in Fig. S3.28, from which we see that every line parallel
to the x-axis cuts the graph at least once.
Fig.S3.28
/(*)'
(g) Not injective: for example, /(0) =/(—1) = 1. Not surjective: for
example, there is no x E IR such that JC 2 +JC + 1 = 0.
3.19 (a) H yGf(A HB) then J ; = / ( J C ) for some xGACiB. From x<EA we
have y E/(y4); and from x <EB we havej> E / ( £ ) . Hence y €f(A) C\f(B).
68
Solutions to Chapter 3
69
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
3.21 (a)
(b) x -> 2x.
(c) Let A be the point (1, —1) and let B be the point (—1, 1). For
XiG [0, 1[ let f(xi) be the point of intersection on the j>-axis of the line
through A and Xi\ and for x2 €=] —1, 0] let/(x 2 ) be the point of intersection
on the j-axis of the line through B and x2. This describes a bijection / :
]—1, 1 [-> IR; as is readily verified, for^xE [0, 1 [ we have/(xi) = # i / ( l — Xi)
and forx 2 G ] - l , 0] we have/(x 2 ) = x2l(l + x2). See Fig. S3.29.
Fig.S3.29
B 14 \
\
\
\
-1
-1 » \A
70
Solutions to Chapter 3
Fig.S3.30
0 i
(e) Note that in (d) the formula for / can be extended to negative values
of x thereby providing a bijection from [—1, 1] to ]—1, 1 [. Composing this
with the bijection in (c), we obtain a bijection from [—1, 1] to IR.
Fig.S3.31
71
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
Since each line parallel to the x-axis meets the graph exactly once it
follows that g o / is a bijection. The graph of (g o f)'1 is the reflection in
the line y = x of the graph ofgof It is immediately seen from this that
_t ( x-3 x<3;
l^(x-3) x>3.
As for/o^, we have
, /(3x) x>0;
f[g(x)] = l
13 -3<x<0;
It is clear from this that fog is neither injective nor surjective (since
there are lines parallel to the jc-axis that meet the graph more than once,
and others that do not meet the graph at all).
3.23 Applying the formulae we have
x>0;
fix-I) JC<0,
l-x x>0;
2
(x-l) x<0.
The graph o f / o g is therefore as shown in Fig. S3.33.
72
Solutions to Chapter 3
Fig.S3.33
Since each line parallel to the x-axis meets this graph precisely once, it
follows that / o g is a bijection. The formula for ( / o g)'1 is
l-x x<l;
l—y/x x>\.
As for g o / we have
1gO- -x) x>0;
2
g(x ) x<0,
—x x>l;
= . l-x 0<JC<1;
x2 x<0.
The graph of g o
n 5 as shownin Fig. S3.34.
Fig.S3.34
73
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
Since every line parallel to the jc-axis meets the graph exactly once, / is
a bijection.
For x > 0 we have y = x2 and so x = \Jy\ and for x < 0 we have j> = — x2
and so x = —y/{—y). Hence/" 1 is given by
Vx if
74
Solutions to Chapter 3
g is not surjective : for example, the line j> = —1 does not meet the graph.
g is not injective : for example, the line>> = 1 meets the graph twice.
Hence g is not a bijection.
3.25 In general, the cubic x -> x3 + ax2 + bx 4- c has a graph of the form shown
in Fig. S3.3 7.
Fig.S3.37
fix)
75
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
we can consider
0 if x=0 or > 1;
1) if 0«< x < l .
x 1
1 if x=0 or
h(x) =
~-l| if 0 < J C < 1.
3.27 The graph of / is as shown in Fig. S3.38. Clearly, every line parallel to the
x-axis meets the graph precisely once, so / is a bijection. The derivative
Fig.S3.38
fix)
f of/is given by
0 1 - 1 2 - 2 3 - 3 . . .
which suggests that/is a bijection whose inverse is given by
76
Solutions to Chapter 3
[ 2m if m>0;
=
if m<0.
Now with this definition of/"1 we have
2m
I (-l))2mlm} if m>0;
J U V/'vJ \, 1>v2|m I+11 I T ^* r\
\y—1) |W2| II YYl ^s U,
m if m\
-\m\ if m:
= m.
Consequently we see that / o / - i = i d z and so / i s certainly surjective. Since
/ is clearly injective by definition, it follows that / is indeed a bijection with
Z"1 as described above.
3.29 Since g(x) = 3 + 4x the formula ^ ( x ) = (4n - 1 ) + 4wx certainly holds for
n = 1. For the inductive step, suppose that gn(x) = (4n — 1)4- 4nx. Then
gn + l(x)=g[gn(x)] = 3 4- 4[(4" - 1 ) + 4nx]
A _L yl^ "Mv
- 1 ) + 4 W+1 JC.
For the last part, we have
1
4"
= 4-"x + ( 4 " " - l ) ,
whence we see that the formula holds also for negative integers n.
3.30 For n = 1 the formula is trivial, and for n = 2 it reads
For the inductive step, suppose that the result holds for n subsets. Then
using the result for two subsets we have
[H + l \ I n
I = (lU/
* ii+ii n +l
/=i
77
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
Using the formula again, this last component (which is a union of n sets)
can be written
l p<q
which, when taken with the other terms, gives the required formula for
n 4- 1. This completes the inductive step.
\i \A\ — m and \B\ = n then in defining a mapping from A t o B we have,
for every element xofA,n choices of image in B. Thus there aren m mappings
from A to B.
Suppose now that A = {ax, a2,..., am) and that / : A ->B is an injection.
There are « possible images of 0l9 then « — 1 possible images of #2> and so
on. Hence there are
n\
n(n- \)(n - 2) • • • (n - m + 1) = —
ml
injections from A to B.
To determine the number of surjections, let A = {ai,a2, • • -,tfm} and
5 = {Z?l5 b2, •. •, * w } . For each ^ G 5 let
78
Solutions to Chapter 3
Fig.S3.39
if }
y
o if y = 0,
or that
if
0 if y = 0.
The first possibility is excluded since, fory E [—1, 1], we have
- ? [-2, 2].
79
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
Fig.S3.40
fix)
3.34 Note from the definition of / that /(ft) is divisible by p if and only if n is
divisible by p. Thus if/(ft^ = f(n2) then either /(fti) is divisible by p, in
which case n1 =f(n1) — p z=f(n2) — p = n2, or /(fti) is not divisible by
p, in which case nx = /(fti) = f(n2) = n2. Hence/is an injection.
To show that / i s also surjective, suppose that fcG Z. If k is not divisible
by p then f(k) = k\ and if A: is divisible by p then so is k—p whence f(k—p) =
(k — p) + p = k. Hence / i s a surjection.
As for/" 1 : Z ->• Z, this is given by
80
Solutions to Chapter 3
= 1+ X //+/„
1
1=1
whence it also holds for n + 1.
(e) The result is clearly true for n = 1. Assume by way of induction that
the result holds for n, so that fn^xfn+1 —f\= (—1)". Then we have
fnfn + 2 ~fn + l ~ fnifn ~*~fn + l) ~~fn + l
=
fn +fnfn + l ~fn + l(fn + fn—l)
81
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
— f2 f f
i ~ J+ l J l
= 2(1+V5) f c -2(1-V5) f c
+ 4(1 + V5) fc-1 - 4(1
82
Solutions to Chapter 3
and from this contradiction we conclude that no such / can exist. For every
p G IN let kp : IN -> IN be given by
f 2i2 + l if n±p\
kJn)
p =
\ 2p if n=p.
For m ^ p w e have
Thus ]S o /:p = id|N • Clearly there are infinitely many such kp.
3.39 Suppose that there exists x€A such that f(x) = X where, by definition,
X = {aE:A \a £/(#)}. Then if JCE/(JC) we have xGX whence the contra-
diction x&f(x). Also, if x&f(x) then we have x&X whence the contra-
diction xGf(x). We conclude that there can be no x GA with f(x) = X. It
is immediate from this observation that / cannot be surjective. There does
exist, however, an injection/: A -+ ?(A): for example, x -+f(x) = {x}.
83
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
= f(rn9n)
n- 2)(w + n -1) + m
Consequently we have that m=p, and hence also q = n. Thus (p, q) = (m, n)
andso/isinjective.
(c) We note that if 1 < r < fc then
/(r,fc+ 1 - r) eir+(k+l_r)_1 = 4.
But / is injective, Ik contains k elements, and there are k values of r; there-
fore we must have that every element of Ik is the image of some element
(r,k + l—r) under /. Since this is true for every Ik in the partition, it follows
that/is also surjective.
Fig.S3.41
/(*)•
-1
84
Solutions to Chapter 3
The first part of the question is precisely the condition that is necessary
to ensure that the given prescription defines a mapping from (Q+ to itself.
This mapping is not a bijection. For example, it fails to be injective: we
have/(2/3) = 5 / l = / ( 3 / 2 ) .
3.44 (a) Take, for example, / = idjp and g = —idjp. Then (f + g)(x) = 0 for
every x G IR and so / + g is not a bijection.
Consider n o w / = idjp and defineg : IR -> IR by
1
- if JC^O;
g(x)= x
0 if x = 0.
Theng is a bijection; its graph is shown in Fig. S3.42.
Fig.S3.42 g(x)
85
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
Now
1
x • - = 1 if xi=0;
(f'g)(x)=f(x)g(x) = ( x
0 - 0 = 0 if x = 0,
sof-g is not a bijection. For this/andg we also have
1
+
(/+*)(*)= * * ^ * ^ ° '
0 if * = 0.
The equation x 4- 1/JC = 1 has no solution in IR, so there is no x G IR such
that ( / + g)(x) — 1. Thus/ + g is not a bijection.
(b) Suppose that / i s a bijection. Then for X ^ 0 we have
and so X/ is injective. Also, since/is surjective, given any y G IR, there exists
t G IR with f{t) = y/X. Then (X/)(0 = y and hence X/is also surjective. This
shows that if / is a bijection then so is X/for every X =£ 0. Suppose now that
X/is a bijection with X ^ 0 . Applying the above result to X/and/i = l/X,
it follows that ju(X/) = (1/X)(X/) = / i s also a bijection.
(c) Consider, for example, the mappings f,g: IR IR given by f(x) = x2,
g(x) = x + 1. We have
[fg](x)=f[g(x)]-g[f(x)]
so
[fg] is a bijection.
(J) We have
llfg]h]=[(fog-gof)h]
= (fog-gof)oh-ho(fog-gof)
=fogoh-gofoh-hofog+hogof
and similarly
= hofog-fohog-gohof + g
Adding these together, we obtain the required result.
86
Solutions to Chapter 3
(a + ib)R(c + id)
yj(a2+b2) yj(c2+d2)
from which it is immediate that R is an equivalence relation on (D*. Now
R can also be expressed in the form
Re z Re w
\z\ \w\
from which we see that zRw=>zRw. We now observe that (z/\z\)Rz for
every zGC*, where w = z/\z\ lies on the circle \w\ = 1 and so can be written
w = e1^. Since Re w/\w\ = cos #, it is readily seen that in the Argand diagram
the R-class of z E (D* consists of a pair of half-lines emanating from the origin
(with, of course, the origin deleted), one of these lines passing through z and
the other through z (Fig. S3.43).
Fig.S3.43
a2+b2 c2+d2
from which it follows that
a2-b2_ 2a2 2c2 c2-d2
- 1 =-
a2+b2~a2+b2
• - ! = •
' c2+d2
87
Book 1 Sets, relations and mappings
88
Solutions to Chapter 3
89
Test paper 1
Section A
Al VLA,B,C are subsets of a set E prove that
A nBCC^ACCUB'.
A2 If A, B are subsets of a set E simplify the expression
AL [Bn(ALB')].
A3 Express as a union of intervals
3*
I*GIR\{I} < 8 + 3x .
1 -x
A4 Draw the graph of the relation p defined on IR by
xpy o (y2 < \x\< 1 and* 2 < | ^ | < 1).
A5 Determine which of the following relations, defined on (D, are equivalence
relations:
(a) xRy*>x-y=y-x;
(b) xSy<>x—y=x—y.
A6 A relation ~ is defined on (D \ {0} by
a~bo-e\R.
b
Show that ~ is an equivalence relation and describe the ~-classes.
A7 L e t / : IR-> IR be given by
90
Test paper 1
- if
/(*) = '
1 if x = - 2 .
Prove that/is a bijection and find its inverse.
A8 Given mappings f.A^B and g : B^C prove that
(a) if g o / i s injective then/is injective;
(&) if g o / i s surjective theng is surjective.
Section B
Bl In a group of 75 students, each of whom studied at least one of the subjects
mathematics, physics, chemistry, it is known that 40 studied mathematics,
60 studied physics and 25 studied chemistry. Only 5 studied all three. Show
that
(a) at least 25 studied mathematics and physics;
(b) at least 10 studied physics and chemistry;
(c) at most 20 studied mathematics and chemistry.
B2 Let IN* = {1, 2, 3 , . . . } . Define a relation ~ on IN* by
ex + d
then/is either a constant mapping or is injective. What is Im/in each case?
91
Test paper 2
Section A
Al Let ,4 ={(x,y)G IR x IR | x2 + y2 - 6x + Ay + 14 = 0} and let £ = {(
IR x IR \x2 4- xy + y2 4-1 = 0}. Prove that A = B.
kl Forn G IN d e f i n e n Z = { n x \ x G Z}. Prove that
4 Z A 6 Z = [ 4 ] 1 2 U [6] 1 2 U[8] 1 2 .
jxSIR\{-l,2} 2 >j
\ —x — 2 4
A4 Let R be the relation defined on IR by
92
Test paper 2
Section B
Bl Show that the relation p defined on IR x IR by
(xl9yl)pipc29y2)ox1{xl +y\ + 3) = x2(x? + .y2 +3)
is an equivalence relation.
Show that distinct points (x, 0) and (z, 0) belong to the same p-class if
and only if xz = 3. Find the p-class of (0, b). Describe geometrically the
p-class of (#, b) when a
B2 id) Show that
x2 + xy + y2 + 6x + 6y + 14 = (JC + \y + a) 2 4-1(> + Z>)2 + c
for some a, b, c € I R . Deduce that the mapping / : IR ^ IR defined by
fix) = x3 4- 6x2 + 14JC + 3 is injective.
ib) Show that the mappings :IR\{—1,1}->IR given by
x2 + 3x + 1
x —1
is surjective. Find{x | gix) = 1 } .
B3 Let s : IR ->• IR and t : IR -> IR be the mappings given by six) =x2 and
tix) = xix — 4). Compute s o t and r o s . Sketch the graphs of these com-
posites and show that neither is an injection or a surjection.
Let f=t o s. Find the smallest kG IR such that # : [fc, °°[-» IR given
by #(x) =fix) for JCE [A:, °°[ is an injection. Find a mapping <p : Im #->
[/:, °° [ such that # o cp = id Im ^.
93
Test paper 3
Section A
Al If A, B, C are subsets of a set E prove that
(AAB)\C = (A\C)A(B\C).
A2 If A, B, Care subsets of a set E such that A UB=AUC and A DB=AnC,
prove that B = C.
A3 Express as a union of intervals
3
A4 Give two examples of relations that are both reflexive and symmetric but
not transitive.
A5 Let R be the relation defined on IR by
94
Test paper 3
0 if
m
\2 -\2n-l) otherwise,
is a bijection.
Section B
Bl Given / : A -+B, let Rf be the relation defined on A by
xRfyof(x)=f(y).
Prove that Rf is an equivalence relation.
Let IR* = I R \ { 0 } and d e f i n e / : IR* x I R * ^ I R * x IR* b y
What is the R-class of (— 1, 1)? Describe geometrically the R-class of (a, b).
B2 Determine equivalence relations on IR x IR whose equivalence classes are
(a) all lines parallel to 3x + Ay = 5;
(b) all circles with centre (1,2);
(c) all squares with vertices on the coordinate axes.
/ s
B3 Given mappings X —> Y—>Z, prove that the following statements are
equivalent:
(a) t h e r e is a m a p p i n g h : Z - + X s u c h t h a t f o h O g = i d Y ;
(b) / i s surjective andg is injective.
Deduce that if a : X^Z is any mapping then there is a mapping ]3 :Z->X
such that a o 0 o a = a. (//inf: Take F = Im a.)
95
Test paper 4
Section A
Al If A, B, C are subsets of a set E prove that
(A\B)\CCA\(B\C).
Find a necessary and sufficient condition for equality to hold.
A2 If A ={xE\R |-2<x<3} and B = {yG IR \y2 <y + 6} prove that
A=B.
A3 Express as a union of intervals the set of real numbers k for which
xGIR =k 1 = 0.
96
Test paper 4
Section B
Bl If E is a non-empty set then a non-empty collection ^"of subsets of E is
called 2L filter if
(a) F#=0 for every F G J ^ ;
(ft) i ^
(c) ifGDj
Verify that the collection of all subsets of E that contain a given element
of Eis a filter.
Show that if & is a filter and X is a subset of E such that X n F ^ 0 for
every F G ^ , then
is also a filter. Show also that ^ C J f ^ , and that the inclusion is strict
whenever X ^ J ^ .
B2 Let E be the set of months in the year. Show that the relation R defined
on E by xRy if and only if x, y start on the same day of the week is an
equivalence relation on E. Determine the equivalence classes for an ordinary
year and for a leap year. How many Friday the thirteenths can there be
in a year?
B3 Let X={1, 2 , . . . , « } . Show that a mapping / : X -• X is such that / o / = /
if and only if the restriction o f / t o Im/is the identity map.
Suppose now that, for 1 < r < n,
Prove that
\Er\ = r\r"-r.
97