ALGEBRA (c) MULTIPLICATION

 fg ( x)  f x  gx ; DOMAIN : A  B

PROPORTION
(d) DIVISION
PROPORTION – a statement of equality between two ratios.  f  f x 
Mathematically;  x  
x 

; DOMAIN : x  A  B g x   0 
 
g g
a c
a : b  c : d or  (e) COMPOSITION
b d
 f  g ( x)  f gx ; DOMAIN : C  B
wherein b and c are the MEANS while a and d are the EXTREMES. The
Examples:
fourth number d is the “FOURTH PROPORTIONAL” to a, b and c.
1. Find the domain of the function below:
A MEAN PROPORTION between two quantities is the second or third
term of a proportion. When the means are equal like in a : b  b : d , the y  x  4  x2
mean proportion between a and d is b where b  ad .
Solution:
PROPERTIES OF PROPROTION This is a sum of two functions let’s say

f x   x ; g x   4  x2
There are several properties of proportion that may aid you in solving
problems involving proportions. These are:
Wherein, the domain of f is all non-negative real numbers, that is the
1. Proportion by Inversion interval 0,  while the domain of g consist of all numbers x such that
a c b d
If  , then  . 4  x 2  0 , that is, the interval 2,2 .
b d a c
2. Proportion by Alternation Therefore, by the property given by this lecture, the domain of the
a c a b function is the INTERSECTION of these two intervals:
If  , then  .
b d c d
3. Proportion by Composition DOMAIN : 0  x  2
a c ab cd
If  , then  .
b d b d 2. If f x   x and g x   2  x , find the domain of the composite
4. Proportion by Division function g  f .
a c ab cd
If  , then  . Solution:
b d b d
5. Proportion by Composition and Division
a c ab cd
g  f x  g  f x  g  
x  2 x
If  , then  .
b d ab cd For x to be defined, we must have x  0 . For 2  x to be

Examples: defined, we must have 2  x  0 , that is x  4 . Thus, the domain of

x 10 x y g  f is the INTERSECTION of these two intervals:

1. If  , then what is the value of ?
y 11 x y
DOMAIN : 0  x  4
Solution:
By Property #5: SERIES ANALYSIS
x  y 10  11
  21
x  y 10  11 SIGMA NOTATION and the TELESCOPING TECHNIQUE
- a convenient way of writing sums uses the Greek letter  (capital
2
x  5x  3 1 11x  1 sigma, corresponding to our letter S) and is called sigma notation.
2. If  , then what is the value of ?
x 2  6x  2 2 x 2  6x  2

Solution:
You can notice that we can apply Property #4 here whereas:
11x  1


x2  5x  3  x2  6 x  2  11x  1
2
x  6x  2 x2  6x  2 x2  6x  2
11x  1 1 2 1
 
x 2  6x  2 2 2
DEFINITION: If am, am+1, …, an are real numbers and m and n are integers
such that m ≤ n, then
DOMAIN OF FUNCTIONS n
Let f and g be functions with domains A and B respectively while C be  ai  am  am1  am2    an1  an
the domain of the composite function f  g . Then the domain of the i m

functions below is defined as follows: PROPERTIES:

n n n
(a) ADDITION (a)  c  cn  m  1 (b)  cai  c  ai
 f  g ( x)  f x  gx ; DOMAIN : A  B i m i m i m
(b) SUBTRACTION
 f  g ( x)  f x  gx ; DOMAIN : A  B

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 1

  nn  1 
n n n n n n
(c)  ai  bi    ai  bi 3 i2  3i  1  3S  3 2 
n
i m i m i m i 1 i 1 i 1
3 5
Examples:  3S  n 2  n
2 2
4
1. i 2  12  22  32  42  30 STEP 3:
i 1 n  13  13  n3  3n2  3n  3S  3 n2  5 n
2 2
 k   k  3 k  1
n n n n
2 2
2.  3k  1  n
2n  3n  n nn  12n  1
3 2
k 1 k 1 k 1 k 1 S i2  6

6
4 i 1
3. 2  2  2  2  2  8 Thus, going back to the problem:
i 1
100
TELESCOPING TECHNIQUE
- this method is very powerful in obtaining a closed-form formula for
12  22  32    992  1002  i2
i 1
100101201
a sum with great extent (or sometimes infinite) number of terms.
This technique is also called “collapsing technique” in which the 12  22  32    992  1002   338350
6
main process lies on collapsing the terms between the first and the
last terms of the sum. 2. Evaluate:

3  i  
In obtaining a closed-form formula for the sum (S) n 2
n n
 n  n 
lim  1

S ik  1k  2k  3k    n  1k  nk i 1  
i 1
Solution:
We follow these three steps:
3  i  
n 2 n
STEP 1  3 2 3
Express the telescoping sum:
lim
n
 n  n   1  lim
 n 
 i  
3
i 1  n
n
i 1  

i  1k 1  ik 1

n
3 n n 
 
3
i 1  lim  i2  1
n  n 3 n 
in closed-form using the basic definition of summation notation. You  i 1 i 1 
will notice that the sum collapses, meaning to say, terms between  3 nn  12n  1 3 
the first and the last terms cancels each other.  lim     n
n  n3 6 n 
STEP 2
Expand first the term in the telescoping sum, in this case, the term  1 n  n  1  2n  1  
 lim       3
i  1 k 1
i k 1
, then apply Property (c) given above. n  2 n  n  n  
STEP 3 1  1  1  1
Equate the results from steps 1 and 2 and obtain the closed-form  lim  1   2    3   1  2  3
n  2  n  n  2
formula for S.
3  i  
n 2
Example: lim
n
 n  n   1  4

i 1  
1. Evaluate:
2 2 2 2 2
1  2  3    99  100
SERIES ANALYSIS BY PARTIAL FRACTION DECOMPOSITION
Solution: Most of the time, a series (whether finite or infinite) is most suitably
The sum (S) can also be expressed in the form solved by using partial fraction decomposition on the representation of
n each term in the sum
S i2 In this topic, it is assumed that the trainees know the fundamental
i 1
First we obtain a closed-form formula for this kind of sum using the concepts of obtaining a partial fraction decomposition given a certain
telescoping technique: rational expression.

STEP 1: Examples:

 i  13  i3 
n 1. Evaluate:
1 1 1 1 1 1
i 1     
   
2 6 12 20 9702 9900
 2 3  13  33  2 3  4 3  33    [(n  1) 3  n 3 ]

 n  1  1  n  3n  3n
3 3 3 2 Solution:
1
STEP 2: Notice that each term of the sum above has the form so that
nn  1

 i  13  i3    3i 2  3i  1

n n
the sum can be expressed in sigma notation as:
i 1 i 1 99
 nn  1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
     
2 6 12 20 9702 9900
n 1

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 2

 Now, let’s obtain a closed-form formula for this kind of sum. Using Solution:
partial fraction decomposition: 
 5n , then:
n
n n Let S 
1 1 
 
1
    n 0
ii  1  i i 1
i 1 i 1    
n 11 n 1
 5n1   5n1  5n1
1 n 1
1 1   1 1   1 1   1 1 1 1  S   
                  5
n 0 n 0 5n 1 n 0 n 0
1 2   2 3  3 4   n 1 n   n n 1 
1
1 1 
 
 5n  1  1  S  4
1 n 5 1
1 n 1 S
5
n n 1
5

1 n

i i  1 n  1 
1
n
 n  5 
i 1 1 1 5
S S  S 
Going back to the problem: 4 4
n 0
16
99

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 99
      
2 6 12 20 9702 9900 ii  1 100 2. Evaluate:
i 1
1  21  3  22  5  23  7  24  
2. Evaluate:
1 1 1 1 Solution:
   
1  5 5  9 9  13 13  17 
2n  1
Solution:
1  21  3  2 2  5  23  7  24     n
n 1 2
The sum above can be expressed in sigma notation as:  
1  21  3  22  5  23  7  24    2  2 n   2n
 n 1

1 1 1 1 1
    
1  5 5  9 9  13 13  17
n 1
4n  34n  1 n 1 n 1
1
Wherein by partial fraction decomposition:
1 2 3 4 2 2
  1 2  3 2  5 2 72   2 
 1 1  2  12 1
  1
1 1
   
n 1
4n  34n  1 4 n 1
 4n  3 4n  1  2
1  21  3  22  5  23  7  24    4  1  3
1  1 1   1 1   1 1   1 1  
                 
4  1 5   5 9   9 13   13 17  
1 TAYLOR AND MACLAURIN SERIES
 Suppose f is any function that can be represented by a POWER SERIES:
4



f x   cn x  an  c0  c1x  a  c2 x  a2  c3x  a3  

n n 0
SUMMATION OF THE FORM
n If we put x = a, all terms after the first one becomes 0 and we get
n 0 a
Derivation: f a   c0
 Getting the first derivative of the function and evaluating again at a:

n
Let S 
n
, then f a   c1
n 0 a Continuing this process indefinitely will give:
f iv   4!c4  
 
n 11 f ' ' a   2!c2  ; f a   3!c3  ;
 an1  
1 n
S
a n 1
n 0 n 0 a In general, for the Power Series above, the coefficient c n is computed as

n 1
 f (n) a 
  cn 
1 1
S 
a n 1 n 1 n!
n 0 a n 0 a And gives the TAYLOR SERIES expansion of f at a (or about a or centered
    at a) below:
 an   an1   an   an
1 n 1 n 1
S 
f (n) a 

a
n 1 n 0 n 0 n 0 f x   x  a n
n!
 1  n 0
  
f ' a 
 x  a  f "a x  a2  f a  x  a 3  
1 n a
S  S  a   S   f a  
a 
1
1 
 n 0 a
n
a  12 1! 2! 3!
 a 
For the special case wherein a = 0, the Taylor Series becomes:
Examples: 
f (n) 0 n f ' 0 f " 0 2 f 0 3
 n
f x    n!
x  f 0 
1!
x
2!
x 
3!
x 
1 n 0
1. Compute:  n  5  .
which is called the MACLAURIN SERIES expansion for f.
n 0
Taylor Series expansion is well suited for expressing TRANSCENDENTAL
functions in term of infinite Power Series. This will be exhibited by the
coming examples below:

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 3

Examples: Example:

1. Express sin x in terms of powers of x. 1. Find all possible solutions for x from the equation

Solution: sin x  sin 2x  sin 3x  cos x  cos2x  cos3x

Expressing in terms of powers of x means getting the Maclaurin Series
expansion (centered at 0). We arrange the computation in two in the interval 0,2  .
columns as follows:
f ( x)  sin x f (0)  0 Solution:
Using the given formulas above, we can express the problem as:
f ' ( x)  cos x f ' (0)  1
3 3
f " ( x)   sin x f " (0)  0
f ( x)   cos x f (0)  1
 sin ix    cosix 
i 1 i 1
f (iv) ( x)  sin x f (iv) (0)  0 3 3
We see that the derivatives repeat in a cycle of four, the Maclaurin
series for sin x is therefore:
sin ix   cosix   0
i 1 i 1
f ' 0 f "x  2 f x  3
sin x  f 0  x x  x  sin
3x
 sin 2 x sin
3x
 cos 2 x
1! 2! 3! 2 2
 0
 x x
x3 x5 x 7 x 2n1 sin sin
sin x  x   
3! 5! 7!
   1n 2n  1! 2 2
n 0  3x 
 sin sin 2 x  cos 2 x   0
 2 
2. Express x3 + 3x2 – 7x + 5 in terms of powers of (x – 1).

Solution: So we must solve these two equations:

Even in these cases where our function is a polynomial, we can apply 3x
i. sin 0
the method of Taylor Series expansion. Since our expansion is in terms 2
of x – 1, this would mean that our series is centered at a = 1. ii. sin 2x  cos2x  0
3 2
f ( x)  x  3x  7 x  5 f (1)  2
f ' ( x)  3x 2  6 x  7 f ' (1)  2 2 4
Equation (i) has solutions equal to and while equation (ii) has
f " ( x)  6 x  6 f " (1)  12 3 3
f ( x)  6 f (1)  6 
solutions equal to only. Therefore, there are a total of three
f (iv) ( x)  0 f (iv) (1)  0 8
solutions for this problem, namely
The next derivatives were all zero. Thus,
f ' 1
x3  3x 2  7 x  5  f 1  x  1  f "1 x  12  f 1 x  13   2 4 
1! 2! 3! x , ,
3 3 8
x3  3 x 2  7 x  5  2 
2
x  1  12 x  12  6 x  13
1! 2! 3!
MULTIPLE ANGLE FORMULAS
x3  3x2  7 x  5  x  13  6x  12  2x  1  2 On this topic, our aim is to expand the multiple angles
sin( nx) and cos(nx)
PLEASE SOLVE:
Find the Maclaurin Series expansion for the following functions: into powers of sin x and cos x. There are several ways to do that and in this
lecture, we will try to use the concept of Chebyshev polynomials in
a. f x   cos x
accomplishing the tasks.
b. f x   e x
CHEBYSHEV POLYNOMIALS
c. f x   tan1 x
Named after Pafnuty Chebyshev, Chebyshev polynomials are sequence
f x   e  x
2
d. of orthogonal polynomials and which are easily defined recursively, like
Fibonacci or Lucas numbers. Although these polynomials have broad
TRIGONOMETRY applications, we will just expand our thoughts on applying these
polynomials in solving multiple angle formulas of trigonometric functions.
ADDITIONAL TRIGONMETRIC FORMULAS

 SUMMATION OF SINE and COSINE

n sin
nx
 sin
n  1x CHEBYSHEV POLYNOMIAL OF THE FIRST KIND
(a) 
sin ix   2
x
2 Denoted by Tn(x), one representation is by using this determinant
equation:
i 1 sin
2

n sin
nx
 cos
n  1x x 1 0  0 0
(b)  cosix   2
x
2 1 2x
0 1
1
2x 
 0
0
0
0
i 1 sin
2 Tn ( x) 
    1 0
0 0 0 1 2x 1
0 0 0 0 1 2x

where n is the dimension of the determinant and T 0(x) = 1.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 4

The first few Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind are listed below: We just need to be familiarized with T0(x) = 1 and T1(x) = x. From here,
we can move forward without ease by using the recurrence relation
T0 x   1
Tn x  2xTn1x  Tn2 x
T1x   x
So that,
T2 x   2 x 2  1
T2 ( x)  2 xT1( x)  T0 ( x)  2 x( x)  1  2 x2  1
T3 x   4 x  3 x
3
T3 ( x)  2 xT2 ( x)  T1( x)  2x(2x2  1)  x  4 x3  3x
T4 x   8 x 4  8 x 2  1
T5 x   16 x5  20 x3  5 x T4 ( x)  2 xT3 ( x)  T2 ( x)  2 x(4x3  3x)  (2x2  1)  8x4  8x2  1
Therefore,
In addition, these polynomials are also satisfied by the recurrence relation:
cos 4 x  T4 cos x  8 cos4 x  8 cos2 x  1

Tn x  2xTn1x  Tn2 x APPLICATION #2: EXPANSION OF sin(nx)

In this case, for n to be non-negative integer, sin(nx) cannot be always

CHEBYSHEV POLYNOMIAL OF THE SECOND KIND
expressed as integral powers of sines. This happens when n is even.
Denoted by Un(x), one representation is by using this determinant
Therefore, we have two cases:
equation:

 i n 1 Tn sin x 
sin nx    n  2
2x 1 0  0 0 ; if n is ODD
1 2x 1  0 0 
i (cos x)U n 1sin x  ; if n is EVEN
0 1 2x  0 0
U n ( x)  where i is the imaginary number sqrt(-1).
    1 0
0 0 0 1 2x 1 Examples:
0 0 0 0 1 2x
1. Expand sin 3x in terms of angle x only.
where n is the dimension of the determinant and U0(x) = 1. Solution:
Since 3 is ODD, we will use the formula
The first few Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind are listed below:
sin nx   i n1 Tn sin x 
U 0 x   1
Solving for T3:
U1x   2 x
T2 ( x)  2 xT1( x)  T0 ( x)  2 x( x)  1  2 x2  1
U 2 x   4 x 2  1
T3 ( x)  2 xT2 ( x)  T1( x)  2 x(2x2  1)  x  4x3  3x
U 3 x   8 x 3  4 x
Therefore,
U 4 x   16 x 4  12 x 2  1
U 5 x   32 x5  32 x3  6 x
 
sin 3x  i31 T3 sin x    1 4 sin 3 x  3sin x  3sin x  4 sin 3 x

2. Expand sin 4x in terms of angle x only.

Just like the Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind, these polynomials are
also satisfied by the recurrence relation: Solution:
Since 4 is EVEN, we will use the formula
U n x  2 xUn1x  U n2 x
sin nx   i n2 (cos x)U n1sin x 
Take note that we just need to be familiarized with U0(x) = 1 and U1(x)
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE FIRST AND THE SECOND KINDS = 2x. From here, we can move forward without ease by using the
Chebyshev polynomials of the first and second kinds are beautifully related recurrence relation
U n x  2 xUn1x  U n2 x
by means of the first derivative:

So that, by solving U3:

U n x  
1 d
Tn1x
n  1 dx U 2 ( x)  2 xU1( x)  U0 ( x)  2 x(2x)  1  4 x2  1

U3 ( x)  2 xU2 ( x)  U1( x)  2 x(4 x2  1)  2 x  8x3  4 x

APPLICATION #1: EXPANSION OF cos(nx)
Therefore,
Simply stated, for n to be a non-negative integer, cos(nx) can be expressed
in terms of integral powers of cosines using the Chebyshev polynomial
sin 4 x  i 42 (cosx)U3 sin x   (1)(cosx)(8sin 3 x  4 sin x)
of the first kind: sin 4 x  4 sin x cos x  8 sin 3 x cos x

cosnx  Tn cos x
 k   k 
Example:
GENERAL FORMULA FOR sin  n  and  cos n 
There are times we are asked on the exact value of product of sines
1. Expand cos(4x) in terms of powers of cosines.
and cosines of certain angles. One such example is
Solution:     2   3 
sin   sin   sin  
By the use of Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind: 7  7   7 
cos 4x  T4 cos x

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 5

Of course, solving for the value of each of the factors is not practical and Solution:
even difficult to obtain. Therefore, a general formula was devised to solve 2
these kinds of problems. We will now present these formulas: Given that a  :
1999
Given that n is a positive integer, cos a cos 2a cos3a     cos998a cos999a 
2 4 6 1996 1998
For the SINE FUNCTION  cos cos cos    cos cos
1999 1999 1999 1999 1999

n 2  2 998  1000 1998 

 k 
n
 k    cos    cos  cos    cos 
sin  n   sin  n   0
n
 1999  1999 
 2 n1
; 1999 1999
k 1 k 1 The angles in the first parentheses are angles in the first quadrant
while angles in the second parentheses are angles in the second
For the COSINE FUNCTION quadrant. In addition, there are a total of 499 factors inside the first
parentheses while there are 500 factors in the second parentheses.
n 2  0 if n is even Using the concepts of reference angles, we say that
 k  
 cos n    1
1998  1998  
 2 n1
if n is odd
k 1 cos   cos      cos
 1999  1999  1999
1996  1996  3
cos   cos      cos
n  0 if n is even 1999  1999  1999
 k  
 cos    1
 n   2i n 1
if n is odd 
k 1  1000  1000  999
cos   cos      cos
Examples:
1999  1999  1999
So that
1. Evaluate 2 4 6 1996 1998
cos cos cos    cos cos
    2   3  1999 1999 1999 1999 1999
sin   sin   sin  
7  7   7     2  3  998  999 
   cos  cos   cos     cos   cos 
 1999  1999  1999  1999  1999 
1999 2 999
Solution:  k   k 
Using our formula with n = 7:
  cos
 1999
 
cos 
 k 1  1999 
k 1
7 2 3
    2   3   k   k 
sin   sin   sin   
sin   sin    
1

1
  
7 7   7  k 1  7  k 1  7 
 219991
2999

    2   3  n 7
sin   sin   sin   
7  7   7   2 n1  2 71 PRODUCT OF COSINES WITH ANGLE MULTIPLIED BY POWERS OF 2
Another useful identity for COSINE (for any value of angle x) in
    2   3  7 which x is multiplied by powers of 2 is given below.
sin   sin   sin  

 
  
7 7   7  8

cos2k x  2n 
1  sin 2n 1 x
n
2. Evaluate sin 2 x 
k 1 
    2   3   4   5 
cos  cos  cos  cos  cos 
 11   11   11   11   11  Example:

Solution: 1. Evaluate:
Using our formula with n = 11 and 11 is odd: cos(20 ) cos(40 ) cos(80 )
11 2
    2   3   4   5   k 
cos  cos
  
11 11
 cos  cos
   
11 11
 cos
  11
 cos
 k 1  11 
  Solution:
Using the identity given by this lecture:

cos2k 10 
3
5
    2   3   4   5   k  cos(20 ) cos(40 ) cos(80 ) 
cos  cos  cos  cos  cos  cos
 11   11   11   11   11  k 1  11 
  k 1

    2   3   4   5  1 1 
1  sin 24  10   1  sin 160 
cos  cos  cos  cos  cos 
 11   11   11   11   11   2 111

32
cos(20 ) cos(40 ) cos(80 )  

23  sin 2  10   8  sin 20 
1
3. Evaluate cos(20 ) cos(40 ) cos(80 ) 
8
cosacos2acos3a  cos998acos999a
2
where a  .
1999

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 6

 GEOMETRY CEVIAN – a line segment which connects one vertex to the opposite side
(or its extension) of the triangle.
TRIANGLE’S SIDE-ANGLE RELATIONS
Generally speaking, the length of a cevian is determined using
STEWART’S THEOREM.
Let be given a triangle ABC and a point D on AB such that m = AD, n
= BD, and x = CD. Then Stewart's theorem, states that:

For any triangle with side lengths a, b and c with corresponding

opposite angles A, B and C respectively, we have these basic formulas:

(a) SEMIPERIMETER (s)

abc a 2 m  b 2 n  x 2 c  cmn
s
2
On this handout, we will tackle the three most popular and special types
(b) SUM OF INTERIOR ANGLES of cevian. These are the ALTITUDE, MEDIAN and the ANGLE BISECTOR.
A  B  C  180
(a) ALTITUDE
(c) SINE LAW Altitude – also known as height. It is a cevian drawn from one vertex
perpendicular to the opposite side of the triangle. The three altitudes
a b c
   2R of a triangle meet at a common point called ORTHOCENTER.
sin A sin B sin C
Length of Altitudes:
where R is the radius of the circumscribing circle (EXTENSION OF SINE
2K
LAW). ha 
a
(d) COSINE LAW 2K
hb 
a 2  b2  c 2  2bc cos A b
b2  a 2  c 2  2ac cos B 2K
hc 
2 2 2
c  a  b  2ab cosC c

(e) AREA FORMULAS (b) MEDIAN

Median – is a cevian drawn from one vertex to the midpoint of the
i. SSA CASE opposite side of a triangle. The three medians of a triangle meet at a
 1 point called CENTROID.
 ab sin C
 2
 1 Length of Medians:
K 
 
ac sin B
 2
ma 
1
2 b2  c2  a2
 1
bc sin A 2


2a  b
2
1 2
mb   c2 2
ii. ASA CASE 2


a 2 sin B sin C mc 
1
2
2a 2
 b2  c 2

 2 sin A
 b 2 sin A sin C
K  Heron’s Formula for Medians
 2 sin B We can actually compute for the area (K) of the triangle if we
 c 2 sin A sin B are given the length of the three medians. Take note of the formula,


2 sin C it somehow resemble of that of Heron’s Formula:

If triangle ABC has medians ma, mb, and mc and

iii. SSS CASE (HERON’S FORMULA)
m  mb  mc
K  ss  a s  bs  c  m a
2
then, the area of the triangle is found by the formula:
(f) RADIUS OF INSCRIBED and CIRCUMSCRIBED CIRCLES
mm  ma m  mb m  mc 
4
K abc K
r ; R 3
s 4K
(c) ANGLE BISECTOR
TRIANGLE’S MOST COMMON CEVIANS
Angle Bisector – is a cevian drawn from one vertex bisecting the
There are so many ways we can incorporate a line segment in a triangle. vertex angle to the opposite side of the triangle. The three angle
The most common is the “CEVIAN”. But what is a cevian? bisectors of a triangle meet at a common point called INCENTER.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 7

 Euclid’s Angle Bisector Theorem INSCRIBED ANGLE THEOREM
“The angle bisector BD of an angle in a triangle ABC divides the INSCRIBED ANGLE – also known as peripheral angle. They are angles
opposite side in the same ratio as the sides adjacent to the angle.” whose vertex is on the periphery of a circle and whose two sides are
chords of the said circle, though one side may be a tangent line.
CENTRAL ANGLE – an angle whose vertex is at the center of the circle
and whose two sides are radius of the said circle.
INSCRIBED ANGLE THEOREM states that:
“An angle θ inscribed in a circle is half of the central angle 2θ that
subtends the same arc on the circle. Therefore, the angle does not
change as its apex is moved to different positions on the circle.”
c a

m n

Length of Angle Bisectors:

A
A
2bc cos
2  bc[b  c 2  a 2 ]
ta  H b,c  cos 
2 bc bc
B
B
2ac cos
2  ac[a  c 2  b2 ]
tb  H a,c  cos 
2 ac ac
C POWER OF A POINT THEOREM
C
2ab cos
2  ab[a  b2  c 2 ]
tc  H a,b  cos  POWER OF A POINT - in geometry, the power of a point is a real
2 ab ab
number h that reflects the relative distance of a given point from a given
TAKE NOTE : H(x,y) is the Harmonic Mean of x and y. Recall that circle. Specifically, the power of a point P with respect to a circle C of
Harmonic Mean is “the reciprocal of the average of the reciprocals radius r is defined as:
of two numbers.”

Examples:

1. Find the height of the triangle ABC drawn to side BC if AC  7 ,

BC  11 and mACB  60 .
Solution:
The height drawn to BC is found by the formula:

2K
 2  2
h  PO  OT
hBC 
BC
The power of a point can be defined equivalently as the product of

2
  
But K  AC BC sin 60  711sin 60 
1 1
2
77 3
4
s.u. thus:
distances from the point P to the two intersection points of any ray
emanating from P. For example, in the figure above, a ray emanating
 77 3  from P intersects the circle in two points, M and N, whereas a tangent
2  ray intersects the circle in one point T; the horizontal ray from P
 4  7 3
hBC    intersects the circle at A and B, the endpoints of the diameter. Their
11 2 respective products of distances are equal to each other and to the
power of point P in that circle.
2. Find the length of the median of a triangle ABC drawn to side BC if AB
= 5, AC = 4 and BC = 3. POWER OF A POINT THEOREM states that:
Solution: “Given a point P and a circle, pass two lines through P that intersect
If we let a  3 , b  4 and c  5 , then: the circle in points A and D and, respectively, B and C. Then
ma 
1
2

2 b2  c2  a2  
1
2

2 4 2  52  32  (AP)(DP) = (BP)(CP). The point P may lie either inside or outside the
circle. The line through A and D (or that through B and C or both)
may be tangent to the circle, in which case A and D coalesce into a
73 single point.”
ma 
2
3. A triangle has side lengths 5, 6 and 7. How long is the angle bisector
drawn to the side of the triangle with length 6?
Solution:
Let a  5 , b  6 and c  7 , then the length of the angle bisector
drawn to side b is:

ac[a  c 2  b2 ] 5  7[5  72  62 ]

tb  
ac 57 AP  DP  BP  CP
105
tb  AP

BP

AB
2 CP DP CD

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 8

TANGENT-SECANT THEOREM Recall that the area of a triangle ABC is given by (ABC) = (1/2)chc. It means
that if hc is fixed, then the area is directly proportional to c. For example, in
TANGENT LINE – is a line intersecting a circle at only one point which the figure below:
is called the “point of tangency.”
SECANT LINE – is a line intersecting a circle at two different points.
The three theorems for the intercepted arcs to the angle of two
tangents, two secants or 1 tangent and 1 secant are summarized by the
pictures below. If you look at each theorem, you really only need to
remember one formula.

We can say that

( ACD ) AD

( BCD ) BD

Now, let’s take a look on the figures below:

TANGENT-SECANT THEOREM states that:

“The angle formed by the intersection of 2 tangents, 2 secants or 1

tangent and 1 secant outside the circle equals half the difference of
the intercepted arcs.”
Examples:

1. If the central angle AOB of a circle is equal to 45  and C is another

point in the circumference of the circle, find mACB .

Solution: As we will observe, all these figures are composed of two triangles ABP
This is just an application of the Inscribed Angle Theorem. Thus: and ABQ with a common side which is AB in which PQ intersects AB

mACB 
1
2
1
mAOB  45
2
  at M. Without loss of generality:
( ABP) ( ABP) ( AMP) ( AMQ)
  
 ( ABQ) ( AMP) ( AMQ) ( ABQ)
mACB  22.5
( ABP) AB PM AM
  
2. Two chords AB and CD meet at point P inside the circle. If AP  4 , ( ABQ) AM QM AB
DP  5 and BP  6 , find the length of CP.
( ABP) PM

Solution: ( ABQ) QM
By virtue of the Power of a Point Theorem: Therefore, if the lines AB and PQ intersect at M, then
AP  DP  BP  CP ( ABP) PM

( ABQ) QM
45  6  CP  CP 
10
3
Examples:
3. From the figure below, arc ABC equals 108 and arc XYZ equals 18 . 1. Let P be an interior point of triangle ABC, the rays AP, BP and CP meet
If the circle is a unit circle, find angle x. the sides BC, CA and AB at points D, E and F respectively.

Solution:
By the Tangent-Secant Theorem:

 
PD PE PF
1 What is the value of   ?
mx  108  18  45 AD BE CF
2
Solution:
CEVA’S THEOREM AND MENELAUS’ THEOREM PD PE PF ( PBC) ( APC) ( ABP)
We will begin with a simple but useful theorem concerning the “area     
AD BE CF ( ABC) ( ABC) ( ABC)
ratio” of two triangles with a common side. With this theorem in hand,
we will prove the famous Ceva’s Theorem and Menelaus’ Theorem. PD PE PF ( PBC)  ( APC)  ( ABP) ( ABC)
   
AD BE CF ( ABC) ( ABC)
A Simple Theorem on Area Ratio
PD PE PF
  1
Notation: Given a triangle ABC, we denote the length of three sides by a AD BE CF
= BC, b = CA, c = AB. The lengths of three altitudes are h a, hb, and hc. Also,
the area of a triangle ABC will be denoted by (ABC).

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 9

2. In triangle ABC, E, F and G are points on AB, BC and CA respectively And the area of the triangle RST formed by connecting the division
such that AE:EB = BF:FC = CG:GA = 1:3. K, L and M are the intersection points on each side is given by:
points of the lines AF and CE, BG and AF, CE and BG respectively.
Suppose the area of ABC is 1, find the area of KLM (the shaded region xyz  1
( RST )  ( ABC)
in the figure below). ( x  1)( y  1)(z  1)

CEVA’S THEOREM

Let ABC be a triangle and D, E and F be points on the lines BC, CA and AB
respectively. If AD, BE and CF are concurrent (meet at point P), then

AF BD CE
   1
Solution: FB DC EA
We first draw a line connecting C and L:
The (+) sign emphasizes that directed segments were used here.

PROOF:

Let s = (ABL). By the formula we have:

(CAL) 3
  (CAL)  3s From the two cases above, we can apply the first theorem that we have
( ABL) 1
introduced on this lecture
( BCL ) 1 1
  ( BCL )  s AF BD CE ( APC) ( ABP) ( PBC)
     1
( ABL) 3 3 FB DC EA ( PBC) ( APC) ( ABP)
Therefore, we have and the sign is obviously positive.
1 3
( ABL)  ( BCL)  (CAL)  s  s  3s  1  s   ( ABL) MENELAUS’ THEOREM
3 13
It is also easy to follow that Let ABC be a triangle and D, E and F be points on the lines BC, CA and AB
3 respectively. If D, E and F are collinear (on the same line), then
( ABL)  ( BCM )  (CAK ) 
13
Hence, AF BD CE
   1
3 3 3 FB DC EA
( KLM )  ( ABC)  ( ABL)  ( BCM )  (CAK )  1   
13 13 13
PROOF:
4
( KLM )  .
13

ROUTH’S THEOREM

Named after Edward John Routh, Routh’s Theorem determines the area
of the triangle formed by the intersection of the cevians of a triangle.
Let X and Y be two arbitrary (distinct) points on the line DEF. Then,
AF BD CE ( AXY ) ( BXY ) (CXY )
     1
FB DC EA ( BXY ) (CXY ) ( AXY )
and the sign here is negative since we are considering directed distances
here (the negative factor is FB).

Examples:

1. The diagonals AC and CE of the regular hexagon ABCDEF are divided

by the inner points M and N respectively so that
AV CU BW
From the figure, if x;  y and  z then the area of RST is AM CN
VC UB WA  r
AC CE
found by the formula:
Determine r if B, M and N are collinear.

( RST ) 
xyz  12 ABC Solution:
xy  x  1 yz  y  1zx  z  1 Join BE which intersects AC at P on the figure below:

Suppose that x = y = z = n, then the formula above gives

(n3  1)2 (n  1)2

( RST ) 
2 3
ABC   ( ABC)
(n  n  1) (n2  n  1)

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 10

 Applying Menelaus’ Theorem to triangle CPE and the line BMN, QUADRIC SURFACE #2: HYPERBOLOID OF ONE SHEET
CM PB EN
  1
MP BE NC
And note that:
CM  AC  AM ; but AM  r  AC thus CM  1  r AC
 1
AC  CM  AC  1  r AC   r   AC
1 1
MP 
2 2  2
CM (1  r ) AC 2  2r
 
MP (r  1 2) AC 2r  1
1 1 PB 1
PB  AB cosABP  AB cos60  AB  BE  
2 4 BE 4
EN  CE  NC ; but NC  r  CE thus EN  1  r CE
EN (1  r )CE 1  r
 
NC r  CE r
So that,
CM PB EN 2  2r 1 1  r
  1    1 The standard equation for a HYPERBOLOID OF ONE SHEET is given by
MP BE NC 2r  1 4 r

3r 2  1  r 
3 x2 y2 z2
  1
3 a 2
b 2
c2

QUADRIC SURFACES ANALYSIS OF TRACE

These are three-dimensional analogs of conic sections.

The equation of a QUADRIC SURFACE in space is a second-degree

equation in three variables. The general form of the equation is

Ax2  By2  Cz 2  Dxy  Exz  Fyz  Gx  Hy  Iz  J  0

NOTE: The AXIS OF THE HYPERBOLOID corresponds to the variable
There are SIX basic types of quadric surfaces: ELLIPSOID, HYPERBOLOID whose coefficient is NEGATIVE.
OF ONE SHEET, HYPERBOLOID OF TWO SHEETS, ELLIPTIC CONE,
ELLIPTIC PARABOLOID and HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOID. QUADRIC SURFACE #3: HYPERBOLOID OF TWO SHEETS

Take note that the intersection of a surface with a plane is called the
TRACE OF THE SURFACE in the plane. To visualize a surface in space, it
is helpful to determine its traces in some well-chosen planes. The traces of
quadric surfaces are CONICS.

QUADRIC SURFACE #1: ELLIPSOID

The standard equation for HYPERBOLOID OF TWO SHEETS is given by

z2 x2 y2
  1
The standard equation for an ELLIPSOID is given by c 2
a 2
b2

x2 y2 z2 ANALYSIS OF TRACE
  1
2 2
a b c2

ANALYSIS OF TRACE

NOTE: The AXIS OF THE HYPERBOLOID corresponds to the variable

whose coefficient is POSITIVE. There is NO TRACE in the coordinate
plane perpendicular to this axis.
NOTE: The surface is a SPHERE if a  b  c  0 .

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 11

 QUADRIC SURFACE #4: ELLIPTIC CONE QUADRIC SURFACE #6: HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOID

The standard equation for a HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOID is given by

The standard equation for an ELLIPTIC CONE is given by y2 x2

z 
2
b a2
2 2 2
x y z
  0 ANALYSIS OF TRACE
a2 b2 c2

ANALYSIS OF TRACE

NOTE: The AXIS OF THE PARABOLOID corresponds to the variable

raised to the FIRST POWER.
NOTE: The AXIS OF THE CONE corresponds to the variable whose
coefficient is NEGATIVE. The traces in the coordinate planes parallel to Examples:
this axis are INTERSECTING LINES. 1. Classify the surface given by its equation
QUADRIC SURFACE #5: ELLIPTIC PARABOLOID 4 x2  3 y 2  12 z 2  12  0

Solution:
ALWAYS begin by writing the equation in STANDARD FORM.
x2 y 2 z 2
4 x 2  3 y 2  12 z 2  12  0  
  1
3 4 1
Then, identify the TRACES on the xy, xz and yz-planes.
x2 y 2
xy-trace (z = 0):    1  HYPERBOLA
3 4
x2 z 2
xz-trace (y = 0):    1  NO TRACE !
3 1
y2 z2
yz-trace (x = 0):   1  HYPERBOLA
4 1
The standard equation for an ELLIPTIC PARABOLOID is given by Therefore, the surface is a HYPERBOLOID OF TWO SHEETS.

2. Classify the surface given by its equation

x2 y2
z  x2  2 y 2  z 2  4 x  4 y  2z  3  0
a2 b2
Solution:
ANALYSIS OF TRACE With these kinds of problems, the resort is by COMPLETING THE
SQUARE.
x2  2 y 2  z 2  4 x  4 y  2z  3  0

x  22   y  12  z  12

1
4 2 4
From this equation, we can see that the quadric surface is an
NOTE: The AXIS OF THE PARABOLOID corresponds to the variable ELLIPSOID centered at (2,-1,1).
raised to the FIRST POWER.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 12

 PROBABILITY THEORY ADDITION RULES OF PROBABILITY
Consider two events A and B, by using Venn diagram, we visualizes the
interactions between these two events in several scenarios:
FUNDAMENTALS OF PROBABILITY
SCENARIO #1: THE TWO CIRCLES INTERSECT
PROBABILITY - it tells/measures the likeliness that an EVENT will occur. A
probability of 0 tells that an event “will not” happen while a probability
of 1 tells that an event “will” happen. No probability has a value greater
than 1.

Three Universal Truths about Probabilities

Given that A is an event, A’ is any event other than A and S is the sample
space (sum of events A and A’), then: From the figure above, we can say that if event A has a probability P(A) of
1. 0  PA  1 happening and event B has a probability P(B) of happening, then there
are times that events A “and” B can happen at the same time. We call
2. PS   1 this INTERSECTION between events A and B or write A  B with a
3. PA'  1  PA probability of PA  B  .

If there are “n” equally likely outcomes of an experiment, of which one is

called a success “s”, then the probability of a success is:

number of ways " A" can occur s

P( A)  
total number of outcomes possible n
Now, suppose we have this figure above, notice that A and B are still
Example: intersecting but the main concern now is the possibility of events A “or”
1. If you randomly pick a person off the street, what is the probability that B “or” both happening. We call this UNION of event A and B or write
he was born on June? (Assume that all people in that street were not A  B with a probability of PA  B  .
born on a leap year).
SCENARIO #2: THE TWO CIRCLES DOES NOT INTERSECT
Solution:
Let A be the event that the person you pick off the street was born on
June. The probability that event A will happen is:

P A 
number of days in June 30

number of days in a year 365

P  A 
6
73 From the figure above, we can say that if we have two events A and B,
there is no possibility of A and B happening at the same time, then we
2. A car rental company has 18 compact cars and 12 midsize cars. If 4 call events A and B as MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE events.
cars are selected at random, what is the probability of getting 2 cars of
each type? Now, THINK ABOUT THIS:
Solution: “What is the probability of pulling an ACE “or” a TWO from a standard
Let A be the event that we get 2 cars of each type. It is also clear that deck of cards?”
there are a total of 18 + 12 = 30 cars available for our pick. The total It is by common sense that the probability of this event will happen is
number of ways to pick 4 cars out of these 30 cars is found by using
GREATER than the probability of just pulling an ACE or the probability of
COMBINATIONS (there’s no particular arrangements happening):
just pulling a TWO on the deck. To INCREASE the probability, we must
 30  30! 30  29  28  27 ADD probabilities together. But this is not just simple as adding individual
n       5  29  7  27  27405 ways
 4  26!4! 4  3  2 1 probabilities.
Now, for success (meaning, to pick 2 compact cars and 2 midsize cars):
In general, the probability of event A “or” B happening is given by the
18  18! 18  17 ADDITION RULES OF PROBABILITY:
     9  17  153  ways to choose 2 compact cars
 2  16!2! 2 1
12  12! 12  11
P A  B  P A  PB   P A  B 
     6  11  66  ways to choose 2 midsize cars A or B or both A and B
 2  10!2! 2 1
Therefore, total ways for success is If events A and B are MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE, then PA  B  0 .
18 12 
s      9  176  11  10098 ways of getting 2 cars of each type Examples:
 2  2 
The probability of getting 2 cars of each type is then; 1. You roll two dice. What is the probability that the sum is 3 or 4?
s 9  17 6  11 374
PA    Solution:
n 5  29  7  27 1015 Let A be the event that the sum is 3 when two dice are rolled and B be
the event that the sum is 4 when two dice are rolled. It is easy to see
that getting a sum of 3 and 4 at the same time is impossible. Therefore
PA  B  0 . Using the Addition Rules of Probability:

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 13

 PA  B  PA  PB  PA  B  
P  A  B   P A  P B A
A and B
P3 or 4 
2 3 5
 0 
 
36 36 36
wherein P B A is read as: “the probability of B given that A has occurred”
2. You roll two six-sided dice. What is the probability that the sum of the
dice is odd or divisible by 5? If A and B are INDEPENDENT EVENTS, then P B A  PB  
Solution: Examples:
Let A be the event that the sum of dice is odd while B be the event that
1. If you were born on June 23rd, what is the probability that two of your
the sum of the dice is divisible by 5. It can also be seen that it is possible
friends have the same birthday as you?
that these two events happen at the same time (sum of the dice is 5).
Therefore, for event A: Solution:
Let A be the event that your 1st friend has birthday on June 23 while
P  A 
1
 There are two possible results for sum, odd or even. B be the event that your 2nd friend also has birthday on June 23. Now,
2
For event B (sum of 5 or 10): we see that events A and B are INDEPENDENT since event A does
not affect event B. Therefore, by applying the formula for conditional
PB   P5  P10  P5 and 10 
4 3
 0 probability:
 
36 36
PA  B  PA  P B A  PA  PB
PB  
7
P A  B  
36 1 1 1
 
Now, for the intersection of events A and B (sum of the dice is 5): 365 365 133225

P A  B  
4 1
 2. You draw a card from a 52-card deck. You then draw a 2nd card
36 9 without replacing the first. What is the probability of getting an ace on
Thus, the probability that events A or B will happen is: the first draw and a king on the second draw?
PA  B  PA  PB  PA  B
Solution:
P A  B  
1 7 1 7 Let A be the event of getting an ace on the first draw while B be the
  
2 36 9 12 event of getting a king on the second draw. It is easy to see that events
A and B are DEPENDENT because after you draw the first card, you
PLEASE SOLVE:
will no longer replace this card and therefore the probability of the
A box has five white balls numbered 1-5 and five green balls numbered
second draw is now affected because of the first draw. By the
1-5. You choose one ball. What is the probability that it is white or odd
conditional probability:
numbered?
 
P A  B   P A  P B A 
4 4
 
4
52 51 663
CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY: THE “MULTIPLICATION RULE”
From the last lecture, we have dealt with problems in probability that
3. Find the probability of getting 8 heads in a row when tossing a coin.
uses the “OR” connector and we have found out that we need to “ADD”
probabilities in order to get the correct answer. In this lecture, we will Solution:
tackle probabilities that uses the “AND” connector and later we will find There are 8 events here. Let A be the event of getting a head on the
out that to arrive at the correct answer, we need to “MULTIPLY” first toss, B be the event of getting a head on the second toss, and so
probabilities. on until H be the event of getting a head on the eighth toss of a coin.
We also see that these events are INDEPENDENT with each other and
Basically, we will solve the probability of two or more events happening
by extending our formula on the conditional probability:
at the same time.
P A  B  C  D  E  F  G  H 
RECALL:  P( A)  P( B)  P(C )  P( D)  P( E )  P( F )  P(G)  P( H )
A  B  P A  PB   P A  B 
P A  B  C  D  E  F  G  H  
P 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
A or B or both A and B       
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

P A  B  C  D  E  F  G  H  
From the formula above, to find the probability of events A or B or both 1
to occur, we are just basically “ADDING” probabilities together because 256
the probability of an event A or B or both happening “should be higher”
4. Find the probability of getting three 3’s then a 4 or 5 in four rolls of a
than the individual probabilities.
die.
Now, THINK ABOUT THIS:
Solution:
“What is the probability of pulling an ACE “and” a TWO from a
Let A, B and C be the events of getting a 3 on the first, second and
standard deck of cards?”
third roll of a die respectively while D be the event of getting a 4 or 5
By logic, it make sense that the probability that this will happen should be in the fourth roll of the die. We see that these events are
“LOWER” than the individual probabilities because we are now making INDEPENDENT and inside event D, there are also two MUTUALLY
“restriction” on the events. Meaning to say, it is not enough for event A to EXCLUSIVE events happening. Therefore applying our formula:
happen neither event B; “they must both happen at the same time”. PA  B  C  D  P( A)  P( B)  P(C)  P( D)
1 1 1 1 1
P A  B  C  D  
Mathematically, we should MUTIPLY probabilities: 1
     
6 6 6  6 6  648
In general, the probability of events A “and” B happening at the same time
is defined by the CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY:

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 14

5. A couple plans to have 5 kids. What is the probability that there will be BAYES’ THEOREM is what we need to solve these kinds of problems.
at least one girl?
Let’s consider the probability that a car was built by plant B3 given
Solution: that it is purchased and proved to be error-free, that is P(B3|A).
This is a more complicated problem than the previous problems and
in fact we can’t directly apply our formula using a single equation. The By conditional probability:
P A  B3 
statement “at least” one girl can be rewritten as “1 or more” girls. If P A  B3   P A  P B3 A   
 P B3 A   P A
we define A be the event that the couple will have 1 or more girls. It is
“advisable” to define A’ to be the complement of event A; meaning Two critical things were noticed here:
to say A’ is the event of getting “no girls” or “5 boys”. Therefore, 1. P A have already been solved using the RULE OF ELIMINATION.
applying conditional probability on event A’:
2. PA  B3  can also be written down as PB3  A  PB3   P A B3 .  
P A' 
1 1 1 1 1 1
    
2 2 2 2 2 32
Therefore,
And we can compute on the probability of A by realizing that

P B3 A   
PB3   P A B3  
(0.1)(0.65)

13
P A  1  P A'  1 
1 31
 n
PBi   PA Bi 
0.875 175
32 32
i 1
BAYES’ THEOREM
This theorem “extends” our previous topic on conditional probability In general, the structure of our solution always boils down to this:
wherein there are “multiple ways” to proceed from event A to event B. In probabilit y of path we are int erested
order to visualize that, let’s start with this problem: P
probabilit y along all paths
“Three plants make cars. Plant B1 makes 60%, plant B2 makes 30% and
Given this point, we now present BAYES’ THEOREM:
plant B3 makes 10%. Further, 95% of cars from plant B1 never fail, 80%
of the cars from plant B2 never fail and 65% of cars from plant B3 never If B1, B2, B3, …, Bn are mutually exclusive events, then
fail. If I buy a car, what is the probability that it will be problem free?”

P Br A 
PBr   P A Br
  
Let B1, B2 and B3 be events that a purchased car comes from plant B1, B2 n
and B3 respectively. Now, considering the “distribution” of the cars built,  PBi   PA Bi 
we can build this diagram below i 1

  B 0.6 of cars Examples:

 0.3 of cars
1
car   B2 1. There are three hotels in town. 20% of your family stays in hotel B1,
 0
.1 of cars
 B3
 50% stay at hotel B2 and 30% stay at hotel B3. Furthermore, plumbing
is faulty in 5% of the rooms in hotel B1, 4% of rooms in B2 and 8% of
Furthermore, considering the amount of error-free (never fail) cars built
rooms in B3. What is the probability that a random family member has
by each of the plants. Let’s denote event A as the event that a car
faulty plumbing?
produced is problem free.
 0
.6 of cars
 B1  A
0.95 Solution:

 0.3 of cars 0.80 Let A be the event that a random family member has faulty plumbing
car   B2  A
 0
.1 of cars 0.65 and B1, B2 and B3 are events that a family member stayed at hotels B1,
  B3  A B2 and B3 respectively. Using a tree diagram to further visualize:

Now, notice that the line from B1 to A simply states the probability of A  0
.2 0.05
 B1  A

 0.5
given that it comes from B1, P(A|B1), the line from B2 to A is the family member  
0.04
 B2  A
probability of A given that it comes from B2, P(A|B2), and the line from  0
.3 0.08
  B3  A
B3 to A is the probability of A given that it comes from B3, P(A|B3). 
By the RULE OF ELIMINATION:
Take note that what we are solving is the probability of A, P(A), but we n
are seeing multiple paths in order to get at A. In order to achieve the
desired probability, we must consider all the paths in getting to A.
P A  PBi  PA Bi   (0.2)(0.05)  (0.5)(0.04)  (0.3)(0.08)
i 1
PA  0.054
PA  all paths  PB1 PA B1  PB2  PA B2   PB3  PA B3 
2. Janet, Tom, Georgia and Peter are doctors. Janet has 20% of patients,
This expression is called the RULE OF ELIMINATION. It states: Tom has 60%, Georgia has 15% and Peter has 5%. Janet is rude to 1 in
20 patients, Tom is rude to 1 in 10, Georgia is rude to 1 in 10 and Peter
“If events B1, B2, B3, …, Bn are mutually exclusive events
is rude to 1 in 20. If you are treated rudely, what is the probability that
of which one must occur, then
you went to see Tom?
n
P  A  PBi   PA Bi  Solution:
i 1 Let A be the event that you were treated rudely and event B 1, B2, B3
and B4 were events that you went to see Janet, Tom, Georgia and
Getting back to our example, the desired probability will be:
Peter respectively. Using a tree diagram to visualize:
P A  0.6  0.95  0.30  0.80  0.1  0.65  0.875 
7
 0
.20 B 1 20
 1  A
8  0.60
  2 1
B 10 A

From the problem given above, we have noticed that we are asked for the patients  0.15 1 10 A
  3 
B
probability of event A happening and considering all paths leading  0
.05 B 1 20
  4  A
to A. But what if we are asked for a probability of event A happening
considering not all the paths (maybe path B3 only)?

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 15

 Using Bayes’ Theorem: At a rate of 5 codes for each 30 minutes (equivalent to 10 codes per

 
P B2 A 

PB2   P A B2  hour), it would take the thief 650/10 = 65 hours to try all possible
4 codes.
 PBi   PA Bi  TAKE NOTE: The choice for the second letter DOES DEPEND on the
i 1
 1  choice of the first letter. However, the “number of choices” for the
(0.60)  second letter DOES NOT DEPEND on the choice of the first letter. This
  10 
is all that is required to apply the General Multiplication Principle.
 1   1   1   1 
(0.2)   (0.6)   (0.15)   (0.05) 
 20   10   10   20  2. A 2-digit code is constructed using the digits 1, 2 and 3. If the second
digit is required to be at least as large as the first digit, then how many
 
P B2 A 
24
35 such codes are possible?

GENERAL MULTIPLICATION PRINCIPLE
The primary technique of counting is to break a complex problem
into a sequence of simpler problems. Additionally, one must understand
how to combine the answers to the simple problems to obtain the
desired answer to the complex problem. Before we introduce the
General Multiplication Principle, let’s start with this example:
“A guest at a formal dinner has 4 entrée choices and 2 dessert choices.
If the guest’s dinner is entirely determined by these two choices, then
how many different dinner choices are there?”
Solution:
There are certainly 3 choices for the first digit. However, the “number
of choices” for the second digit DOES DEPEND on the first digit. For
example, if the first digit is 1, then there are 3 choices for the second
digit. Alternatively, if the first digit is a 2, then there are only 2 choices
for the second digit. Therefore, the General Multiplication DOES NOT
APPLY directly for this problem.

Solution:
Consider the tree diagram below

We see that there are (1)(3) + (1)(2) + (1)(1) = 6 possible codes.

3. How many octal (base-8) numbers are there of length n? Note that the
number is allowed to start with zeros.

Solution:
Since each of the n-digits can take any one of the 8 values (0 through
7), there are
8 8
   8  8n
 8 
n terms
As observed, each of the 4 branches connected to the root of the tree octal numbers of length n.
(GUEST) splits off into 2 more branches (2 choices of dessert per
entrée). Therefore, there are 4x2=8 different ends representing the 4. How many 3-digit (base-10) numbers (with nonzero hundreds digit)
various possible pairings of an entrée choice with a dessert choice. are divisible by 7?

This problem constitutes the idea of counting of a final outcome coming Solution:
from set of outcomes. This principle applies not only for two individual Of the 3-digit numbers
outcomes but for any number of outcomes. We now present the General
100, 101, …, 104, 105, 106, …, 111, 112, 113, …, 993, 994, 995, …, 999
Multiplication Principle.
the numbers
GENERAL MULTIPLICATION PRINCIPLE 105,112, …, 994
“Suppose that n≥2 and each outcome in a set A is uniquely are divisible by 7. That is, we need to count the multiples of 7:
characterized by a sequence of outcomes, one from each of a sequence of 105 = 7(15), 112 = 7(16), …, 994 = 7(142).
sets A1, A2, A3, …, An. As an additional requirement, for each 2≤k≤n, the Hence, there is a correspondence between the multiples of 7 and the
number |Ak| must not depend on any of the sets Ai for 1≤i≤k-1. Under numbers
these conditions, A can be counted as” 15, 16, …, 142
A  A1  A2  A3    An Therefore, the number of 3-digit positive integers (with nonzero
hundreds digit) divisible by 7 equals the number of integers from 15
Examples: to 142, inclusive.
142 – 15 + 1 = 128
1. If a home security code consists of a sequence of two distinct letters (A 3-digit multiples of 7.
to Z). If a thief could try only 5 possible codes every 30 minutes, how
long (in hours) would it take the thief to try all possible codes?
GENERAL ADDITION PRINCIPLE
Solution: Besides the multiplication principle and its consequences, we need
The first letter can be any of the letters A to Z. Hence, there are 26 tools to handle problems that naturally break into cases. For such
choices for the first letter. Once the first letter is chosen, there remain problems, we need to appropriately combine results obtained in those
only 25 letters from which to choose the second letter. By cases.
Multiplication Principle
total number of codes = 26(25) = 650

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 16

 DISJOINT EVENTS – are events that do not have an intersection.
Basically, it means that there are no commonalities between the events
defined. This is just the same as MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS. For
two events A and B:
A B  0

Given that events are DISJOINT, we now introduce the GENERAL To combine sets A and B (that is, the UNION of A and B), it is noticed that
ADDITION PRINCIPLE:
the INTERSECTION A  B is counted twice in the sum | A |  | B | and must
therefore be subtracted off. Thus, we now present the INCLUSION-
A1    An  A1  A2    An
EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE.
Examples: Given finite sets A and B,
1. How many possible license plates consisting of 6 digits (0 to 9) have A B  A  B  A B
either all digits distinct or all digits the same?
Examples:

Solution: 1. A standard die is rolled a sequence of 5 times. In how many ways can
There are P(10,6) plates with all digits distinct and 10 with all digits the the sequence of numbers resulting be all even or all multiples of 3?
same. Certainly no one plate can have both of these properties Solution:
(DISJOINT). Hence, the total number of license plates under Let A be the set of 5-number sequence of all even numbers while B be
consideration is the set of sequence resulting to multiples of 3. Since there are 3 even
P(10,6) + 10 = 151210 values (2, 4 and 6), there are 35 ways to get all even numbers. Knowing
2. The lawyer for the prosecution in a certain court case wants the jury that there are 2 multiples of 3 (3 and 6), there are 2 5 ways to get all
of 12 to contain more women than men. If the jury pool contains 15 multiples of 3. Only the value 6 is both even and a multiple of 3, so
men and 9 women, then how many different possible juries would there is 1 way to do both (namely, 66666). Therefore, using
satisfy this lawyer? INCLUSION-EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE, there are
A  B  A  B  A  B  35  25  1  274
Solution:
To have more women than men on the jury, there must be one of the ways on doing what is required by the problem.
following possibilities:
2. Two witnesses to a bank robbery had different memories of the license
5 men and 7 women
plate on the getaway car. Both agreed that the plate consisted of 6
4 men and 8 women
digits. However, one noticed that there were exactly 2 ones, and the
3 men and 9 women
other noticed that there were exactly 3 nines on the plate. To be safe,
There are only 9 women; we cannot have 10 or more women on the
and realizing that one of the witnesses might be mistaken, the police
jury. Since the listed possibilities are DISJOINT, we obtain
want to consider both possibilities. How many license plate consisting
15  9  15  9  15  9  of 6 digits (0 to 9) have exactly 2 ones or 3 nines?
            120848
 5  7   4  8   3  9 
possible juries with more women than men. Solution:
Our universe of consideration is the set of 6-digit license plates. Let A
3. A bag contains 8 red, 4 blue, 7 green and 5 yellow balls. A box is to be denote the set of plates with exactly 2 ones. Let B denote the set of
filled with 3 balls. How many ways are there to do this so that at least plates with exactly 3 nines. Hence, A  B is the set of plates with both
two colors are used? Note that the 24 balls are considered 2 ones and 3 nines, and A  B is the set of plates with 2 ones or 3
distinguishable.
nines. By the INCLUSION-EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE, there are
Solution:  6  6  6  4 
A  B  A  B  A  B     94     93      8  113475
Let A be the set of ways to fill the box with at least two colors are used.  
2  
3  2  3 
The total number of ways (we will call this the UNIVERSAL SET, U)to license plates satisfying the problem.
fill the box with 3 balls is
 8  4  7  5   24 
U        2024
 3  3
The number of monochromatic ways (the COMPLEMENT of set A) to
fill the box is
8  4  7   5
A              105
 3  3   3   3 
Hence, using the COMPLEMENT PRINCIPLE, there are
A  U  A  2024  105  1919
ways to fill the box using at least 2 colors.

INCLUSION-EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
The General Addition Principle does not handle problems in
which the relevant sets are not disjoint. In those cases, some subtraction
is needed. Considering the Venn diagram below:

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 17

 CALCULUS This converts the limit into an indeterminate form of type 0 0 or   so
that we can now use L’Hospital’s Rule.
WEIERSTRASS SUBSTITUTION
- devised by the German mathematician Karl Weierstrass in Example:
converting any rational function of sin x and cos x into an ordinary
rational function.  Evaluate lim x ln x .
x 0
Draw a right triangle with legs of lengths 1 and t with t opposite the angle
Solution:
x x
so that t  tan in the interval   x   . By derivation: The first factor (x) approaches 0 while the second factor (ln x)
2 2
approaches  . Therefore the given limit is indeterminate. Now,
x t x 1
sin  ; cos  lim x ln x  lim
ln x
 lim
1x
2 2
1 t2 1 t2 x 0 
x0 1 x 
x0  1 x 2
It follows that lim x ln x  lim  x   0
2 x0 x0
2t 1 t 2dt
sin x  ; cos x  ; dx 
1 t2 1 t2 1 t2 CASE 2: INDETERMINATE DIFFERENCES

Example: If lim f x    and lim g x    , then the limit

x a x a
lim  f x   g x 

dx
1. Find .
3sin x  4 cos x xa
is called an indeterminate form of type    . To find this limit, we TRY
TO CONVERT THE DIFFERENCE INTO A QUOTIENT (for instance, by
using a common denominator, rationalization or factoring out a common
factor) so that we have an indeterminate form of type 0 0 or   .

Solution: Example:
Applying Weierstrass substitution to the problem we get:
2dt  Compute lim sec x  tan x .
2 x 2
1 t
  
dx dt
3sin x  4 cos x

 2t   1  t 2 
3   4
2
32t   4 1  t 2   Solution:
2  2
 1 t   1 t  By direct substitution, sec x   as well as tan x   . Therefore, the
limit is indeterminate. Now,
 2t 2  3t  2
dt
  1 sin x 
lim sec x  tan x  lim   
x 2 x 2  cos x cos x 
2 1 
 2t 1t  2    5  2t  1  5  t  2 dt
dt 1 1

1  sin x  cos x
 lim  lim 0
x 2 cos x x  2  sin x

1
5

ln 2t  1  ln t  2  c  ln 
1 2t  1
5 t2
c
CASE 3: INDETERMINATE POWERS
x
2 tan   1 Several indeterminate forms arise from the limit
2

dx 1
lim  f x g x 
 ln c
3sin x  4 cos x 5 x
tan   2 x a
2
1. lim f x   0 and lim g x   0  type 00
0  xa xa
LIMITS OF INDETERMINATE FORMS OTHER THAN AND

lim f x    and lim g x   0
0
2.  type 0
We know that the limit of an evaluated function in the form above can xa xa
be found using L’Hospital’s Rule. But there are other indeterminate forms
3. lim f x   1 and lim g x     type 1
which cannot be directly solved (on the first glance) by this method. The xa xa
following are such cases:
Each of these cases can be treated BY WRITING THE FUNCTION AS
CASE 1: INDETERMINATE PRODUCTS EXPONENTIAL.

If lim f x   0 and lim g x    or   , then it is not clear what the

x a xa  f xg x  e g xln f x
lim g x ln f x 
value of lim f x g x  , if any, will be. There is a “struggle” between f and lim  f x g x   e x a
xa
xa
g. If f wins, the answer will be 0; if g wins, the answer will be  or   .
Or there may be a compromise where the answer is a finite nonzero Example:
number. This kind of limit is called an indeterminate form of type 0   .
 Find lim x x .
We can deal with it BY WRITING THE PRODUCT AS QUOTIENT: x 0 

f g Solution:
fg  or fg 
1g 1 f Notice that this limit is indeterminate since 0 x  0 for any x greater
than 0 but x0  1 for any x not equal to 0. Now, writing the function
as exponential:

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 18

 lim x ln x  Finally,

 

lim x x  e x 0  e0 0 0
x0
 xe dx  t lim t
x
xex dx  lim  tet  1  et
t 
lim x x  1
x0 0
 xe dx  0  1  0  1
x

IMPROPER INTEGRALS
In defining a definite integral 
 1  x2 dx .
1
2. Evaluate:
b
a f xdx
Solution:
we dealt with a function f defined on a finite interval [a,b] and we
It’s convenient to choose a = 0, so that
assumed that f does not have an infinite discontinuity. IMPROPER
 0 
 1  x2 dx   1  x2 dx  0 1  x2 dx
INTEGRALS are integrals that have infinite interval (TYPE 1) or has an 1 1 1
infinite discontinuity in [a,b] (TYPE 2).
Evaluating these integrals:
TYPE 1: INFINITE INTERVALS
 0 t
 1  x2 dx  t lim t 1  x2  tlim
 0 1  x 2
1 dx dx
Consider the infinite region S that lies under the curve y = 1/x 2, above the

   
x-axis and to the right of the line x = 1. You might think that, since S is 0 t
infinite in extent, its area must be infinite, but let’s take a closer look. The  lim tan1 x t  lim tan1 x 0
t  t 
area of the part of S that lies to the left of the line x = t is
t  lim tan 0  tan t  lim tan
1 1 1
t  tan1 0 
t  1
At  

1 1 t  t 
dx     1 
1 x2  x 1 t
      
 0        0   
Notice that At   1 no matter how   2    2 
large t is chosen. We also observe
that TYPE 2: DISCONTINUOUS INTEGRANDS
 1
lim At   lim 1    1
t  t  t
The area of the shaded region approaches 1 as t   , so we say that the
area of the infinite region S is equal to 1 and we write
 1 t 1
1 x2
dx  lim
t  1 x 2
dx  1

t Suppose that f is a positive continuous function defined on a finite interval
 If
a f xdx exist for every number t  a ,then [a,b) but has a vertical asymptote at b. For TYPE 1 integrals, the region is
 t
extended indefinitely in a horizontal direction. The figure above shows
a f xdx  tlim
 a
f x dx otherwise; the region is extended indefinitely in a vertical direction
from a to b.
b
 If
t f xdx exist for every number t  b ,then If it happens that A(t) approaches a definite number A as t  b , then we
b b say that the area of the region S is A and we write it as:
 f xdx  t lim t f xdx b t
 a a f xdx  t limb a f xdx

 If both
a f xdx and  f xdx are convergent, then we define This equation is applicable even when f is not a positive function, no matter
 a  what type of discontinuity f has at b.
 f xdx   f xdx  a f xdx
 If f is continuous on [a,b) and is discontinuous at b, then
NOTE: The improper integral is CONVERGENT if the b t
corresponding limit exists while DIVERGENT if the limit does not
exist.
a f xdx  t limb a f xdx


 If f is continuous on (a,b] and is discontinuous at a, then

b b
Examples: a f xdx  t lima t f xdx


c
1. Evaluate:

0
xex dx .
 If f has a discontinuous at c, where a  c  b , and both
a f x 
b
Solution:
and
c f x are convergent, then
Using the definition above: b c b
0 0 a f xdx  a f xdx  c f xdx
 xe dx  t lim t
x x
xe dx
NOTE: The improper integral is CONVERGENT if the
Integrating by parts: corresponding limit exist while DIVERGENT if the limit does not
0
t   
xex dx  xex t 
0 0
t
e x dx  tet  1  et
exist.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 19

Examples: and whose height is the same as the right edge of the strip as in the figure
5 below:
2
1
1. Find: dx .
x2

Solution:
The given integral is improper because the integrand is vertically
asymptotic at x = 2. Since the infinite discontinuity occurs at the left
endpoint of [2,5], the integral becomes:
5
2
1
x2
dx  lim
x2  t
5

x  2 t 2
 dx
 lim 2 x  2 t

5
 lim 2 3  2 t  2 
In other words, the heights of these rectangles are the values of the

function f(x) = x2 at the right endpoints of the subintervals [0,1/4],
t 2
[1/4,1/2], [1/2,3/4] and [3/4,1]. Each rectangle has width 1/4 and the
2 3 heights are (1/4)2, (1/2)2, (3/4)2 and 12. If we let R4 be the sum of the areas
of these approximating rectangles, we get

0
dx 2 2 2
2. Evaluate: . 11 11 13
         12 
1 15
x x  1 R4 
44 42 44 4 32

Solution: 15
And we see that the area A of S is less than R 4, so A .
The graph of the integrand is shown below 32
In a similar fashion, instead of using the right endpoints to define the
heights of the approximating rectangles, we can use the left endpoints
of the subintervals like the one below:

This type of integral is sometimes called DOUBLY IMPROPER

INTEGRAL. To evaluate this integral, split it at a convenient point (say,
x = 1) and write: Letting L4 be the sum of the approximating rectangles, we get
  2 2 2
1 2 11
0     1  1   1  3   7
1
0 0 1
dx dx dx
  L4 
x x  1 x x  1 x x  1 4 44 42 44 32
1 t 7
 
dx dx And we see also that the area A of S is greater than L4, so A  .
 lim  lim
t 0 t x x  1 t  1 x x  1 32
From the results above, we can conclude that
 
1
 lim 2 tan1 x t  lim 2 tan1 x 1

t 0 t 
 t
7
 A
15
32 32
     
 2   0  2   2    How to arrive on the true value of A? The answer will be obtained if we
4 2 4
increase the number of strips until infinity.

THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

We begin by attempting to solve the “area problem”. Find the area of the
region S under the parabola y = x2 from x = 0 to x = 1. The figure below
shows the area we are talking of

From the figure above, the sum of the areas R n of n approximating

rectangles is computed as
2 2 2 2
11 12 13 1n
It is easy to solve for area of regions with straight sides; for example, in a Rn            
rectangle, the area is defined as the product of the length and width nn nn nn nn
whereas for a triangle, the area is half the base times height. But it is not
easy to find the area of a region with curved sides, like the parabola above. 
1
n3
1  2
2 2 
 32    n2 
1  nn  12n  1 

n3  6 

Recall, that in defining a tangent, we first approximated the slope of
Rn 
n  12n  1  2n2  3n  1
the tangent line by slopes of secant lines and then we took the limit
6n 2 6n 2
of these approximations. We will pursue a similar idea for areas.
Taking the limit as n approaches infinity (this will be the area A of region
Going back to the problem, suppose we divide S into four strips S 1, S2, S3 S):
and S4 by drawing vertical lines x = 1/4, x = 1/2, and x = 3/4 and then
approximate each strip by a rectangle whose base is the same as the strip

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 20

 Examples:
2n2  3n  1 1
A  lim Rn  lim 
n n6n2 3 1. Evaluate:
It can also be shown that the lower approximating sums also approaches n
n
3 3i
this value, that is lim 1
n  n
1 i 1
A  lim Ln 
n 3 Solution:
Let’s apply this idea to the more general region S as shown below: n n
4 1 4 1
n 
3 3i
lim 1  lim 1 i
n n n n n
i 1 i 1
n 4
2 

4

3 3i 14
lim 1  x dx   x3 2  
n
i 1
n n 1 3 1 3

2. Evaluate:
n
 i
We start by subdividing S into n strips S1, S2, S3, …, Sn of equal widths (this lim
n
 4n tan 4n
is called a regular partition). The width of the interval [a,b] is b – a, so the i 1
width of each of the n strips is
Solution:
ba
x  n
 i  4  0 tan0   4  0 i
n
These strips divide the interval [a,b] into n subintervals
lim
n
 4n tan 4n  nlim
 n 
 n 

i 1
[ x0 , x1], [ x1, x2 ], [ x2 , x3 ], , [ xn1, xn ]  where x0  a and xn  b
0 4  ln  
n  4
Instead of using left endpoints or right endpoints, we could take the height lim

 4n tan 4n  0
i

tan xdx  ln sec x 2
n
of the ith rectangle to be the value of f at any number xi* in the ith i 1
subinterval [xi-1,xi]. We call the numbers x1*, x2*, …, xn* the sample points.
This is illustrated below: 3. Evaluate:
n  5 2
 2i 
n
 31  n 
lim  6
n
i 1  

Solution:
n  5 2 n  5 
 2i  3 1 31  3  1 i   6
lim
n
 31  n   6  lim
 n n n   n  
i 1   i 1  

 
n  3
Therefore, the more general expression for the area S is  2i 
5 2  x6 

3
lim 31    6   5
3x  6 dx    6 x  352
        
  n  2 
n n n 1
A  lim [ f x1* x  f x2* x    f xn* x]  lim f xi* x i 1   1
n n
i 1
PLEASE SOLVE:

    f xi* 
n n
ba ba
A  lim f xi*  lim n
i4
n n n
 n5
n
i 1 i 1 a. Evaluate: lim
n 

 f xi* x
n i 1
The sum is called the Riemann sum, after the German n
 1  i n2
1 1
i 1 b. Evaluate: lim
n n
mathematician Bernhard Riemann. i 1

And we define the DEFINITE INETGRAL from this concept:

 f xi*   a f xdx
n
ba b
lim
n n
i 1

To further simplify, if we choose the sample points xi* to be on the right

ba
endpoints, then xi*  a  ix  a  i . So that,
n
n
ba  ba  ba
 f  a 
b
i   f x dx  where x  a 
lim
n n
i 1
n  a  n
i

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 21

 VECTOR ANALYSIS Distance Formula in Three Dimensions

THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL COORDINATE SYSTEM

To locate a point in a plane, two numbers are necessary. We know
that any point in the plane can be represented as an ordered pair (a,b) of
real numbers, where a is the x-coordinate and b is the y-coordinate. For
this reason, a plane is called two-dimensional. To locate a point in space,
three numbers are required. We represent any point in space by an
ordered triple (a,b,c) of real numbers.

The distance P1 P2 between the points P1 x1 , y1 , z1  and

P2 x 2 , y 2 , z 2  is determined by the formula

P1P2  x2  x12   y2  y12  z2  z12

VECTOR – used to indicate a quantity that has both magnitude and

The coordinate axes and coordinate planes
Now, if P is any point in space, let a be the (directed) distance from
the yz-plane to P, let b be the distance from the xz-plane to P, and let c be
the distance from the xy-plane to P. We represent the point P by the
ordered triple (a,b,c) of real numbers called the coordinates of P. This was
shown in the figure below.
direction. A vector is often represented by an arrow wherein the tail is
called the initial point and the tip (arrowhead) is called the terminal
point.
VECTOR ADDITION
TRIANGLE LAW
If u and v are vectors positioned so the initial point of v is at the
terminal point of u, then the sum u + v is the vector from the initial
point of u to the terminal point of v

This point P(a,b,c) also determines a rectangular box as shown

below. If we drop a perpendicular from P to the xy-plane, we get a point
Q with coordinates (a,b,0) called the projection of P on the xy-plane. PARALLELOGRAM LAW
The same thing can be said on points R and Q on the figure. If u and v starts at the same point in space, then u + v lies along
the diagonal of the parallelogram with u and v as sides.

 
The Cartesian product       x, y, z  x, y, z   is the set of all
ordered triples of real numbers and is denoted by  3 . We have given a
one-to-one correspondence between points P in space and ordered
triples (a,b,c) in  3 and this is called a three-dimensional rectangular
coordinate system. In two-dimensional analytic geometry, the graph of
an equation involving x and y is a CURVE in 2 . In three-dimensional
analytic geometry, an equation in x,y and z represents a SURFACE in  3
.
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
If c is a scalar and v is a vector, then the scalar multiple cv is the
vector whose length is |c| times the length of v and whose direction is
the same as v if c > 0 and is opposite to v if c < 0. If c = 0 or v = 0, then cv
= 0.
COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR
For most purposes it’s best to introduce a coordinate system and
treat vectors algebraically. If we place the initial point of a vector a at the
origin of a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system, then the
terminal point of a has coordinates of the form (a1,a2,a3) as shown below:

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 22

 These coordinates are called the components of a and we write Solution:
We first express T1 and T2 in terms of their horizontal and vertical
a  a1 , a 2 , a3  components. From the figure in right:

we use the notation  a1 , a 2 , a3  in referring to a vector’s components so T1   T1 cos 50  i  T1 sin 50  j

as not to confuse it with the ordered triple (a 1.a2,a3) that refers to a point
in space. T2  T2 cos 32  i  T2 sin 32  j

Now, given two points Ax1, y1, z1 and Bx2 , y2 , z2  in space, the vector
The resultant T1 + T2 of the tensions counterbalances the weight w and
a with representation AB is
so we must have
a   x 2  x1 , y 2  y1 , z 2  z1  T1  T2  w  100 j

And the length (also called magnitude) of this vector |a| is equal to  T1 cos50  T2 cos32 i  T1 sin 50  T2 sin 32 j  100 j
Equating components, we get
|a|  x2  x1 2   y 2  y1 2  z 2  z1 2  T1 cos 50   T2 cos 32   0  eq.1

Another way of representing a vector a algebraically is by introducing T1 sin 50   T2 sin 32   100  eq.2
these three unit vectors, namely Solving these two equations simultaneously we have:
i  1,0,0 ; j  0,1,0 ; k  0,0,1 50 cos 32  100 50 sin 50 
T1  ; T2  
 
sin 18 sin 32 sin 18 tan 32 
The vectors i, j and k are called the standard basis vectors. They have
length 1 and points in the directions of the positive x-, y-, and z-axes.
DOT PRODUCT
a   x2  x1 , y 2  y1 , z 2  z1   x2  x1 i   y 2  y1  j  z 2  z1 k
- sometimes called SCALAR PRODUCT or INNER PRODUCT. It is a
product of two vectors in which the value is a scalar. When interpreted
geometrically, it defines the angle between two vector when
UNIT VECTOR - is a vector whose length is 1. In general, if a  0 , then the positioned from a common point.
unit vector u that has the same direction as a is
Given two nonzero vectors a  a1, a2 , a3 and b  b1, b2 , b3 ;
a a i  a2 j  a3k
u  1
a
a12  a22  a32 a  b  a1b1  a2b2  a3b3
a  b  a b cos
Examples:

1. Find the radius of the sphere with equation PROPERTIES OF THE DOT PRODUCT
x2  y 2  z 2  4 x  6 y  2 z  6  0 If a, b and c are vectors in space and c is a scalar, then:
2
1. a  a  a
Solution:
A sphere is the set of all points in space whose distance from a fixed 2. a  b  b  a
center (C) is r. By completing the square 3. a  b  c  a  b  a  c
x2  4x  4 y2  6 y  9 z2  2z 1  6  4  9 1 4. ca  b  ca  b  a  cb
x  2  y  3  z  1
2 2 2
8
So the radius (r) is equal to APPLICATION #1 : ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS

r2 8  r  2 2 Question:
Find the angle between the two vectors
2. Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector a = 2i + 2j – k
2i – j – 2k b = 5i – 4j + 2k
Solution: Solution:
The given vector has length By applying the definition of the dot product, we have:
|2i – j – 2k|  22   12   22  3 cos 
a b

25  24  12
 2 2  2 2
 2  2   1  5   4  2 
ab 2 2
So the required unit vector u is
  
2i  j  2k 2 1 2
u  i j k 0
3 3 3 3 cos 
9 5
3. A 100-lb weight hangs from two wires as shown below
  90

CONCLUSION: Two vectors are perpendicular iff a  b  0 .

Find the magnitude of the tensions T1 and T2 in both wires.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 23

 APPLICATION #2 : DIRECTION ANGLES & DIRECTION COSINES APPLICATION #3 : SCALAR & VECTOR PROJECTIONS

DIRECTION ANGLES: are the angles  ,  , and  in the interval 0,2  SCALAR PROJECTION
that the nonzero vector a makes with the positive x-, y-, and z-axes
respectively.

If S is the foot of the perpendicular from R to the line containing PQ, then
the SCALAR PROJECTION of b onto a (also called component of b along
a) is defined to be the signed magnitude of the vector projection PS.
DIRECTION COSINES: are the cosines of the direction angles of the vector
a. a b
compab 
a
Using the basic definition of the dot product:
a  i a1 VECTOR PROJECTION
cos  
ai a
a  j a2
cos   
a j a
a  k a3
cos  
ak a
We can deduce from the three equations above that the components of
vector a can be expressed as:
If S is the foot of the perpendicular from R to the line containing PQ, then
a  a1, a2 , a3   a cos , a cos  , a cos 
the VECTOR PROJECTION of b onto a (you can think of it as a shadow of
a  a cos , cos  , cos  b) is defined as the “vector” equivalent of the scalar projection of b onto a.

a
 u  cos , cos  , cos   It tells that the direction cosines  a b  a
projab     compab  a
a of a are the components of the  a a a
 
unit vector in the direction of a
Furthermore: Notice that the vector projection is the scalar projection times the unit
2 2 2 vector in the direction of a.
a  a  a 
cos2   cos2   cos2    1    2    3 
a  a   a  Question:
     
A force is given by a vector
2
a 2  a22  a32 a F = 3i + 4j + 5k N
cos2   cos2   cos2   1  and moves a particle from the point P(2,1,0) to the point Q(4,6,2). Find
2 2
a a
the work done.(Take note: distance traveled is in meters).
cos2   cos2   cos2   1 Solution:
Question:
Find the angle that the vector
a  2i  5 j  3k
makes with the z-axis.

Solution: If the force moves the object from P to Q, then the displacement vector
To find the direction angle, we always start on finding the unit vector in
the directon of the given vector. is D = PQ . The work done by this force is defined to be the product of
the component of the force (SCALAR PROJECTION of F) along D and
a 2i  5 j  3k
u  the distance moved
a
 2  32
22   5 
W  compD F  D  F cos D 
u
2
i
10
j
2
k W  F D cos  F  D
3 2 6 2
The angle that the given vector makes with the z-axis is determined by The displacement vector is
the z-component of the unit vector above.
D  PQ   (4  2), (6  1), (2  0)   2,5,2
2
cos     45 Therefore, the work done will be:
2
W  F  D  3,4,5  2,5,2
TIP: Always start with finding the unit vector equivalent of a given W  32  45  52  36 J
vector when finding direction angles.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 24

CROSS PRODUCT Solution:
- sometimes called VECTOR PRODUCT. It is a product of two vectors From the figure in left, we can see
which yields a vector. When interpreted geometrically, it defines the that the sides of the quadrilateral
area of the parallelogram determined by two vectors. correspond to the following four
vectors:
Given two vectors a  a1, a2 , a3 and b  b1, b2 , b3 :
AB = -3i + 4j + k
AD = 0i – 2j + 6k
i j k
CD = 3i – 4j – k
a  b  a1 a2 a3 CB = 0i + 2j – 6k
b1 b2 b3
So AB is parallel to CD and AD is
a  b  a b sin  parallel to CB, and you can
conclude that the quadrilateral is a
PROPERTIES OF THE CROSS PRODUCT parallelogram with AB and AD as
If a and b are vectors in space, then: adjacent sides.
1. The cross product a  b is defined only when a and b are three-
dimensional vectors, meaning to say, the cross product does not Thus, finding the CROSS PRODUCT between vectors AB and AD:
apply to two-dimensional vectors. i j k
2. The vector a  b is ORTHOGONAL (PERPENDICULAR) to both a AB  AD   3 4 1  26i  18 j  6k
and b. 0 2 6
3. The direction of a  b is given by the “right-hand rule”. If the Therefore, the area will be the magnitude of this vector:
fingers of your right hand curl in the direction of rotation from a to
b, then your thumb points in the direction of a  b . AB  AD  262  182  62

AB  AD  2 259 s.u.

APPLICATION #2 : FINDING THE VOLUME OF A PARALLELEPIPED

PARALLELEPIPED – a polyhedron, all of whose faces are parallelogram.

4. Two nonzero vector a and b are PARALLEL iff a  b  0 .

THEOREMS ON THE CROSS PRODUCT

If a, b and c are vectors in space and c is a scalar, then:
1. a  b  b  a
2. ca b  ca  b  a  cb The geometric significance of the SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT (also called
TRIPLE SCALAR PRODUCT) can be seen by considering the figure above.
3. a  b  c  a  b  a  c
The area (A) of the base (a parallelogram) is
4. a  b c  a  c  b  c A  bc
5. a  b  c  a  b  c  SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT
If  is the angle between a and b x c, then the height (h) of the
6. a  b  c  a  cb  a  bc  VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT parallelepiped is
h  a cos
APPLICATION #1 : FINDING THE AREA OF A PARALLELOGRAM Thus the volume of the parallelepiped is
V  Ah  b  c a cos  a  b  c 

a1 a2 a3
V  a  b  c   b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3

The geometric interpretation of the CROSS PRODUCT can be seen by

Question:
looking at the figure above. If a and b are represented by the directed line
Find the volume of the parallelepiped having the vectors
segments with the same initial point, then they determine a parallelogram
u = 3i – 5j + k
with base a , altitude b sin  , and area v = 2j – 2k
w = 3i + j + k

A  baseheight   a b sin   a  b as its adjacent edges.

Solution:
Question:
Find the area of the parallelogram having vertices at A(5,2,0), B(2,6,1),
C(2,4,7) and D(5,0,6).

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 25

 By using the Scalar Triple Product:
V  u  v  w

3 5 1
2 2 0 2
  5  1
0 2
V  0 2 2 3
1 1 3 1 3 1
3 1 1

V  34  56  16  36 c.u.

APPLICATION #3 : TORQUE
TORQUE – measures the tendency to rotate about an origin. It is also the
moment M of a force F about a point P. The figure below illustrates this
definition:
Let v  a, b, c be a vector parallel to L, P(x,y,z) be an arbitrary point on L,
r0 and r be the position vectors of P0 and P (that is, they have
representations OP0 and OP). From this illustration, we can express the
equation of line L in three forms: VECTOR FORM, PARAMETRIC FORM
and SYMMETRIC FORM.

FORM #1: VECTOR EQUATION

From the figure above, if a is vector from P0 to P, then the TRIANGLE LAW
of vector addition gives:
r = r0 + a
But since a and v are parallel vectors, there is a scalar t such that a = tv.
Thus, the vector equation (r) for L is
If the point of application of the force is at Q, the moment of F about P is
given by r  ro  tv
M = PQ x F r   xo , yo , zo   t a, b, c
wherein the magnitude of the moment (torque) M measures the tendency r  xo  at i   yo  bt  j  zo  ctk
of the position vector PQ to rotate counterclockwise (using the right-
hand rule) about an axis directed along the vector M. wherein the components a, b and c are called the DIRECTION NUMBERS
of line L.
Question:
A vertical force of 50 pounds is applied to the end of a one-foot lever Example:
that is attached to an axle at point P, as shown below. Find the moment Find a vector equation for the line that passes through the point (5,1,3)
and is parallel to the vector i + 4j – 2k.
of this force about the point P when   60 .
Solution:

Solution:
If you represent the 50-pound force as Here ro  5,1,3  5i  j  3k and v  i  4 j  2k . The vector equation is:
F  50k r  ro  tv  5i  j  3k   t i  4 j  2k 
and the lever as
r  5  t i  1  4t  j  3  2t k
  1
PQ  cos 60 j  sin 60 k 
2
j
2
3
k 
The moment (torque) of F about P is given by FORM #2: PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
i j k
1 3
M  PQ  F  0  25i
2 2
0 0  50

The magnitude of this moment is

M  25 ft  lb

LINES IN THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPACE
A line in the xy-plane is determined when a point on the line and the
direction (slope) are given. Likewise, a line L in three-dimensional space
is determined when we know a point P0(x0,y0,z0) on L and the
direction of L (conveniently described by a vector).
From the figure above, we can see that as the parameter t varies, the line
is traced out by the tip of the vector r. Positive values of t correspond to
points on L that lie on one side of P0, whereas negative values of t
correspond to points that lie on the other side of P 0. If the vector v that
gives direction of the line L is written in component form as v  a, b, c ,
then we have tv  at , bt , ct . Also, if r   x, y, z and ro   xo , yo , zo  , the
vector equation in the previous discussion will become:

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 26

 r  ro  tv   x, y, z   xo  at, yo  bt , zo  ct  11 1 
Thus, the line AB will intersect the xy-plane at point  , ,0  .
4 4 
Two vectors are equal if and only if corresponding components are
equal. Therefore the PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS of the line L through SKEW LINES - are lines that do not intersect and are not parallel (and
the point P0(x0,y0,z0) and parallel to the vector v  a, b, c are given as: therefore do not lie in the same plane).

Given two lines L1 and L2 in PARAMETRIC FORM:

x  xo  at ; y  yo  bt ; z  zo  ct
L1 : x  x1  a1t ; y  y1  b1t ; z  z1  c1t
Example: L2 : x  x2  a2s ; y  y2  b2s ; z  z2  c2s
Find the parametric equations of the line that passes through the points These two lines are parallel if and only if the proportion below was
A(2,4,-3) and B(3,-1,1). satisfied:
Solution: a1 b c
 1  1
We are not explicitly given a vector (v) parallel to the line, but since this is a2 b2 c2
parallel to the line AB:
v  3  2,1  4,1  3  1,5,4
Not satisfying the proportion above will mean that the lines are not parallel
and it will also follow that these lines have no intersection.
The direction numbers are a = 1, b = -5 and c = 4. Using the point A(2,4,-
3), the parametric equations representing line AB will be Example:
Show that the lines with parametric equations
x  2  t ; y  4  5t ; z  3  4t
L1 : x  1  t ; y  2  3t ; z  4  t

FORM #3: SYMMETRIC EQUATIONS L2 : x  2s ; y  3 s ; z  3  4s

are skew.
Another way of describing a line L is to eliminate the parameter t from
FORM #2. If none of a, b, or c is 0, we can solve each of these equations Solution:
for t, and then equate the results to obtain The lines are not parallel since the corresponding direction numbers
a1, b1, c1  1,3,1 ; a2 , b2 , c2   2,1,4
x  x0 y  y0 z  z0
  are not proportional. If L1 and L2 had a point of intersection, there would
a b c be values of t and s such that
If you are given two points P0(x0,y0,z0) and P1(x1,y1,z1), then the direction 1  t  2s ;  2  3t  3  s ; 4  t  3  4s
numbers v  a, b, c will then be: But if we solve the first two equations, we get t = 11/5 and s = 8/5, and
these values do not satisfy the third equation. Therefore, there are no
a  x1  x0 ; b  y1  y0 ; c  z1  z0 values of t and s that satisfy the three equations (L1 and L2 do not
Therefore, the symmetric equation above can also be expressed (in terms intersect). Hence L1 and L2 are SKEW LINES.
of two points) as
PLANES IN THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPACE
x  x0 y  y0 z  z0
  RECALL: A LINE is determined by a POINT and a VECTOR v that is parallel
x1  x0 y1  y0 z1  z0
to this line. Now, what do we need to determine a PLANE in space?
Example:
A PLANE in space is determined by a POINT P(x1,y1,z1) in the plane and a
A line was drawn passing through the points A(2,4,-3) and B(3,-1,1). At
VECTOR n  a, b, c that is orthogonal (perpendicular) to this plane. This
what point will this line intersect the xy-plane?
orthogonal vector n is called NORMAL VECTOR. Now let’s look at the
Solution: figure below:
From the previous example, we have solved the direction numbers
v  a, b, c  1,5,4 and the parametric equations representing line AB
which is (x = 2 + t , y = 4 – 5t , z = -3 + 4t). Finding the equivalent
SYMMETRIC FORM of this line (we just solve for t):
x2
x  2t  t 
1
4 y
y  4  5t  t 
5
z 3
z  3  4t  t 
4
Equating these three, we now have the symmetric equations for line AB
If we have a point P(x1,y1,z1) in the plane having a nonzero normal vector
x2 4 y z 3
  n  a, b, c , then if this plane consist of all points Q(x,y,z) for which PQ is
1 5 4
orthogonal to n, by using DOT PRODUCT we can write the following:
When we say that a line passes through the xy-plane, this is just the same
as the point wherein z = 0. Therefore: n  PQ  0  VECTOR FORM
x2 4 y 03 3 a, b, c   x  x1, y  y1, z  z1  0
  
1 5 4 4
Solving for values of x and y we have: STANDARD FORM OF A PLANE IN SPACE
x2 3 11 4 y 3 1 ax  x1  b y  y1  cz  z1  0
  x ;   y
1 4 4 5 4 4

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 27

and by regrouping terms, we obtain it’s GENERAL FORM: APPLICATION #3: ANGLE BETWEEN TWO PLANES

GENERAL FORM OF A PLANE IN SPACE

ax  by  cx  d  0

APPLICATION #1: FINDING AN EQUATION OF A PLANE

QUESTION #1:
Find an equation of the plane through the point (2,4,-1) that is
perpendicular to vector 2i + 3j + 4k.
Two distinct planes in space are either PARALLEL or INTERSECT in a LINE.
If they intersect, you can determine the angle (0     2) between them
Solution:
The vector 2i + 3j + 4k is simply the normal vector to the plane. Thus the from the angle between their normal vectors as shown above. We
direction numbers are: a = 2, b = 3 and c = 4. Using the standard form of know that this angle can be computed using the DOT PRODUCT.
a plane in space: n1  n2
cos 
ax  x1  b y  y1  cz  z1  0 n1 n2
2x  2  3 y  4  4z  1  0
Consequently, two planes with normal vectors n1 and n2 are
2x  3 y  4z  0
PERPENDICULAR: If n1  n2  0 .
PARALLEL: if n1 is a scalar multiple of n2.
QUESTION #2:
Find an equation of the plane that passes through the points P(1,3,2), QUESTION:
Q(3,-1,6) and R(5,2,0). Find the angle between the planes x + y + z = 1 and x – 2y + 3z = 1.
Solution: Solution:
The vectors a and b corresponding to PQ and PR are: The normal vectors of these planes are:
a  3  1,1  3,6  2 b  5  1,2  3,0  2 n1  1,1,1 ; n2  1,2,3
a   2,4,4 b   4,1,2 Therefore, the angle between these vectors is:
Since both a and b lie in the plane, their CROSS PRODUCT is orthogonal n1  n2 1(1)  1(2)  1(3) 2 42
to the plane and can be taken as the NORMAL VECTOR. Thus cos    
 2 2 2  2 2
 1  1  1  1   2  3 
n1 n2 2 42 21
i j k   
n  ab  2  4 4  12i  20 j  14k
 42 
4 1  2   cos1 
 21 
And the equation of the plane is  

12x  1  20 y  3  14z  2  0 LINE OF INTERSECTION BETWEEN TWO INTERSECTING PLANES

6x  10 y  7 z  50 We can find the line of intersection (L) of two intersecting planes by first
finding a point on L. For instance, we can set z = 0 and then solve for
TIP: If you want, you may familiarize yourself with this formula to find the x and y from the equations of the two planes. Then, observe that since
equation of the plane given three points P(x1,y1,z1), Q(x2,y2,z2) and L lies in both planes, it is PERPENDICULAR to both of the normal vectors.
R(x3,y3,z3): The vector v parallel to L can now be solved by using CROSS PRODUCT
between the normal vectors:
y2  y1 z2  z1 x2  x1 z2  z1 x2  x1 y2  y1
x  x1   y  y1  z  z1  0 v  a, b, c  n1  n2
y3  y1 z3  z1 x3  x1 z3  z1 x3  x1 y3  y1
QUESTION:
Using the same example above, find the equation of the line of
APPLICATION #2: INTERSECTION BETWEEN A LINE AND A PLANE
intersection (in parametric form) between the planes x + y + z = 1 and x
QUESTION: – 2y + 3z = 1.
Find the point at which the line with parametric equations x = 2 + 3t, y
Solution:
= -4t, z = 5 + t intersects the plane 4x + 5y – 2z = 18.
If we set z = 0, then this gives the equations x + y = 1 and x – 2y = 1 whose
Solution: solution is x = 1 and y = 0. So that, the point (1,0,0) lies on the line of
We just substitute the expressions for x, y and z from the parametric intersection L. Next, we find the CROSS PRODUCT of the normal vectors
equations into the equation of the plane and then solve for t: to these planes. The purpose is to obtain the direction numbers a, b
42  3t   54t   25  t   18  t  2 and c:
Therefore, the point of intersection occurs when the parameter value is t i j k
= -2. v  n1  n2  1 1 1  5i  2 j  3k   a, b, c  5,2,3
x  2  3(2)  4 ; y  4(2)  8 ; z  5  (2)  3 1 2 3
The point of intersection is at (-4,8,3). So that, our parametric equations will be:

TIP: Always use the PARAMETRIC FORM for the line when solving these x  x1  at  1  5t ; y  y1  bt  2t ; z  z1  ct  3t
kinds of problems.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 28

 APPLICATION #4: DISTANCE BETWEEN A POINT AND A PLANE In the figure above, D is the distance between point Q and the given line.
Then D = |PQ|sin  where  is the angle between the direction vector u
and PQ. Using CROSS PRODUCT:
PQ  u
PQ  u  PQ u sin   PQ sin  
u
Therefore, the distance between a point Q and a given line is given by:

PQ  u
D
From the figure above, you can see that the distance D from Q(x1,y1,z1) to u
the plane is equal to the absolute value of the SCALAR PROJECTION of
PQ onto the normal vector n  a, b, c QUESTION:
Find the distance between the point Q(3,-1,4) and the line given by the
PQ  n parametric equations x = -2 + 3t, y = -2t and z = 1 + 4t.
D  compn PQ  PQ cos 
n Solution:
The DIRECTION VECTOR u is easily found out by using the DIRECTION
ax1  x0   b y1  y0   cz1  z0 
 NUMBERS of the line. Thus,
a 2  b2  c 2 u  3,2,4
ax1  by1  cz1   ax0  by0  cz0  Then find a point P in the line. As a tip, just let t = 0, so that the point P is
 at P(-2,0,1). Thus,
a 2  b2  c 2
PQ  3   2,1  0,4  1  5,1,3
Since P(x0,y0,z0) lies in the plane, its coordinates satisfy the equation of the
plane and so we have And now, we can solve for their cross product:
ax0  by0  cz0  d  0  ax0  by0  cz0  d i j k
Therefore: PQ  u  5  1 3  2i  11 j  7k   2,11,7
3 2 4
ax1  by1  cz1  d
D Finally, we solve for the distance D:
a 2  b2  c 2
PQ  u 22   112   7 2 174
QUESTION: D    6
3   2  4
u 2 2 2 29
Find the distance between the point Q(1,5,-4) and the plane given by 3x
– y + 2z = 6.
VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS
Solution:
Using our formula for the distance between a point and a plane A PLANE CURVE was defined as the set of ordered pairs (f(t),g(t)) together
ax1  by1  cz1  d 3(1)  1(5)  2(4)  6 with defining parametric equations
D 
x  f (t ) and y  g (t )
a 2  b2  c 2 32   12  22
where f ang g are continuous functions of t on an interval I.
168 14
D  Extending to three-dimensional space, a SPACE CURVE C is the set of all
14 7
ordered triples (f(t),g(t),h(t)) together with their defining parametric
DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL PLANES equations
To find the distance between two planes, CHOOSE A POINT IN THE x  f (t ) , y  g (t ) and z  h(t )
FIRST PLANE, then find its distance from the second plane. where f, g and h are continuous functions of t on an interval I.

QUESTION: Notice that f, g and h are REAL NUMBERS for each specific real value of
Find the distance between the planes: t. Now, a new function, called a VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTION r(t) will
3x – y + 2z – 6 = 0 and 6x – 2y + 4z + 4 = 0 be introduced to “map” these real numbers to vectors. Vector-valued
functions are just vectors with components f(t), g(t) and h(t) so that
Solution:
Find a point on the first plane (3x – y + 2z – 6 = 0). To make things easier,
we set y = 0 and z = 0. It follows that x = 2. So that point in the first plane
is (2,0,0). Then we find its distance from the second plane (6x – 2y + 4z
+ 4 = 0):
6(2)  2(0)  4(0)  4 8 4 14 r (t )  f (t )i  g (t ) j
D  
6   2  4
2 2 2 14 7

APPLICATION #5: DISTANCE BETWEEN A POINT AND A LINE

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 29

 2. Sketch the space curve represented by the vector-valued function
r (t )  (4 cost )i  (4 sin t ) j  tk , 0  t  4

Solution:
From the first two parametric equations x = 4cos(t) and y = 4sin(t), we
r (t )  f (t )i  g (t ) j  h(t )k can obtain x2 + y2 = 16. This means that THE CURVE LIES ON A RIGHT
CIRCULAR CYLINDER of radius 4, centered about the z-axis. To locate
the curve on this cylinder, you can use the third parametric equation z
= t. As t increases from 0 to 4pi, the point (x,y,z) “spirals” up to the
cylinder to produce a HELIX. The trace is shown below:

Vector-valued functions serve dual roles in the representation of curves.

By letting the parameter t represents time, you can use vector-valued
function to represent “motion” along a curve. Or in the more general
case, you can use a vector-valued function to “trace the graph” of a
curve. In either case, the terminal point of the position vector r(t) coincides
with a given point in plane or space.

APPLICATION #1: DOMAIN OF A VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTION

Unless stated otherwise, without added restriction, the DOMAIN of

a vector-valued function r is considered to be the INTERSECTION OF THE
DOMAINS of the component functions f, g and h.
3. Sketch the space curve C represented by the intersection of the
Example:
semiellipsoid
1. Find the domain of the vector-valued function x2 y2 z 2
  1 ; z  0
r (t )  (ln t )i  1  t j  tk 12 24 4
2
and the parabolic cylinder y = x . Then find a vector-valued function to
Solution: represent the graph.
Getting the domain of the component functions
f (t )  ln t ; g (t )  1  t ; h(t )  t Solution:
We have: The intersection of the two surfaces is shown below.
f (t )  ln t  DOMAIN : 0, 

g (t )  1  t  DOMAIN :  ,1
h(t )  t  DOMAIN : , 
Therefore, their intersection will be the DOMAIN of the function r(t)
DOMAIN  0,   ,1  ,   (0,1]

APPLICATION #2: SKETCHING PLANE AND SPACE CURVES

Examples: To find a vector-valued function that represents this trace, a “natural

way” is to let x = t. From this choice, we can use the given equation
1. Sketch the plane curve represented by the vector-valued function
y = x2 to obtain y = t2. Then it follows that
r (t )  (2 cost )i  (3sin t ) j , 0  t  2
z2 x2 y 2 t2 t4 24  2t 2  t 4
 1   1  
Solution: 4 12 24 12 24 24
From the position vector r(t), we can write the parametric equations x
= 2cost and y = -3sint. Solving for cos(t) and sin(t) and using the identity z2

 
6  t2 4  t2   z
6  t 2 4  t 2 
sin2t + cos2t = 1 produces the rectangular equation 4 24 6
The resulting vector-valued function is
x2 y 2
4

9
1
r (t )  (t )i  (t 2 ) j 
6  t 2 4  t 2 k ; 2t  2
The graph of this equation is an ELLIPSE and the trace is shown below. 6
Notice that the curve has a CLOCKWISE orientation, that is, as t Note that the k-component of r(t) implies 2  t  2 . From the points
increases from 0 to 2pi, the position vector r(t) moves clockwise, and
(-2,4,0) and (2,4,0) shown on the graph above, we can see that the
its terminal point traces the ellipse.
curve is traced as t increases from -2 to 2.

APPLICATION #3: OPERATIONS ON VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS

Consider two vector-valued functions of t below:

r1  f1i  g1 j  h1k
r2  f 2i  g 2 j  h2k
The following operations apply:

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 30

a. ADDITION & SUBTRACTION i j k
r1  r2   f1  f 2 i  g1  g2  j  h1  h2 k r (t )  r (t )   sin t cost 2  (2 sin t )i  (2 cost ) j  k
 cost  sin t 0
b. SCALAR MULTIPLICATION & DIVISION
cr1  c f1i  g1 j  h1k   cf1i  cg1 j  ch1k 3. For the vector-valued functions given by
r1 f i  g1 j  h1k f g h 1
r (t )  i  j  (ln t )k
 1  1i 1 j 1k
c c c c c t
c. LIMIT u(t )  t 2i  2t j  k
     
lim r t    lim f t i   lim g t  j   lim ht  k Find
d
r (t )  u(t ) .
t a t a  t a  t a  dt
provided that ALL limits exists.
Solution:
d. DIFFERENTIATION Taking the first derivatives:
d d d d 1 1
1. r1  f1i  g1 j  h1k r(t )    k and u(t )  2t i  2 j
dt dt dt dt t2 t

2.
d
cr1  c d r1 Then,
dt dt d
r (t )  u(t )  r (t )  u(t )  r(t )  u(t )
3.
d
r1  r2   d r1  d r2 dt
dt dt dt    1
 1   1 
  (2t )  (1)(2)  t 2     (1) 
4.
d
r1r2   r1 d r2    d r1 r2  
t    t 
2  t 
dt  dt   dt 
1 1
 2  2 1  3
5.
d
r1  r2   r1  d r2   d r1   r2 t t
dt dt  dt 
4. Evaluate the integral
6.
d
r1  r2   r1  d r2   d r1   r2 1 3 
0  j  et k dt
1
dt dt  dt  ti 
t 1 
7.
d
r1  r2    d r1  r2  d r2 Solution:
dt  dt  dt
e. INTEGRATION 1 3   1   1 1   1 
0  
j  et k dt   3 t dt i  

dt  j   et dt k

1
ti 
t 1   0 t 1   0
1.
 rt dt   f (t)dt i   g (t)dt  j   h(t)dt k   0 

 
1
 F (t )  c1i  G(t )  c2  j  H (t )  c3 k 3 
  1
  t 4 3  i  ln t  1 j   et 0 k
1
0
 4 0
 F (t )i  G(t ) j  H (t )k   c1i  c2 j  c3k 
3  1
b  b   b   b   i  (ln 2) j  1  k
r t dt   f (t )dt i   g (t )dt  j   h(t )dt  k
2.
a  a
   a
   a 
 4  e

5. Find the antiderivative of

Examples: 1
r(t )  (cos2t )i  (2 sin t ) j  k
1. Find the limit 1 t2
that satisfies the initial condition
 
j  e t k 
sin t
lim  et i  r (0)  3i  2 j  k
t 0  t 
Solution:
Solution:
Just take the limit of each term:  
r (t )  r(t )dt   cos 2tdt i   2 sin tdt  j  
   
1
dt k
     sin t         1  t 2 
j  et k    lim et i   lim  j   lim et k
sin t
lim  et i 
t 0  t   t 0   t 0 t   t 0  1 
  sin 2t  c1 i  2 cost  c2  j  arctant  c3 k
  2 
j  e t k   i  j  k
sin t
lim  et i 
t 0  t  Letting t = 0 and using the fact that r (0)  3i  2 j  k , we have

2. For a vector-valued function given by r (0)  (0  c1)i  (2  c2 ) j  (0  c3 )k  3i  (2) j  k

r (t )  (cost )i  (sin t ) j  2tk Equating corresponding components produces
Find r(t )  r(t ) . c1  3 ; 2  c2  2 ; c3  1
So that the antiderivative that satisfies the given initial condition is
Solution:
1 
Taking the first and second derivatives: r (t )   sin 2t  3 i  2 cost  4 j  arctant  1k
2 
r(t )  ( sin t )i  (cost ) j  2k
r(t )  ( cost )i  ( sin t ) j  0k
Therefore

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 31

 APPLICATION #4: POSTION, VELOCITY & ACCELERATION Examples:

If x and y are twice-differentiable functions of t, and the position function 1. Find the unit tangent vector to the curve given by
r is a vector-valued function given by r(t) = x(t)I + y(t)j + z(t)k, then the r t   t i  t 2 j
velocity vector, acceleration vector and speed at time t are as follows:
when t = 1.

Velocity : vt   r(t )  x(t )i  y(t ) j  z(t )k Solution:

Acceleration : at   r(t )  x(t )i  y(t ) j  z(t )k The derivative of r(t) is
rt   i  2t j
Speed : vt   r(t )  x(t )2  y(t )2  z(t )2 So that the unit tangent vector is
r t  i  2t j
Examples: T t   
r t 
1  4t 2
1. Find the speed of a particle that moves along the plane curve C
When t = 1, the unit tangent vector is
described by
i2j
T 1  i  2 j 
5
r (t )  2 sin
t t
i  2 cos j meters 
2 2 5 5
at any time t in seconds. The graphical representation of this unit tangent vector is shown
below:
Solution:
The velocity vector is
t t
v(t )  r(t )  cos i  sin j
2 2
Then, the speed at any time is
t t m
v(t )  r (t )  cos2  sin 2  1
2 2 s

2. The path of an object moving along the space curve C is given by

r (t )  t i  t 3 j  3tk meters ; t  0
As seen, the DIRECTION of the unit tangent vector depends on the
Find the velocity and acceleration vectors when t = 1 sec.
orientation of the curve.
Solution:
2. Find a set of parametric equations for the tangent line to the helix
The vector and acceleration vectors are as follows:
given by
v(t )  r(t )  i  3t 2 j  3k m s
r t   2 cost i  2 sin t j  t k
a(t )  r(t )  6t j m s 2  
at the point  2 , 2 ,  .
Therefore, at t = 1 second:  4
v(1)  i  3(1)2 j  3k m s  i  3 j  3k m s
Solution:
a(1)  6(1) j m s 2  6 j m s 2 We can use the concept of finding the unit tangent vector to find the
tangent line to this helix.
TANGENT AND NORMAL VECTORS rt   2 sin t i  2 cost j  k
T t    2 sin t i  2 cost j  k 
5
 
rt 
In the previous lecture, we learned that to find the velocity vector of
motion, we need to get the first derivative of the position vector  2 sin t   2 cost 
2 2
1
5

representing the motion. In addition, this velocity vector also points in the
  
direction of motion. With these observations, the following definition will At the point  2 , 2 ,  , t  and the unit tangent vector is
 4  4
be introduced which applies to any SMOOTH CURVE, not just to those
for which the parameter represents time.  
T  
4
5 
5  
 2
2
2
i  2
2
2 
j  k 
 5
5
 2i  2 j  k 
But first let’s define what a SMOOTH CURVE is. 
Recall, that in order to find the equation of a line in space, we need the
As a simple definition, a curve traced by a vector-valued function r(t) is
direction numbers a, b and c as well as the point in the line. From the
smooth if dr/dt is CONTINUOUS and NOT EQUAL TO ZERO on an
unit tangent vector, the components of i, j and k will serve as the
interval.
direction numbers. Take note that we will not include the magnitude
Therefore, “smoothness” is sufficient to guarantee that a curve has a |r’(t)| in considering the direction numbers. Therefore,
UNIT TANGENT VECTOR. a, b, c    2 , 2 ,1
Using our given point, the equation of the tangent line to the helix in
UNIT TANGENT VECTOR parametric form is given by (using s as the parameter)
Let C be a smooth curve represented by r on an open interval I. The unit x  x1  as  2  2 s
tangent vector T(t) at t is defined as
y  y1  bs  2  2 s
r t 
T t   , where r t   0 z  z1  cs  s

r t  4
This tangent line is shown below:

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 32

 2. Find the principal unit normal vector for the helix given by
r t   2 cost i  2 sin t j  t k

Solution:
In this previous example, we can see that there are INFINITELY many
From the previous example, we have already solved that the unit
vectors that are orthogonal to the unit tangent vector T(t). One of these is
tangent vector is
the vector T’(t). By NORMALIZING the vector T’(t), we will obtain a special
rt   2 sin t i  2 cost j  k
T t    2 sin t i  2 cost j  k 
vector called the PRINCIPAL UNIT NORMAL VECTOR. 5
 
rt 
 2 sin t   2 cost 
2 2
1
5
PRINCIPAL UNIT NORMAL VECTOR

Let C be a smooth curve represented by r(t) on an open interval I. If T’(t)

≠ 0, then the PRINCIPAL UNIT NORMAL VECTOR at t is defined as So that

T t    2 cost i  2 sin t j  ; T t  

5 2
T t 
N t   5
T t 
5
Therefore, the principal unit normal vector is
Examples:
T t 
5
 2 cost i  2 sin t j 
N t    5   cost i  sin t j
T t 
1. Find the principal unit normal vector to the curve 2
r t   3t i  2t 2 j 5
at t = 1. Note that this vector is horizontal and points toward the z-axis as
shown below
Solution:
First we need to find the unit tangent normal vector T(t).
r t  3i  4t j
T t   3i  4t j 
1
 
r t 
3  4t 
2 2
9  16t 2
Then, we now proceed on finding the principal unit normal vector by
first, differentiating T(t).

T t   4 j   3i  4t j 
1 16t
9  16t 2
9  16t 232

T t    4t i  3 j 
12
9  16t 2 3 2
122 9  16t 2 
T t  
12

9  16t 2  9  16t 2
3

Therefore, the principal unit vector is

12
 4t i  3 j 
N t  
T t 


9  16t 2
32
 
1
 4t i  3 j 
T t  12
9  16t 2
9  16t 2
At t = 1:

N 1   4i  3 j 
1
5
The graph is shown below:

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 33

 SOLUTION:
1. The average of five consecutive even numbers A, B, C, D and E is
52. What is the product of B and E?

Solution:
Let A = n, B = n + 2, C = n + 4, D = n + 6 and E = n + 8. Then, their
PROBLEMS average is
n  (n  2)  (n  4)  (n  6)  (n  8)
1. The average of five consecutive even numbers A, B, C, D and E is 52.  52
5
What is the product of B and E?
5n  20
 52  n  48
2. When you divide x4 – ax3 – 2x2 – 3x + b by x – 1, the remainder is 2. 5
When you divide it by x + 2, the remainder is -1. Find a. So that B = 50 and E = 56. Their product is (50)(56) = 2800.

3. Five different books (A, B, C, D and E) are to be arranged on a shelf. 2. When you divide x4 – ax3 – 2x2 – 3x + b by x – 1, the remainder
Books C and D are to be arranged first and second starting from the is 2. When you divide it by x + 2, the remainder is -1. Find a.
right of the shelf. The number of different orders in which books A, B
and E may be arranged is what? Solution:
Using Remainder Theorem @ first statement:
4. Find the complement of the supplement of 120o. 2 = 14 – a(13) – 2(12) – 3(1) + b
-a + b = 6  eq.1
cos A  cos B sin A  sin B Using Remainder Theorem @ second statement:
5. Simplify: 
sin A  sin B cos A  cos B -1 = (-2)4 – a(-2)3 – 2(-2)2 – 3(-2) + b
8a + b = -15  eq.2
6. When a metallic ball bearing is placed inside a cylindrical container
Solving these two equations simultaneously we got
of radius 2 cm, the height of the water inside the container increases
a = -7/3 ; b = 11/3
by 0.6 cm. Find the radius of the ball bearing.
3. Five different books (A, B, C, D and E) are to be arranged on a
7. A hut has a parabolic cross-section whose height is 30 m and whose
shelf. Books C and D are to be arranged first and second starting
base is 60 m wide. If a ceiling 40 m wide is to be placed inside the
from the right of the shelf. The number of different orders in
hut, how high will it be above the base?
which books A, B and E may be arranged is what?
8. Compute the length of latus rectum of the parabola
Solution:
Since C and D were already arranged, only books A, B and E will be
y 2  8x  6 y  25  0
arranged on the remaining three shelves. By Counting Principle, the
9. A satellite orbits around the Earth in an elliptical path of eccentricity number of arrangements is:
0.6 and semi-minor axis of length 12000 miles. If the center of the no. of arrangements = (3)(2)(1) = 6
Earth is at one of the foci, find the maximum altitude of the satellite. 4. Find the complement of the supplement of 120o.
10. A 1800-gallon tank of water drains from the bottom in 30 minutes. Solution:
According to Torricelli’s Law, the volume of water remaining in the We first find for the supplement of 120o:
tank after t minutes is supplement = 180o – 120o = 60o
2 Then we get the complement:
 t 
V  18001   ; 0  t  30 complement = 90o – 60o = 30o
 30 
Therefore, the answer is 30o.
How fast is the water draining from the tank after 20 minutes?

11. A man wishes to use 60 feet of fencing to enclose a rectangular cos A  cos B sin A  sin B
5. Simplify: 
garden. Determine the maximum possible area of his garden? sin A  sin B cos A  cos B

12. Given the function y = x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 5. Determine the coordinates Solution:

of the point of inflection. cos A  cos B sin A  sin B
 
 
cos2 A  cos2 B  sin 2 A  sin 2 B 
sin A  sin B cos A  cos B sin A  sin Bcos A  cos B
x3  1
13. Solve:
 x  1 dx cos A  cos B sin A  sin B
 
 
sin 2 A  cos2 A  sin 2 B  cos2 B 
sin A  sin B cos A  cos B sin A  sin Bcos A  cos B

cos A  cos B sin A  sin B 1 1
02 sin  cos7  d  
4
14. Find:
sin A  sin B cos A  cos B sin A  sin B cos A  cos B 
cos A  cos B sin A  sin B
15. Compute the y-coordinate of the centroid of the area bounded by  0
the curve x2 = 16y, the line x = 12 and the x-axis. sin A  sin B cos A  cos B

6. When a metallic ball bearing is placed inside a cylindrical

container of radius 2 cm, the height of the water inside the
container increases by 0.6 cm. Find the radius of the ball bearing.

Solution:
Water rise forms a cylinder with radius of 2 cm and height 0.6 cm. Its
volume is equal to
V = (pi)(2)2(0.6) = 2.4pi cm3

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 34

 This is also equal to the volume of the ball bearing (which is spherical 11. A man wishes to use 60 feet of fencing to enclose a rectangular
in shape) garden. Determine the maximum possible area of his garden?
Vsphere = (4/3)(pi)r3 = 2.4pi
3
Solution:
225 Let:
r cm.
5 L : length of the garden
W : width of the garden
7. A hut has a parabolic cross-section whose height is 30 m and
Amax : maximum area of the garden
whose base is 60 m wide. If a ceiling 40 m wide is to be placed
Then
inside the hut, how high will it be above the base?
2L + 2W = 60
Solution: L + W = 30
By the squared property of a parabola: W = 30 – L  eq.1
2 Area is to be maximized, thus
B H A = LW
  
b h A = L(30 – L) = 30L – L2
2 dA
 60  30 Amax = = 30 – 2L
   dL
 
40 h
30 – 2L = 0
40 L = 15 ft
h m.
3 It follows that W = 30 – L = 15 ft
Thus,
8. Compute the length of latus rectum of the parabola
Amax = LW = 15(15) = 225 ft2

y 2  8x  6 y  25  0
12. Given the function y = x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 5. Determine the
Solution: coordinates of the point of inflection.
Converting to standard form:
Solution:
 y  32  8x  2 The point of inflection is found when y” = 0. Thus,
Therefore, the length of latus rectum (4a) is: y’ = 3x2 – 6x + 4
4a  8  8 units y” = 6x – 6 = 0
x=1
9. A satellite orbits around the Earth in an elliptical path of It follows that y = (1)3 – 3(1)2 + 4(1) + 5 = 7
eccentricity 0.6 and semi-minor axis of length 12000 miles. If the So the point of inflection is situated at (1,7).
center of the Earth is at one of the foci, find the maximum
altitude of the satellite. x3  1
13. Solve:
 x  1 dx
Solution:
Given that b = 12000 and for an ellipse: Solution:
2 2
c  a  b  a  12000 2 2 x3  1 x  1x2  x  1dx
The eccentricity for a conic is given by:  x  1 dx   x 1

e
c

a 2  120002
 0.6  x  1 dx   x
3
x 1 2 
 x  1 dx
a a
a = 15000 it follows that c = 9000 x3  1
 x  1 dx  3 x
1 3 1 2
And the maximum altitude of the satellite is equal to  x  xc
2
a + c = 15000 + 9000 = 24000 mi


02 sin  cos7  d

10. A 1800-gallon tank of water drains from the bottom in 30 4
14. Find:
minutes. According to Torricelli’s Law, the volume of water
remaining in the tank after t minutes is Solution:
2 Using Wallis’ Formula:
 t 
V  18001   ; 0  t  30 
 30  31642  16
02 sin  cos7 d 
4
How fast is the water draining from the tank after 20 minutes? 1197 531 1155
Solution:
dV  t  1   t  15. Compute the y-coordinate of the centroid of the area bounded
 2(1800)1      1201  
dt  30  30   30  by the curve x2 = 16y, the line x = 12 and the x-axis.
After t = 20 mins: Solution:
dV  20  gal
 1201    40 xc = x
dt  30  min
yc = (yu + yl)/2
Thus, water is draining from the tank at 40 gal/min.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 35

 (xc,yc)
PROBLEMS

1. Given the sum of the first 100 integers

First, solve for the area bounded by these curves: 1  3  5   197  199  10000
12 x 2
Now, find the sum of the first 100 even integers, which is:
A
016
dx  36 s.u. 2  4  6   198  200
Then solve for the y-coordinate of the centroid (in this case, y) using 2. A 100-kg salt solution originally 4% by weight NaCl in water is
the formula: evaporated until the concentration is 5% by weight NaCl. How much
x2 water in the original solution was evaporated?
Ay 
x 1
yc dA
3. If the numerator and denominator of a certain fraction are increased
 x2  by 1, the resulting fraction equals 2/3. However, if the numerator and
  2
12  x  denominator are decreased by 1, the resulting fraction equals 1/2.
 
16 27
36 y    16 dx   y Find the original fraction.
0 2 10
  
 
  4. Through the Mentoring in the City Program sponsored by Marian
College, children have turned a vacant downtown lot into a
monument for peace. This community project brought together in
hopes of showing children how to develop positive, nonviolent ways
of dealing with conflict. A landscape architect used the children’s
drawing and ideas to design a triangular-shaped peace garden. Two
sides of the property, formed by Dingdong Avenue and Karylle
Avenue, measure 182 ft and 230 ft respectively, and together form a
30o angle. What is the area of this property?

sin   cos tan

5. Simplify the expression:
cos

6. Find the area of a trapezoid whose median is 12 cm and whose

altitude is 4 cm.

7. Seven regular hexagons, each with 6-cm sides are arranged so that
they share the same sides and the centers of the six hexagons are
equidistant from the seventh central hexagon. Determine the ratio of
the total area of the hexagons to the total outer perimeter enclosing
the hexagons.

8. Find the equation of the straight line through point (3,2), and is
parallel to line y = 3x – 2.

9. Find two points on the line 2x + 3y + 4 = 0 which are at a distance 2

from the line 3x + 4y – 6 = 0.

10. Determine the equation of the tangent line to the curve x2

+ 3y2 – x + 2y = 0 at the origin.

11. A man is riding his car at the rate of 30 km/hr toward the foot of the
pole 10 m high. At what rate is he approaching the top when he is
40 m from the foot of the pole? (Answer should be in km/hr).

if y  52 x 1 .
dy
12. Find
dx

3
x2
13. Integrate: xdx

14. Given is the area in the first quadrant bounded by the curve x2 = 8y,
the line y = 2 and the y-axis. Compute the moment of inertia about
the y-axis.

15. A hole of radius 2 is drilled through the axis of a sphere of radius 3.

Compute the volume of the remaining solid.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 36

SOLUTION sin   cos tan
5. Simplify the expression:
cos
1. Given the sum of the first 100 integers
1  3  5   197  199  10000 Solution:
Now, find the sum of the first 100 even integers, which is:  sin  
sin   cos  
2  4  6   198  200 sin   cos tan  cos   2 sin 

cos cos cos
Solution: sin   cos tan
2 + 4 + 6 + … + 198 + 200  2 tan
cos
= (1+1) + (3+1) + (5+1) + … + (197+1) + (199+1)
= (1 + 3 + 5 + … + 197 + 199) + 100 6. Find the area of a trapezoid whose median is 12 cm and whose
= 10000 + 100 altitude is 4 cm.
= 10100
Solution:
2. A 100-kg salt solution originally 4% by weight NaCl in water is The formula for the area of a trapezoid given its median is:
evaporated until the concentration is 5% by weight NaCl. How much A = (height)(median)
water in the original solution was evaporated? A = 4(12) = 48 cm2

Solution: 7. Seven regular hexagons, each with 6-cm sides are arranged so that
they share the same sides and the centers of the six hexagons are
equidistant from the seventh central hexagon. Determine the ratio of
the total area of the hexagons to the total outer perimeter enclosing
the hexagons.
From the illustration above we see that the amount of NaCl before Solution:
and after evaporation is
1 180 
0.04(100) – 0(x) = 0.05(100 – x) total area of the hexagons = 7  662 cot   378 3 cm2
x = 20 kg (amount of water evaporated)  4 6 

3. If the numerator and denominator of a certain fraction are increased total outer perimeter = 6[6(6 – 3)] = 108 cm.
by 1, the resulting fraction equals 2/3. However, if the numerator and Thus, the required ratio will be:
denominator are decreased by 1, the resulting fraction equals 1/2.
Find the original fraction. 378 3 7 3
ratio =  cm.
108 2
Solution:
Let 8. Find the equation of the straight line through point (3,2), and is
n : numerator of the original fraction parallel to line y = 3x – 2.
d : denominator of the original fraction
Solution:
From the first statement:
The slope of the line we are looking for has slope m = 3 as based on
(n + 1)/(d + 1) = 2/3
the given equation y = 3x – 2. Now, using point-slope form of a line:
3n – 2d = -1  eq.1
y – y1 = m(x – x1)
From the second statement:
y – 2 = 3(x – 3)
(n – 1)/(d – 1) = ½
y = 3x – 7
2n – d = 1  eq.2
Solving these two equations simultaneously we got 9. Find two points on the line 2x + 3y + 4 = 0 which are at a distance 2
n=3,d=5 from the line 3x + 4y – 6 = 0.
Thus, the original fraction is 3/5.
Solution:
4. Through the Mentoring in the City Program sponsored by Marian Let the point be (x1,y1). The distance from the line 3x + 4y – 6 = 0 will
College, children have turned a vacant downtown lot into a be
monument for peace. This community project brought together in 3x1  4 y1  6
hopes of showing children how to develop positive, nonviolent ways  2  eq.1
of dealing with conflict. A landscape architect used the children’s 32  42
drawing and ideas to design a triangular-shaped peace garden. Two But (x1,y1) is a point on the line 2x + 3y + 4 = 0. Therefore,
sides of the property, formed by Dingdong Avenue and Karylle 2x1 + 3y1 + 4 = 0
Avenue, measure 182 ft and 230 ft respectively, and together form a 4  2 x1
y1   eq.2
30o angle. What is the area of this property? 3
When the point is above the line from eq.1:
Solution:
 4  2 x1 
Since we do not know a height of the triangle, we use the area 3x1  4 6
formula:  3  2
5
1
K  bc sin A x1 = 64 it follows that y1 = -44
2
When the point is below the line from eq.1
K
1
182230sin 30o  10465 ft 2  4  2 x1 
2 3x1  4 6
 3   2
5
x1 = 4 it follows that y1 = -4

Thus, the points are (64,-44) and (4,-4)

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 37

10. Determine the equation of the tangent line to the curve x2 14. Given is the area in the first quadrant bounded by the curve x2 = 8y,
+ 3y2 – x + 2y = 0 at the origin. the line y = 2 and the y-axis. Compute the moment of inertia about
the y-axis.
Solution:
The slope of the tangent line is equal to y’ at (0,0). Thus, deriving Solution:
with respect to x we have: The moment of inertia about the y-axis (ALWAYS USE VERTICAL
2x + 6yy’ – 1 + 2y’ = 0 ELEMENT) is given by:
At the origin (0,0): x2 2
2(0) + 6(0)y’ – 1 + 2y’ = 0 Iy 
x
1
x dA ; A  ydx
y’ = m = ½
Thus the equation of the tangent line by point-slope form: Thus,
y – 0 = (1/2)(x – 0) 4  x 2 
0 x2  2 
256
x – 2y = 0 Iy  dx 
 8  15
 
11. A man is riding his car at the rate of 30 km/hr toward the foot of the
pole 10 m high. At what rate is he approaching the top when he is 15. A hole of radius 2 is drilled through the axis of a sphere of radius 3.
40 m from the foot of the pole? (Answer should be in km/hr). Compute the volume of the remaining solid.

Solution: Solution:
Let:
x : distance of the man from the foot of the pole
z : distance of the man from the top of the pole
By Pythagorean Theorem:
102 + x2 = z2
Using the concept of time-rates, getting the derivative of the
equation with respect to time t:
dx dz
2x  2z
dt dt
The sphere is generated by rotating the upper half of the circle x2
2
When x = 40 m , z  100  40  10 17 m . Thus,2 + y = 9 about the x-axis. Using Shell Method with radius y and length
2x:
2(40) 30  2 10 17   dzdt 3 3
V  2
2 2xydy  2 2 2 y 9  y 2 dy
dz 120 17 km
 20 5
dt 17 hr V  c.u.
3
The man in the car is approaching the top of the pole at a rate of
120 17 km
17 hr

if y  52 x 1 .
dy
12. Find
dx

Solution:
Recall:

 au ln a 
dy du
y  au 
dx dx
So that,

 52 x 1ln 52  52 x 1ln 25

dy
dx

3
x2
13. Integrate: xdx

Solution:
Recall:
au
 a du  ln a  c
u

Thus, from the problem:

3 2 xdx
3 
x2 1 x2
 xdx 
2
 2
1  3x 

2
3x  xdx  c
2  ln 3 
 
2
3x

2
3x  xdx  c
2 ln 3

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 38

 SOLUTION

1. Evaluate:
0.555  0.666

Solution:
5 6
0.555...  ; 0.666... 
PROBLEMS 9 9
Therefore,
1. Evaluate: 5 6 11
0.555  0.666   
0.555  0.666 9 9 9

2. The sum of the parents’ ages is twice the sum of their children’s ages.
Five years ago, the sum of the parents’ ages is four times the sum of
their children’s ages. In 15 years, the sum of the parents’ ages will be
equal to the sum of their children’s ages. How many children are
there in the family?
2. The sum of the parents’ ages is twice the sum of their children’s ages.
Five years ago, the sum of the parents’ ages is four times the sum of
their children’s ages. In 15 years, the sum of the parents’ ages will be
equal to the sum of their children’s ages. How many children are
there in the family?

3. The sum of the digits of a two-digit number is 11. If the digits are Solution:
reversed, the resulting number is seven more than twice the original Let
number. What is the original number? n : number of children
A : average age of children at present (“is”)
4. A pole tilts toward the sun at an angle 15o from the vertical casts a A – 5 : average age of children 5 yrs ago (“was”)
shadow 9 meters long. If the angle of elevation from the tip of the A + 15 : average age of children in 15 yrs (“will be”)
shadow to the top of the pole is 30o, how tall is the pole? Sum of ages:
5. The sides of a triangular field which contains an area of 2400 cm2 are
in continued proportion of 3:5:7. Find the smallest side of the triangle.

6. A closed conical vessel has diameter of 3 m across the top and a Consider the time elapsed from “was” to “is” for parents:
height of 5 m. It contains water at a depth of 2 m. If the vessel is 2nA – 4n(A – 5) = 10
inverted, how deep is the water inside? -nA + 10n = 5  eq.1
7. A regular triangular pyramid has an altitude of 9 m and a volume of Consider the time elapsed (“is” to “will be”):
n(A + 15) – 2nA = 30
3 3 m3. What is the base edge in meters? -nA + 15n = 30  eq.2
Subtracting these two equations we got n = 5.
8. The difference of the distances of a moving point from (1,0) and (-
1,0) is 1. Find the equation of its locus. 3. The sum of the digits of a two-digit number is 11. If the digits are
reversed, the resulting number is seven more than twice the original
9. The coordinates of the two vertices of a triangle are (6,-1) and (-3,7). number. What is the original number?
Find the coordinates of the third vertex so that the centroid of the
triangle will be at the origin. Solution:
Let:
10. A balloon is rising vertically over a point A on the ground at the rate x : tens digit of the original number
of 15 ft/sec. A point B on the ground is level with and 30 ft from A. y : ones digit of the original number
When the balloon is 40 ft from A, at what rate is its distance from B 10x + y : the original number
changing? 10y + x : the number when digits are reversed
By the first statement:
11. Boyle’s Law states that when a gas is compressed at constant
x + y = 11  eq.1
temperature, the product of its pressure and volume remains
And by the second statement:
constant. If the pressure of a gas is 80 lb/in2 when the volume is 40
10y + x = 2(10x + y) + 7  eq.2
in3, find the rate of change of pressure with respect to volume when
Solving for the two equations simultaneously we got:
the volume is 20 in3.
x=3 ; y=8
The original number is 10x + y = 38.
12. Differentiate: y  arcsin4 x 2
4. A pole tilts toward the sun at an angle 15o from the vertical casts a
13. Determine the area of the region bounded by the parabola y shadow 9 meters long. If the angle of elevation from the tip of the
= 9 − x2 and the line x + y = 7. shadow to the top of the pole is 30o, how tall is the pole?

cos3 x
14. Integrate:
 1  sin x dx . Solution:
Let x be the height (length) of the pole. By Sine Law:
15. Find the length of the curve given its parametric equations
x 9
x  t  3 and y  2t from t = 0 to t = 1. 
sin 30 sin 45
9 2
x m.
2

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 39

5. The sides of a triangular field which contains an area of 2400 cm2 are 8. The difference of the distances of a moving point from (1,0) and (-
in continued proportion of 3:5:7. Find the smallest side of the triangle. 1,0) is 1. Find the equation of its locus.

Solution: Solution:
Let 3x, 5x and 7x be the sides of the triangle so that their continued This is the basic definition of a hyperbola. Let P(x,y) be a point on the
proportion is 3:5:7. Using Heron’s Formula for finding the area of a locus. Then, by distance formula:
triangle given its three sides:
abc x  12  y 2  x  12  y 2 1
A  ss  a s  bs  c  ; s 
2 Simplifying, we get:
a  b  c 3x  5x  7 x 15 x 12 x 2  4 y 2  3
s  
2 2 2
Thus, 9. The coordinates of the two vertices of a triangle are (6,-1) and (-3,7).
15x  15x  15x  15x  Find the coordinates of the third vertex so that the centroid of the
2400    3x   5 x   7x  triangle will be at the origin.
2  2  2  2 

15 x  9 x  5 x  x  15 3 2 Solution:
2400       x The centroid of a triangle given the coordinates of its vertices is found
2  2  2  2  4
by:
8 4 2700 x x x y  y2  y3
x cm x  xave  1 2 3 ; y  yave  1
3 3 3
So the smallest side of the triangle is 3x = 8 4 2700 cm Thus,
6  3  x3
6. A closed conical vessel has diameter of 3 m across the top and a 0  x3  3
3
height of 5 m. It contains water at a depth of 2 m. If the vessel is
inverted, how deep is the water inside? 1  7  y3
0  y3  6
3
Solution: The coordinates of the third vertex is at (-3,-7).

10. A balloon is rising vertically over a point A on the ground at the rate
of 15 ft/sec. A point B on the ground is level with and 30 ft from A.
When the balloon is 40 ft from A, at what rate is its distance from B
changing?

Solution:
Let:
By ratio and proportion: y : the distance of the balloon from the ground at any instant
ra 1.5 3 z : the distance of the balloon from point B
  ra  m By Pythagorean Theorem:
2 5 5
302 + y2 = z2
rb 1.5 3 Getting the derivative of the equation with respect to time t:
  rb  h
h 5 10
dy dz
Thus: 2y  2z
dt dt
V A  VT  VB
When the balloon is 40 ft from the ground: z  302  402  50 ft
2 2 2
 3  3  3 
  2    5   h  h Thus:
3 5 3 2 3  10 
dz dz ft
2(40)(15)  2(50)   12
h  3 117 m dt dt sec
The depth of the water in the inverted cone is
11. Boyle’s Law states that when a gas is compressed at constant
5 – h = 5  3 117 m temperature, the product of its pressure and volume remains
constant. If the pressure of a gas is 80 lb/in2 when the volume is 40
7. A regular triangular pyramid has an altitude of 9 m and a volume of in3, find the rate of change of pressure with respect to volume when
3 3 m3. What is the base edge in meters? the volume is 20 in3.
Solution:
Solution: From the first statement: PV  k
1 When P = 80 psi and V = 40 in3, our k has a value of k = (80)(40) =
The volume of the pyramid is given by the formula: V  Abaseh
3 3200
Since the base is a regular triangle (equilateral triangle), then our k 3200
formula will become: So that, P  
V V
1  3 2  dP 3200
V  s h  where s is the base edge Differentiating P with respect to V, we have: 
3  4 
 dV V2
Thus,
dP 3200 lb in 2
When V = 20 in3 :   8
1  3 2 
3 3  s 9  s  2 m
2
dV 20 in 3
3  4 


Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 40

12. Differentiate: y  arcsin4 x 2

Solution:

RECALL:
d
arcsinu   du dx
dx
1  u2
Therefore, by Chain Rule:
 
  8 arcsin4 x
 2arcsin4 x 
dy 4
dx  1  16 x 2  
  1  16 x 2

13. Determine the area of the region bounded by the parabola y

= 9 − x2 and the line x + y = 7.

Solution:
The graphs are shown below:

First, find the points of intersection:

9 – x2 = 7 – x  x = -1 and x = 2
The points of intersection are at (-1,8) and (2,5). Now, for the area:

A
x2
x
1
 y2  y1dx  
2
1
9  x  7  xdx
2

2
 x 2 x3   8  1 1 9
A  2 x      4  2      2     s.u.
 2 3
 1  3  2 3 2

cos3 x
14. Integrate:
 1  sin x
dx .

Solution:
cos3 x 
cos x cos2 x  
cos x 1  sin 2 x 
 1  sin x
dx 
 1  sin x
dx 
 1  sin x
dx

cos3 x
 1  sin x dx   cos x  sin x cos xdx  sin x  2 sin
1 2
xc

15. Find the length of the curve given its parametric equations
x  t  3 and y  2t from t = 0 to t = 1.

Solution:
The length (S) of a curve given in parametric form is found by

b  dx  2 2
 dy 
S
a      dt
 dt   dt 
Thus, from the problem:

5 t 10  5 units
1
S
0 12  22 dt 

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 41

 throwing any particular number greater than 2 is equal to the
probability of throwing a 2. The die is to be thrown twice. Let P be the
probability that the sum of the numbers thrown will be 4. What is 49P?

DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)

1. Evaluate:
EASY (2 points, 15 seconds)



1. What is the product of the smallest prime factor of the number of 2 dx
words in this problem times the largest prime factor of the number of  1  sin x  cos x
3
words in this problem?
2. Consider a square, inside which is inscribed a circle, inside which is
2. In the diagram below, the distance between any two adjacent dots in
inscribed a square, inside which is inscribed a circle, and so on, with
a row or a column is one unit. What is the area of the shaded region?
the outermost square having side length 1. Find the difference
between the sum of the areas of the squares and the sum of the areas
of the circles.

3. Suppose that a and x are two positive real numbers for which
log a x  log x a  3
What is the value of
3. A knight begins on the lower-left square of a standard chessboard.
log a x2  log x a2 How many squares could the knight end up at after exactly 2011 legal
knight’s moves? (A knight’s move is 2 squares either horizontally or
4. For how many integers x in the set vertically, followed by 1 square in a direction perpendicular to the first.)
{1,2,3, … , 99, 100}
is x3 – x2 the square of an integer?

5. Given a drawer with 8 white gloves, 12 black gloves and 6 gray gloves, SOLUTION
find the number of gloves you need to pull out to ensure you have a
pair of matching gloves. Assume that each glove has a matching pair. EASY (2 points, 15 seconds)

6. Bill has made a bet with Tom. Bill will flip a fair coin 20 times; if all 20 1. What is the product of the smallest prime factor of the number of
come up heads, Bill wins a million dollars. The first 19 coins come up words in this problem times the largest prime factor of the number of
heads. What is the probability that Bill will win? words in this problem?

7. Find the exact value of Solution:

  There are a total of 30 words in this problem, wherein
sin 15  cos15 30 = 2(3)(5)
So that, 2 is the smallest prime factor while 5 is the largest prime factor.
AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds) The required product is:
1. Compute the exact value of the finite sum below product = 2(5) = 10
1(2) + 2(3) + 3(4) + … + 98(99) + 99(100)
2. In the diagram below, the distance between any two adjacent dots in
2. Evaluate: a row or a column is one unit. What is the area of the shaded region?
10 x 2
lim
x 0 sin 2 3x  
3. I attach my pet snake, Earl, to one corner of my barn with a leash. This
barn is square, with sides of length 10, and the leash has a length of
twenty, which wraps around the barn. I would like to make sure that I
am being humane to Earl, and would therefore like to know that area
of my lawn he can traverse while on the leash. What is this area?

Solution:
Connecting the four corners of the diagram we get a rectangle with
4. Simplify the expression: area of 12. The rectangle is the union of the shaded region and four
triangles that have areas 3/2 s.u, 3/2 s.u, 3/2, s.u and 1 s.u respectively.
sin 4 x  4 cos2 x  cos4 x  4 sin 2 x
Thus the area of the shaded region is equal to
cos x  sin x
area of shaded region = 12 – (3/2 + 3/2 + 3/2 + 1)
5. A standard six-sided die is weighted so that the probability of throwing area of shaded region = 13/2 s.u.
a 1 is twice the probability of throwing a 2. Also, the probability of

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 42

3. Suppose that a and x are two positive real numbers for which Thus,

 n2  n   n2   n 
log a x  log x a  3 99 99 99
99100199 99100

What is the value of 6 2
n 1 n 1 n 1
log a x2  log x a2
 n2  n  333300
99

Solution:
n 1
Squaring the equation log a x  log x a  3 and taking into account that
log a x  log x a  1 2. Evaluate:

We get log a x 2  log x a 2  7 10 x 2

lim
x 0 sin 2 3x  
4. For how many integers x in the set
{1,2,3, … , 99, 100} Solution:
is x3 – x2 the square of an integer? By L’Hôpital’s Rule:

Solution: 10 x 2 20 x 20 x
lim  lim  lim
Take note: x0 sin 2 3x     
x0 6 sin 3x cos 3x x0 3 sin 6 x 
x3  x 2  x2 x  1 20
 lim
x0 18 cos6 x 
It is easy to see that the factor x2 is always a perfect square for all x in 10
the given set. In order for the whole expression to be a perfect square, 
9
the factor x – 1 should also be a perfect square. From the set, it is easy
to notice that we have a total of 10 values of x that satisfies the 3. I attach my pet snake, Earl, to one corner of my barn with a leash. This
problem, these are: barn is square, with sides of length 10, and the leash has a length of
x = 1 , 2 , 5 , 10 , 17 , 26 , 37 , 50 , 65 , 82 twenty, which wraps around the barn. I would like to make sure that I
am being humane to Earl, and would therefore like to know that area
5. Given a drawer with 8 white gloves, 12 black gloves and 6 gray gloves, of my lawn he can traverse while on the leash. What is this area?
find the number of gloves you need to pull out to ensure you have a
pair of matching gloves. Assume that each glove has a matching pair. Solution:
We see that since this is at the corner of the barn, the snake is free to
Solution: travel in a three quarter arc around this point such that it does not
We have three different colors, but each glove must have a matching intersect the barn. On the corners, we notice that the leash will bend,
pair of gloves. Thus, there are 8/2 = 4 white lefthanded gloves, 12/2 = and basically act as a shorter leash fixed at the other two corners. Thus,
6 black lefthanded gloves, and 6/2 = 3 gray lefthanded gloves. We there is a leash of length 10 for each of two quarter circles, which sum
have 4 + 6 + 3 = 13. But pulling out one more glove ensures a pair to half of an arc:
since all the remaining gloves are righthanded. Thus, we need 14
gloves to make sure we have a matching pair. A
3
202  1 102  350 sq. units
4 2
6. Bill has made a bet with Tom. Bill will flip a fair coin 20 times; if all 20
come up heads, Bill wins a million dollars. The first 19 coins come up 4. Simplify the expression:
heads. What is the probability that Bill will win? sin 4 x  4 cos2 x  cos4 x  4 sin 2 x
Solution: cos x  sin x
The first 19 flips are irrelevant. The probability that the last flip will be
heads is still 1/2. Solution:

7. Find the exact value of sin 4 x  4 cos2 x  cos4 x  4 sin 2 x


sin 15  cos15  cos x  sin x

Solution: 
1  cos x  4 cos x  1  sin x  4 sin
2 2 2 2 2 2
x
Let x be the value of the sum, squaring x will yield: cos x  sin x


x 2  sin 15  cos15 2  sin 2 15  2sin15 cos15  cos2 15 
cos4 x  2 cos2 x  1  sin 4 x  2 sin 2 x  1
cos x  sin x
3
x 2  1  sin 30 
2

cos x  1  sin
2 2 2

x 1
2

cos2 x  sin 2 x
6 cos x  sin x cos x  sin x
x  sin 15  cos15 
2  cos x  sin x

AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)
1. Compute the exact value of the finite sum below
1(2) + 2(3) + 3(4) + … + 98(99) + 99(100)
Solution:
The sum can be expressed in sigma notation as
5. A standard six-sided die is weighted so that the probability of throwing
a 1 is twice the probability of throwing a 2. Also, the probability of
throwing any particular number greater than 2 is equal to the
probability of throwing a 2. The die is to be thrown twice. Let P be the
probability that the sum of the numbers thrown will be 4. What is 49P?

 nn  1   n2  n

99 99
1  2  2  3  3  4    98  99  99  100 
n 1 n 1

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 43

 Solution: also be accomplished in 3 jumps, so with 2011 jumps, he can land on
Let P1 be the probability of throwing a 1, P2 be the probability of any of the squares of the right color.
throwing a 2 and so on. From the problem:
P1 = 2P2 and P2 = P3 = P4 = P5 = P6 Answer is 32.
From these, we can deduce that
P1 = 2/7 ; P2 = P3 = P4 = P5 = P6 = 1/7
To get a 4 from two throws, we have these possible combinations:
(throw1,throw2) = (1,3),(2,2),(3,1)
With a total probability P of:
P = (2/7)(1/7) + (1/7)(1/7) + (1/7)(2/7) = 5/49
So that,
49P = 49(5/49) = 5

DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)

1. Evaluate:



2 dx
 1  sin x  cos x
3

Solution:
Using Weierstrass substitution:
 2dt

  
1 1
2 dx
 1 t2 
dt
 1  sin x  cos x 3 2t 1 t2 3 t2  t
3 3 1  3
1 t2 1 t2

 3 3
 
1
dx 1 1 
dt  ln  
2
  
 1  sin x  cos x 3  t t 1  2 3 
3 3
 

2. Consider a square, inside which is inscribed a circle, inside which is

inscribed a square, inside which is inscribed a circle, and so on, with
the outermost square having side length 1. Find the difference
between the sum of the areas of the squares and the sum of the areas
of the circles.

Solution:
The ratio of the area of each circle and the square immediately

circumscribing it is . The total areas of the squares is
4
1 1
1    2
2 4
  
So the difference in area is then 2  2   2  .
4 2

3. A knight begins on the lower-left square of a standard chessboard.

How many squares could the knight end up at after exactly 2011 legal
knight’s moves? (A knight’s move is 2 squares either horizontally or
vertically, followed by 1 square in a direction perpendicular to the first.)

Solution:
The knight goes from a black square to a white square on every move,
or vice versa, so after 2011 moves he must be on a square whose color
is opposite of what he started on. So he can only land on half the
squares after 2011 moves. Note that he can access any of the 32
squares (there are no other parity issues) because any single jump can

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 44

 2. What is the remainder when
100101102103104105106107108
is divided by 999?

3. To what value will the sum


 9n2  3n  2
1

n 1
EASY (2 points, 15 seconds) converges?
1. Evaluate

3 2 2  32 2 SOLUTION
2. A parallelogram is given with a base of length 2x + 15, and a height of EASY (2 points, 15 seconds)
10 – x. Find x such that the area is maximized.
1. Evaluate
3. Tanks has a pile of 5 blue cards and 5 red cards. Every morning, he
takes a card and throws it down a well. What is the probability that the 3 2 2  32 2
first card he throws down and the last card he throws down are the
same color? Solution:
By Abu-Kamil method (where a is greater than or equal to b)
4. In a parallelogram, the measure of one angle is four times that of
another angle. Find the measure of the larger angle. a  b  2 ab  a  b
Going back to the problem:
5. If

f x  
x 3 2 2  32 2  2  1  2 2 1  2  1  2 2 1

 2  1   2  1 
x 1
What is f  f  f  f 2011 ?
3 2 2  32 2 

6. King Midas spent (100/x)% of his gold deposit yesterday. He is set to 3 2 2  32 2  2
earn gold today. What percentage of the amount of gold King Midas
2. A parallelogram is given with a base of length 2x + 15, and a height of
currently has would he need to earn today to end up with as much
10 – x. Find x such that the area is maximized.
gold as he started?
Solution:
7. Find the exact value of
The area in terms of x is
 3 5 7 A = (2x + 15)(10 – x) = -2x2 + 5x + 150
   
6 63  3! 65  5! 67  7! To maximize this area, we get A’ and then equate to zero:
A’ = -4x + 5 = 0
Clearly, the value of x that will maximize the area of the parallelogram
AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)
is
1. Find the domain of the function below x = 5/4

x2  2x 3. Tanks has a pile of 5 blue cards and 5 red cards. Every morning, he
 x   takes a card and throws it down a well. What is the probability that the
x 1
first card he throws down and the last card he throws down are the
2. Compute: same color?
1
0 tan
1
x dx Solution:
Once he has thrown the first card down the well, there are 9
remaining cards, and only 4 have the same color as the card that was
3. Lily and Sarah are playing a game. They each choose a real number at
thrown down. Therefore, the probability that the last card he throws
random between -1 and 1. They then add the squares of their numbers
down has the same color is 4/9.
together. If the result is greater than or equal to 1, Lily wins, and if the
result is less than 1, Sarah wins. What is the probability that Sarah 4. In a parallelogram, the measure of one angle is four times that of
wins? another angle. Find the measure of the larger angle.
4. Given the equations below Solution:
tan x  tan y  4 The two different angles in a parallelogram sum to 180o. If x is the
cot x  cot y  5 smaller angle, we have
x + 4x = 180o
Compute tanx  y  .
x = 36o
And the larger angle is
5. Find the vector projection of b = i + j + 2k onto a = -2i + 3j + k.
4x = 144o

5. If
DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)
f x  
x
1. Let S be the sum of all the real coefficients of the expansion x 1
What is f  f  f  f 2011 ?
1  ix 2011
What is log 2 S ?

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 45

 Solution: Solution:
x x  1 Integrating by parts:
f  f x  
x

x x  1  1 2x  1
Going further, we see that
1
0 tan
1
xdx  x tan x   xxdx 1
1 1
0
1
0 2

f  f  f  f x  
 
x 1
 1 
4x  1   0   ln x 2  1 
4 2 0
f  f  f  f 2011 
2011 2011
 
42011  1 8045  
ln 2
4 2
6. King Midas spent (100/x)% of his gold deposit yesterday. He is set to
earn gold today. What percentage of the amount of gold King Midas 3. Lily and Sarah are playing a game. They each choose a real number at
currently has would he need to earn today to end up with as much random between -1 and 1. They then add the squares of their numbers
gold as he started? together. If the result is greater than or equal to 1, Lily wins, and if the
result is less than 1, Sarah wins. What is the probability that Sarah
Solution: wins?
After yesterday, the fraction of the initial gold remaining is
Solution:
1 x 1
 1 If we let x denote Lily’s choice of number and y denote Sarah’s, then
x x
all possible outcomes are represented by the square with vertices (-
Therefore, in order to reach the original amount of gold, we must 1,-1), (-1,1), (1,-1), and (1,1). Sarah wins if
multiply by x/(x – 1) wherein
x2  y 2  1
x 1
 1 which is the area inside the unit circle. Since this has an area of π and
x 1 x 1
the entire square has an area of 4, the probability that Sarah wins is
100
Thus, the gold must be increased by percent. π/4.
x 1
4. Given the equations below
7. Find the exact value of tan x  tan y  4
 3 5 7 cot x  cot y  5
   
6 63  3! 65  5! 67  7! Compute tanx  y  .
Solution:
Solution:
Being familiar with the Maclaurin’s series expansion for sin x: We have
x3 x5 x 7 tan x  tan y
sin x  x 
   cot x  cot x 
3! 5! 7! tan x tan y
Therefore, the problem just simplifies as
4
So that, tan x tan y  . Thus, by the tan sum formula,
 3 5 7 1  5
      sin 
6 63  3! 65  5! 67  7! 6 2 tan x  tan y
tanx  y  
4
  20
1  tan x tan y 1  4
AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds) 5

1. Find the domain of the function below 5. Find the vector projection of b = i + j + 2k onto a = -2i + 3j + k.
2
x  2x Solution:
 x  
x 1
 a  b  a   21  31  12   2i  3 j  k
projab    
 a a  
Solution:     22  32  12   22  32  12
Let

f x  x2  2x projab 
3
 2i  3 j  k 
 x    14
g x 
x 1
3 9 3
Wherein the domains for f(x) and g(x) are projab   i  j k
7 14 14
f x : ,0  2, 
g x  : 1,  DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)
1. Let S be the sum of all the real coefficients of the expansion
and the intersection of these domains will be the domain of the
original function 1  ix 2011
DOMAIN of  x  : 2,  What is log 2 S ?

2. Compute: Solution:
1 The sum of all the coefficients is when x = 1 which yields (1 + i)2011 and
0 tan
1
x dx the sum of the real coefficients is the real part of this, which is

S
1  i 2011 1  i 2011  21006
2
Thus,
log 2 S  1006

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 46

2. What is the remainder when
100101102103104105106107108
is divided by 999?

Solution:
Note that for any positive integer N, 1000N and N have the same
remainder when divided by 999. Now,
100101102103104105106107108 EASY (2 points, 15 seconds)
= 1000(100101102103104105106107) + 108
has the same remainder as 100101102103104105106107 + 108 1. If tan  5 , find the exact value of
when divided by 999. Proceeding in the same way, we obtain that 62
100101102103104105106107108 has remainder cot  cos2 
100 + 101 + 102 + … + 108 = 936
when divided by 999. 2. There is a class of 40 girls. There are 18 girls who like to play chess, and
23 who like to play soccer. Several of them like biking. The number of
3. To what value will the sum girls who like to play both chess and soccer is 9. There are 7 girls who
 like chess and biking, and 12 who like soccer and biking. There are 4
 9n2  3n  2
1 girls who like all three activities. In addition, we know that every one
of the 40 girls likes at least one of these activities. How many girls like
n 1
biking?
converges?
3. Given the Piecewise-defined function below:
Solution:
 1  x ; 1  x  0
  
1  1 1  f x    x 2 ; 0  x  2
 
1
    
2    1   1 ; 2  x  3
n 1 9n  3n  2 n 1 
3 3n 2 3n

 3
f x dx .

1
3

 3n  2  3n  1 
1 1  Find
0
n 1
4. If a, b and c are digits for which
1  1 1   1 1   1 1   1
              
3  1 4   4 7   7 10 
7a2  48b  c73
 3
What is a + b + c?

5. An isosceles triangle, ABC has a base of length 24 and two sides of

length 13. What other base measure can an isosceles triangle DEF
have, if DEF has equal sides of length 13 and has the same area as
triangle ABC?

6. Simplify
i0  i1  i 2    i 2011
wherein i   1 .

7. Evaluate
2011 20122012  201320132013  2013  20112011 201220122012

AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)

1. If
x 3  5 x 2  3x  10 4

2x 3  x 2  6x  3 5
then what is the value of
x 3  6x 2  9x  7
3x 3  4 x 2  3x  13

2. There are two triangles ABC with angle A equal to 60o, AB = 8 and BC
= 7 as shown (but not to scale). The smaller possibility for AC is 3. What
is the other possibility for AC?

3. In a lot of 20 tires, 3 are defective. If you pick 4 tires at random, what is

the probability that you will get 1 defective tire?

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 47

4. Find the area of the triangle with vertices P(1,4,6), Q(-2,5,-1) and R(1,- 3
f x dx .
1,1). Find
0
5. Calculate:
Solution:
lim 1  sin 4 x cot x Considering the limits x = 0  x = 3:
x0
3 2 3

DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)

0 f xdx  0 x 2dx 
2  1dx
2
 x3 
f x dx     x32 
3

1. Let 5
 3  3
f x   x4  ax3  bx2  cx  d
0
0
be a polynomial whose roots are all negative integers. If
a  b  c  d  2009 4. If a, b and c are digits for which
find d. 7a2  48b  c73
What is a + b + c?
2. Evaluate:
2 4 6 8 Solution:
    For the units digits (we need to borrow 1 from the tens digit a):
3 32 33 34
(2 + 10) – b = 3  b = 9
3. Simplify: Now for the tens digits (we also need to borrow 1 from the hundreds
digit 7):
2 cos2 ln2009i  i sin ln4036081i
(a – 1 + 10) – 8 = 7  a = 6
And lastly, for the hundreds digits:
(7 – 1) – 4 = c  c = 2
SOLUTION
Thus,
EASY (2 points, 15 seconds) a + b + c = 6 + 9 + 2 = 17

1. If tan  5 , find the exact value of 5. An isosceles triangle, ABC has a base of length 24 and two sides of
length 13. What other base measure can another isosceles triangle
62 have, if it has equal sides of length 13 and has the same area as original
cot  cos2  triangle?

Solution: Solution:
Since tan  5 , it follows that (when you construct a right triangle
with legs 5 and 1 where  is the angle opposite to the leg with length
5)
5 26 26
sin   ; cos 
26 26
Thus,
62 62
  260
cot  cos 
2
1  26 
2
 The figure above shows two isosceles triangles having same side
5  26  lengths of 13 and same area. Notice that we can interchange the
heights and base for triangle ADC. Therefore, if the original base has
2. There is a class of 40 girls. There are 18 girls who like to play chess, and length 24, then the base of the new triangle having the same area as
23 who like to play soccer. Several of them like biking. The number of the original triangle has base of length 10.
girls who like to play both chess and soccer is 9. There are 7 girls who
like chess and biking, and 12 who like soccer and biking. There are 4 6. Simplify
girls who like all three activities. In addition, we know that every one
of the 40 girls likes at least one of these activities. How many girls like i0  i1  i 2    i 2011
biking? wherein i   1 .
Solution:
Let Solution:
n : total number of girls in class (in this case, 40) Take note of the fact between the sum of the first four powers of i:
C : number of girls who plays chess i  i 2  i3  i 4  0
S : number of girls who plays soccer
B : number of girls who likes biking Thus, the problem just reduces to
We know from a 3-circle Venn Diagram, given that all are included in i0  i1  i 2    i 2011  i0  i 2009  i 2010  i 2011
the subsets defined by C, S and B:
n  C  S  B  C  S   C  B  S  B  C  S  B  i 0  i  i 2  i3  0
So that, from the problem:
7. Evaluate
40  18  23  B  9  7  12  4
2011 20122012  201320132013  2013  20112011 201220122012
B  23
Solution:
3. Given the Piecewise-defined function below:
Take note the factors of these two terms:
 1  x ; 1  x  0 2011 20122012  201320132013  2011  201210001  2013100010001

f x    x 2 ; 0  x  2
 1 ; 2  x  3 2013  20112011 201220122012  2013  201110001  2012100010001


Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 48

 These two terms are just equal, therefore: Therefore, the probability that event A will happen is:
2011 20122012  201320132013  2013  20112011 201220122012  0 3  17  8  5
P A 
s 8
 
n 5  19  3  17 19
AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)
4. Find the area of the triangle with vertices P(1,4,6), Q(-2,5,-1) and R(1,-
1. If 1,1).
x 3  5 x 2  3x  10 4 Solution:

2x 3  x 2  6x  3 5 Let PQ and PR be the adjacent sides of the parallelogram. The area of
then what is the value of the triangle with vertices at P, Q and R is half the area of the
parallelogram with sides PQ and PR. PQ and PR are represented in
x 3  6x 2  9x  7
vectors as:
3x 3  4 x 2  3x  13 PQ = (-2 – 1)I + (5 – 4)j + (-1 – 6)k = -3i + j – 7k
PR = (1 – 1)I + (-1 – 4)j + (1 – 6)k = 0i – 5j – 5k
Solution:
Using CROSS PRODUCT, the area of the triangle is therefore:
Let:
i j k
a c x3  5x 2  3x  10 4
 
3 2
 A
1
PQ  PR  1  3 1  7
b d 2x  x  6x  3 5 2 2
0 5 5
Notice that,

x3  6x2  9x  7  2x3  x2  6x  3  x3  5x2  3x  10  A
1
 40i  15 j  15k 
5 82
s.u.
 ba  d c 2 2
 54 1 5. Calculate:
And,
lim 1  sin 4 x cot x
3 2 3 2
3x  4x  3x  13  2x  x  6x  3  x  5x  3x  10  3 2  x0

 ba  d c Solution:
 54  9
The limit is indeterminate of form 1 . Thus, writing the function as
Therefore,
exponential:
x3  6 x 2  9 x  7 d c 1 lim cot x ln1sin 4 x 
 
lim 1  sin 4 x cot x  e x 0

3 2
3x  4 x  3x  13 d c 9 
x0
 ln1sin 4 x  
2. There are two triangles ABC with angle A equal to 60o, AB = 8 and BC lim  
lim 1  sin 4 x cot x  e x 0 
 tan x   e4
= 7 as shown (but not to scale). The smaller possibility for AC is 3. What x 0
is the other possibility for AC?
DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)
1. Let
f x   x4  ax3  bx2  cx  d
be a polynomial whose roots are all negative integers. If
a  b  c  d  2009
find d.

Solution: Solution:
Draw a perpendicular from B to side AC. Notice that it will bisect CC, Call the roots –x1, -x2, -x3 and –x4. Then f(x) must factor as
lets call this point D. Then, using angle A:
f x  x 4  ax3  bx 2  cx  d  x  x1 x  x2 x  x3 x  x4 
AD AD
cos A   cos60  If we evaluate f at x = 1, we get
AB 8
1  x11  x2 1  x3 1  x4   a  b  c  d  1  2009  1  2010
AD  AC  CD  4
CD  4  3  1 1  x11  x2 1  x3 1  x4   2  3  5  67
Thus, d is the product of the four roots, so that
AC = 3 + 2(CD) = 5 d  12466  528

3. In a lot of 20 tires, 3 are defective. If you pick 4 tires at random, what is 2. Evaluate:
the probability that you will get 1 defective tire?
2 4 6 8
   
Solution: 3 32 33 34
Let A be the event that you will get 1 defective tire. The total number
of ways to pick 4 tires out of 20 is solved by using combinations: Solution:
 20  20  19  18  17 2 4 6 8 1 2 3 4 
n      5  19  3  17  4845 total ways       2     
4 4  3  2 1 3 32 33 34 3 3
2
33 34 
For success, we need to pick 1 defective tire out of three and then pick
3 tires out of the remaining 17 non-defective tires. Since these events
are independent with each other, we multiply the number of ways:
 3 17  17  16  15
s      3   3  17  8  5  2040 ways
 1  3  3  2 1

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 49

 2 4 6 8  1 2 3   4 8 12 
      2          
3 32 33 34  3 32
33
 3
2
34
36


2 4 6 8  1 2 3  1 2 3 
      2      4    
3 32 33 34  3 32
33
  9 9 2
93

 n 
n 
 
2 4 6 8
      2 4 EASY (2 points, 15 seconds)
3 32
33
34  n n
 n 1 3 n 1 9 
1. Suppose that
2 4 6 8  3 9  3
      2  4  x  0.1230
3 32 33 34  3  1 9  12  8
2
is written in the form a/b where a and b are positive integers and this
fraction is in reduced form. What is a + b?
3. Simplify:
2 cos2 ln2009i  i sin ln4036081i 2. The probability that a school will win an award for its design is 0.16.
The probability that it will win an award for low cost is 0.24. The
Solution: probability that it will get both awards is 0.11. What is the probability
that it will get at least one of the two awards?
2 cos2 ln2009i  i sin ln4036081i  1  cos2 ln2009i  i sin ln4036081i
3. Evaluate:

 1  cosln4036081i  i sin ln4036081i         

ln tan1  ln tan 2  ln tan 3    ln tan 88  ln tan 89 
 1  ei ln4036081
2
4. Compute
1 4036082 1 1 1
 1 
4036081 4036081
5. What is the area of the regular hexagon with perimeter 60?

6. What is the coefficient of x7 in the polynomial expansion of

1  2x  x  24

7. If
f x   x  14 x  23 x  32
find f’’’(1) + f”(2) + f’(3).

AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)

1. If

f x   1 
1
1 x
Find the value of
f  f  f 3
where there are 2011 f’s in the composition.

2. For what real values of p is the integral

 1
1 p
x
dx

convergent?

3. The probability that a school will win an award for its design is 0.16.
The probability that it will win an award for low cost is 0.24. The
probability that it will get both awards is 0.11. What is the probability
that it will only get one award?

4. Find the radius of a circle inscribed in a triangle with side lengths 4, 5

and 6.

5. How many integers between 1 and 1000 has exactly 27 positive

divisors?

DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)

1. Simplify:
1  sin 2 x  cos 2 x
1  sin 2 x  cos 2 x

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 50

2. Evaluate: 6. What is the coefficient of x7 in the polynomial expansion of

2 
 4

 6

 8
 
. 1  2x  x2 
4

2! 3! 4!
Solution:

1  2x  x2 4  x  12 4  x  18

3. A line was drawn through (0,4,3) and (-1,2,5). On what point will this
line intersect the xz-plane?
The term involving x7 is found by using Binomial Theorem:
SOLUTION 8!
x7 term  x7 11  8x7
7!1!
EASY (2 points, 15 seconds)
Coefficient of this term is 8.
1. Suppose that
7. If
x  0.1230
f x   x  14 x  23 x  32
is written in the form a/b where a and b are positive integers and this
find f’’’(1) + f”(2) + f’(3).
fraction is in reduced form. What is a + b?
Solution:
Solution:
A polynomial p(x) has a multiple root at x = a if and only if x – a divides
To represent a non-terminating decimal with repeating digits as a ratio
both p and p’. Continuing inductively, the nth derivative p(n) has a
of two integers, we use the following technique
multiple root b if and only if x – b divides p(n) and p(n+1). Since f(x) has 1
7 as root with multiplicity 4, x – 1 must divide each of f, f’, f”, f’’’. Hence
So that a = 203 and b = 1650. Their sum is 1853. f’’’(1) = 0. Similarly, x – 2 divides each of f, f’, f” so f”(2) = 0 and x – 3
divides each of f, f’, meaning f’(3) = 0. Hence the desired sum is 0.
2. The probability that a school will win an award for its design is 0.16.
The probability that it will win an award for low cost is 0.24. The
probability that it will get both awards is 0.11. What is the probability
that it will get at least one of the two awards? AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)
Solution: 1. If
Let A be the event where the school won an award for its design while
f x   1 
1
B be the event they will won an award for low cost. The statement “it
will get at least one of the two awards” is the same as saying as “getting 1 x
one of these awards or both”. The probability that the school will Find the value of
win an award for its design or an award for low cost or both is f  f  f 3
found by the Additive Rules of Probability: where there are 2011 f’s in the composition.
PA  B  PA  PB  PA  B
Solution:
PA  B  0.16  0.24  0.11  0.29 We can rewrite f(x) as

f x   1 
3. Evaluate: 1 x

      
ln tan1  ln tan 2  ln tan 3    ln tan 88  ln tan 89    So that,
1 x x 1

Solution: 3
f 3  f  f 3 
 3 ; f  f  f 3 
The sum is just the same as 3 2 3
;

ln tan1  tan 2  tan 3   tan 88  tan 89  2 3
2
1 2

 sin 1  sin 2  sin 3    sin 88  sin 89 

    This pattern goes forever. It follows that on the 2011’th
 ln    ln 1  0
 cos1  cos 2  cos3    cos88  cos89  composition:
 
f  f  f 3 
3
2
4. Compute
2. For what real values of p is the integral
1 1 1
 1

Solution:
1 p
x
dx

convergent?
Let x  1  1  1   . Thus, Solution:
Solving the improper integral:
x  1 x  x2  x  1  0
t
Only positive root is allowed, thus  1 t 1  x  p 1 

1 5
1 xp
dx  lim
t  1 x p 
dx  lim  
t    p  1 
x 1
2
 1  1  1 
5. What is the area of the regular hexagon with perimeter 60? 1 xp
dx  lim  
t   1  p  t p 1
 1

Solution: In order for this limit to exist, the exponent of t, which is p – 1 should
This regular hexagon has side length 10. Using the formula for the be nonnegative. Thus
area of a regular n-gon with side length L: p–1>0
p>1
180 1 180
 6102 cot
1 2
A nL cot
4 n 4 6
A  150 3 s.u.

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 51

3. The probability that a school will win an award for its design is 0.16. 2. Evaluate:
The probability that it will win an award for low cost is 0.24. The
4 6 8
probability that it will get both awards is 0.11. What is the probability 2    
2! 3! 4!
that it will only get one award?

Solution: Solution:
Let A be the event where the school won an award for its design while In sigma notation:
B be the event they will won an award for low cost. The probability
that the school will win an award for its design or an award for 2 
4

6

8
  

  1n
 2n
 

   2n

2! 3! 4! n! n!
low cost or both is found by the Additive Rules of Probability: n 1 n 1
PA  B  PA  PB  PA  B Notice that this resembles the structure of the Maclaurin Series
expansion for ex. Thus,
PA  B  0.16  0.24  0.11  0.29
But we don’t want the school to win BOTH awards. Therefore we e x 
2


 x 2n
 e 
2


   2n

deduct 0.11 on the probability: n! n!

n 0 n 0
P = 0.29 – 0.11 = 0.18

4. Find the radius of a circle inscribed in a triangle with side lengths 4, 5 e 
2        
20  2n
 1


   2n

and 6. 0! n! n!
n 1 n 1

Solution:
First, use Heron’s Formula to find the area. The semiperimeter is s 2 
4

6

8
  


   2n
 1  e
2

2! 3! 4! n!
= 15/2, so the area is n 1

A
15 7 5 3 15 7
    3. A line was drawn through (0,4,3) and (-1,2,5). On what point will this
2 2 2 2 4 line intersect the xz-plane?
Now, the area is equal to the inradius times the semiperimeter, so
Solution:
15 7 If we set P0 as the point (0,4,3), the direction numbers will be: a = -1, b
A 7 = -2, c = 2. The equation of the line in terms of parametric equation will
r  4 
s 15 2 then be
2 x  0  t  t  x
5. How many integers between 1 and 1000 has exactly 27 positive 4 y
y  4  2t  t 
divisors? 2

Solution: z 3
z  3  2t  t 
Suppose n has 27 divisors. If the factorization of n is 2
The equation of the line in symmetric form is
p1e1  p2e2    pk ek
4 y z 3
with p1, p2, …, pk distinct primes, then n has (e1 + 1)(e2 + 1)…(ek + 1) x 
2 2
divisors. There are three possibilities
This line will only intersect the xz-plane when y = 0. Thus,
(i) k = 1 and e1 = 26. The least number of this type is 226 > 1000.
(ii) k = 2 and e1 = 8, e2 = 2. Least number of this type is 2832 > 1000. 40
x  x  2
(iii) k = 3 and e1 = e2 = e3 = 2. Least number is 223252 = 900 < 1000. 2
There is only 1 solution to this problem. z 3 40
  z7
2 2
Therefore, the intersection of this line and the xz-plane is at (-2,0,7).
DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)
1. Simplify:
1  sin 2 x  cos 2 x
1  sin 2 x  cos 2 x
Solution:
1  sin 2 x  cos 2 x 1  sin 2 x  cos 2 x
 
1  sin 2 x  cos 2 x 2
1  sin 2 x  cos 2 x 1  sin 2 x  cos 2 x 1  sin 2 x 2  cos 2 2 x

1  2 sin 2 x  sin 2 2 x  2 cos 2 x1  sin 2 x   cos2 2 x


1  2 sin 2 x  sin 2 2 x  cos2 2 x
2  2 sin 2 x  2 cos 2 x1  sin 2 x 

2 sin 2 x  2 sin 2 2 x
21  sin 2 x 1  cos 2 x  1  cos 2 x
 
2 sin 2 x1  sin 2 x  sin 2 x

1  2 cos2 x  1 cos x
   cot x
2 sin x cos x sin x

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 52

 DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)
1. How many zeros are there at the end of
 200 
 
 124 

2. Find the reflection of the point (11,16,22) across the plane

EASY (2 points, 15 seconds) 3x + 4y + 5z = 7

3. Suppose triangle ABC is equilateral. From the figure below:

1. Find the length of segment AE in the rectangle below

2. Jason, Jamie, Sarah, Jill and Scott arrive at a party randomly at different
times. What is the probability that Jason arrives first and Scott arrives BD 1 CE 1 AF 1
 ;  ; 
last? BC 3 CA 3 AB 3
Then the area of the shaded portion is what?
3. If x satisfies the equation
sin 10  sin 40 SOLUTION
tan x 
cos10  cos 40
o o
and x is between 0 and 90 , then x is equal to what?
EASY (2 points, 15 seconds)

4. What is the last digit of the sum 1. Find the length of segment AE in the rectangle below
1! + 2! + 3! + … + 2010! + 2011!

sin 3  x 2  sin 9
5. Evaluate: lim .
x 0 x

6. Given that log (3) is approximately equal to 0.477, how many digits do
3100 have when expanded in base 10?
Solution:
7. Evaluate By the “British Flag Theorem”:
1 1 1 1 AE2  EC 2  BE2  ED2
  
2 1 3 2 4 3 25  24 AE 2  52  42  82
AE  55
AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)
1. A contest among n > 2 players is held over a period of 4 days. On each 2. Jason, Jamie, Sarah, Jill and Scott arrive at a party randomly at different
times. What is the probability that Jason arrives first and Scott arrives
day each player receives a score of 1, 2, 3, …, n points with no two
last?
players getting the same score on a given day. At the end of the
contest it is discovered that every player received the same total of 26 Solution:
points. How many players have participated? Let A be the event that Jason arrives first at the party while B be the
event that Scott arrives last. By Conditional Probability (realizing that
2. What is the remainder when 1020 is divided by 1001? events A and B are DEPENDENT events):

3. Find the minimum value of the function  

P A  B   PA  P B A   
1 1
5 4 20
1

f x  
sin x cos x tan x cot x
   3. If x satisfies the equation
1  cos2 x 1  sin 2 x sec2 x  1 csc2 x  1
sin 10  sin 40
as x varies over all numbers in the largest possible domain of f. tan x 
cos10  cos 40
4. Find the value of o o
and x is between 0 and 90 , then x is equal to what?
a2  a4  a6    a96  a98
Solution:
if a1, a2, a3,… is an arithmetic progression with common difference of 1
and sin 10  sin 40 sin( 25  15 )  sin( 25  15 )
tan x  
 
a1  a2  a3    a97  a98  137 cos10  cos 40 cos(25  15 )  cos(25  15 )

sin 25 cos15

5. Evaluate: tan x   tan 25  x  25
cos 25 cos15
1  1   2   3 
9 9 9 9
n 
lim           
n n  n     
n n n 
 

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 53

4. What is the last digit of the sume  100 mod1001
1! + 2! + 3! + … + 2010! + 2011! Therefore, the remainder is 100.

Solution:
3. Find the minimum value of the function
Notice that 5!, 6!, 7!, and so on until 2011! all have units digit of 0.
f x  
Therefore, we only have to find the last digit of 1! + 2! + 3! + 4!. It has sin x cos x tan x cot x
  
units digit of 3. 1  cos x 2 2
1  sin x 2
sec x  1 csc2 x  1
as x varies over all numbers in the largest possible domain of f.
sin 3  x 2  sin 9
5. Evaluate: lim .
x 0 x Solution:
If we let x be –x, then
Solution: sin(  x) cos( x) tan( x) cot( x)
Applying L’Hospital’s Rule: f  x     
2 2 2
1  cos ( x) 1  sin ( x) sec ( x)  1 csc2 ( x)  1
sin 3  x 2  sin 9 23  x cos3  x 2
lim  lim  6 cos9  sin x  tan x  cot x
f  x  
cos x
x0 x x0 1   
2 2 2
1  cos x 1  sin x sec x  1 csc2 x  1
6. Given that log (3) is approximately equal to 0.477, how many digits do
f  x   
sin x cos x tan x cot x
    2  f min
3100 have when expanded in base 10? sin x cos x tan x cot x

Solution: 4. Find the value of

In general, the number of digits (in base ten) of a number n is obtained a2  a4  a6    a96  a98
using the formula
if a1, a2, a3,… is an arithmetic progression with common difference of 1
no. of digits  log(n)  1
and
Therefore: a1  a2  a3    a97  a98  137
 
no. of digits of 3100  log 3100  1  100(0.477)  1
Solution:
no. of digits of 3 100
 47.7  1  48
a1  a2  a3    a97  a98  137
7. Evaluate a2  1  a2  a4  1    a98  1  a98  137
1

1

1

1 2a2  a4  a6    a96  a98  49  137
2 1 3 2 4 3 25  24
a2  a4  a6    a96  a98  93
Solution:
Rationalizing the denominators of each of the terms in the sum: 5. Evaluate:

1  1   2   3 
9 9 9 9
1

1

1

1 n 
lim           
2 1 3 2 4 3 25  24 n n  n   n n n 
 
2 1 3 2 4 3 25  24
   
2 1 32 43 25  24 Solution:

1  1   2   3 
9 9 9 9 n 9
 25  1  4 n i
lim           
n n  n   n n n
  lim 1
 n n
 
n

  i 1
AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)
1  1   2   3 
9 9 9 9 n 9
1. A contest among n > 2 players is held over a period of 4 days. On each lim
n
             lim 1  0 
0 
1 0 
 i
n n  n   n n n  n n  n 
day each player receives a score of 1, 2, 3, …, n points with no two   i 1
players getting the same score on a given day. At the end of the
1  1   2   3 
9 9 9 9
n 1

contest it is discovered that every player received the same total of 26 lim              x9dx  1
points. How many players have participated? n n  n     
n n n  0 10
 
Solution:
The sum S of all the scores given to all the players on a single day is DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)
n(n  1)
S 1. How many zeros are there at the end of
2
 200 
So in 4 days, this will total as 4S = 2n(n+1). Each of the n players  
received 26 points at the end of the 4-day contest, therefore  124 
4S  26n  2n(n  1)  26n
Solution:
n  12 players  200  200!
  
20
2. What is the remainder when 10 is divided by 1001?  124  124! 76!
The number of trailing zeros (end zeros) in n! is found by the series of
Solution: floor functions below:
Using modulo division:
n  n   n 
1020 mod1001  102  1018 mod1001 no. of trailing zeros           
 5   52   53 
 100  10006 mod1001  200   200   200 
For 200!: no. of trailing zeros         49
 100   16 mod1001  5   52   53 

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 54

 124  124  124 
For 124!: no. of trailing zeros         28
 5   52   53 

 76   76   76 
For 76!: no. of trailing zeros             18
 5   52   53 
 200 
Therefore, the number of trailing zeros in   is 49 – (28 + 18) = 3
 124 
EASY (2 points, 15 seconds)
2. Find the reflection of the point (11,16,22) across the plane 3x
1. Simplify
+ 4y + 5z = 7.
2011 2
i2  i 2011 i 2011
Solution:
The normal to the plane is in the direction 3,4,5 and so the line going 2. For a vector-valued function given by
through the point perpendicular to the plane is given by the r (t )  (cost )i  (sin t ) j  2tk
parametric equations  

Find r (t )  r (t ) .
11  3t,16  4t,22  5t  3. Evaluate
The line going through this point intersects the plane at
2
3x  4 y  5z  7  3(11  3t )  4(16  4t )  5(22  5t )  7   13 
2 tan  
t4   4 
Hence, the reflection of the point occurs at t  8 , since the original
4. What is the greatest common divisor of 650 and 702?
point is at t  0 .
11  3t,16  4t,22  5t   11  24,16  32,22  40 5. Find the slope of the line connecting the intersections of 3x + 2y = 5
and x2 + y2 = 8.
11  3t,16  4t,22  5t   13,16,18
6. Classify the quadric surface
3. Suppose triangle ABC is equilateral. From the figure below:
x2  2 z 2  6 x  y  10  0

7. A byte is a binary number consisting of 8 digits. How many bytes have

at least two zeros?

AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)

1. There are 4 postal delivery people in your area, John, Tom, Jeff and
Pat. John delivers 20% of packages but loses 1 out of 200. Tom delivers
BD 1 CE 1 AF 1 60% of packages but loses 1 out of 100. Jeff delivers 15% of packages
 ;  ;  but loses 1 out of 50. Pat delivers 5% but loses 1 in 200. If your package
BC 3 CA 3 AB 3
was lost, what is the probability that John lost it?
Then the area of the shaded portion is what?
2. Find the smallest positive integer that has exactly 15 positive divisors.
Solution:
Since: 3. Evaluate:
BD 1 CE 1 AF 1
 ;  ;   2 3 4
BC 3 CA 3 AB 3 sin sin sin sin
We can say that 9 9 9 9
DC EA FB 4. Obtain the general solution of
x 2 ; y 2 ; z 2
BD CE AF
d2y dy
Using Routh’s Theorem (where x = y = z = n = 2): 8  15 y  0
dx 2 dx
area shaded 
n  12 ( ABC) 
(2  1)2
(1) 
1
n2  n  1 22  2  1 7 5. How many positive integers n have the property that the measures (in
degrees) of the interior angles of a regular n-gon are integers?

DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)

1. Differentiate

d 2011  e x sin x  cos x  

 
dx 2011  21005 

2. An object starts from rest at the point P(1,2,0) and moves with an
acceleration of
a(t )  j  2k m s 2
Find the location of the object after t = 2 seconds.

3. Evaluate:

4cos4 36  5cos2 36  12

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 55
SOLUTION AVERAGE (3 points, 30 seconds)

EASY (2 points, 15 seconds) 1. There are 4 postal delivery people in your area, John, Tom, Jeff and
Pat. John delivers 20% of packages but loses 1 out of 200. Tom delivers
1. Simplify 60% of packages but loses 1 out of 100. Jeff delivers 15% of packages
i2
2011
 i 2011 i 2011
2
but loses 1 out of 50. Pat delivers 5% but loses 1 in 200. If your package
was lost, what is the probability that John lost it?
Solution:
Solution:
Working mod 4 on the exponents of i:
Let A be the event that your package was lost and event B1, B2, B3 and
i2
2011 2
 i 2011 i 2011  i 2
2011
mod 4  i 2011mod 4  i 2011 mod 4
2
B4 be the event that John, Tom, Jeff and Pat delivers and lost your
2011 2 package respectively. Using a tree diagram to visualize:
i2  i 2011 i 2011  i0  i3  i1  1
 0
.20 B 1 200
 1  A
 0.60
2. For a vector-valued function given by   2 1
B 100 A

r (t )  (cost )i  (sin t ) j  2tk package  0.15 1 50
  3  A
B
Find r(t )  r(t ) .  0
.05 B 1 200
  4  A
Solution: Using Bayes’ Theorem:
Taking the first and second derivatives:

P B1 A  
PB1   P A B1 
r(t )  ( sin t )i  (cost ) j  2k 4
r(t )  ( cost )i  ( sin t ) j  0k  PBi   PA Bi 
Therefore i 1
r(t )  r(t )  ( sin t )( cost )  (cost )( sin t )  (2)(0)  0  1 
(0.2) 
  200 
3. Evaluate  1   1   1   1 
(0.2)   (0.6)   (0.15)   (0.05) 
  13 
2  200   100   50   200 
2 tan  
  4  
P B1 A  4
149
Solution:
2 2. Find the smallest positive integer that has exactly 15 positive divisors.
2 
  13  2 
2tan    2  1 Solution:
  4   2 
  For any integer n with prime factorization

4. What is the greatest common divisor of 650 and 702? n  p1a1  p2a2  p3a3   pi ai
The number of divisors of n (by virtue of the TAU FUNCTION) is
Solution:
Using Euclidean Algorithm to solve for the GCD: a1  1a2  1a3  1   ai  1
702 52 650 26 52 From the problem, 15 = 3(5) = (2 + 1)(4 + 1). Since 2 and 3 are the two
 1   12    20 smallest primes, we only have to check which of these two is smaller
650 650 52 52 26
26 is the last divisor that yields a remainder of 0. Therefore 26 is the 22  34 or 24  32
GCD of 650 and 702.
It is easy to see that 24  32  144 is the smaller of the two.
5. Find the slope of the line connecting the intersections of 3x + 2y = 5
and x2 + y2 = 8. 3. Evaluate
 2 3 4
Solution: sin sin sin sin
9 9 9 9
The points of intersection of 3x + 2y = 5 and x2 + y2 = 8 both belong to
the line 3x + 2y = 5 and its slope is -3/2. Solution:
Using the formula (with n = 9)
6. Classify the quadric surface
n 2 9 2
 k   k 
sin  n    n1 sin  9    91  16
x2  2 z 2  6 x  y  10  0 n 9 3

k 1 2 k 1 2
Solution:
4. Obtain the general solution of
By completing the square, we rewrite the equation as
y  1  x  32  2 z 2 d2y dy
8  15 y  0
And we see that this is an equation of an ELLIPTIC PARABOLOID. dx 2 dx

7. A byte is a binary number consisting of 8 digits. How many bytes have Solution:
at least two zeros? The differential equation is linear and homogeneous. Using an
auxiliary equation
Solution:
m2  8m  15  0
There are 28 = 256 binary sequence of length 8. Of them, 1 has no
zeros (11111111) and 8 have one zero. Therefore, there are 256 Solving for the roots, we get
– (1 + 8) = 247 sequences with at least 2 zeros. m  3 ; m  5
Since all roots are real, the general solution will be
y  c1e3x  c2e5x

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 56

5. How many positive integers n have the property that the measures (in where c = c1i + c2j + c3k. Letting t = 0 and applying the initial condition
degrees) of the interior angles of a regular n-gon are integers? v(0) = 0, we get
v(0)  c1i  c2 j  c3k  0  c1  c2  c3  0
Solution:
First, we should realize that an interior angle of a regular n-gon has So the velocity at any time t is
measure in between 0o and 180o. The formula for finding the interior v(t )  t j  2tk m s
angle of a regular n-gon is given by Integrating once more produces
180 (n  2) 360 t2
 180 
int erior angle 
n n 
r (t )  v(t )dt 
 t j  2tk dt 
2
j  t 2k  c
Clearly, we see that in order for this value to be an integer, the term Where c = c4i + c5j + c6k. Letting t = 0 and applying the initial condition
360 r(0) = I + 2j, we have
should be an integer. Therefore, using TAU FUNCTION to find
n r (0)  c4i  c5 j  c6k  i  2 j  c4  1 ; c5  2 ; c6  0
all integer divisors of 360 = 23(32)(5): So that the position vector is
 360  3  12  11  1  24  t2 
And carefully excluding n = 2 and n = 360 to the solution will give a r (t )  i    2  j  t 2k
 2 
total of 22 possible values for n.  
The location of the object after t = 2 seconds is
r (2)  i  4 j  4k  (1,4,4)
DIFFICULT (5 points, 60 seconds)
1. Differentiate 3. Evaluate:
d 2011  x

e sin x  cos x  
 4cos4 36  5cos2 36  12
dx 2011  21005 
Solution:
Solution: Realizing that

Notice the derivatives for e x cos x and e x sin x repeats for a certain  
cos5x  16 cos5 x  20 cos3 x  5 cos x  (cos x) 16 cos4 x  20 cos2 x  5
pattern. cos5x
16 cos4 x  20 cos2 x  5 
cos x
y  e x cos x y  e x sin x
y '  e x cos x  sin x  y '  e x cos x  sin x  16 cos4 x  20 cos2 x  4 
cos5x
1
cos x
y"  2e x sin x y"  2e x cos x
y  2e x cos x  sin x  y  2e x cos x  sin x  4 cos4 x  5 cos2 x  1 
1  cos5x 
  1
  4  cos x 
Using a formula for the nth derivative of y: 1 5
Since we know that cos36  , then at x = 36o:
yn   4n 4 yn mod 4 4
 
d 2011  e x sin x  cos x  

dx 2011  21005

1  d 2011 x

 21005  dx 2011
e sin x  
d 2011 x
dx 2011

e cos x 

  4 cos4 36  5 cos2 36  1  
1  cos180  1   1
 1  


 1
4  cos36  4 1 5
   
  3 3   4 

1  42011 4  d e x sin x  d e x cos x 
1005   dx3 3  5
2   dx  4 cos4 36  5 cos2 36  1  
4


21004
21005
2e cos x  sin x  2e cos x  sin x  2e cos x
x x x Therefore,

4 cos4 36  5cos2 36  12   

2
5  5

 4  16
2. An object starts from rest at the point P(1,2,0) and moves with an
acceleration of
a(t )  j  2k m s 2
Find the location of the object after t = 2 seconds.

Solution:
From the description of the object’s motion, we can deduce the
following initial conditions. Because the object starts from rest, we
have:
v(0)  0
Moreover, because the object starts at the point (x,y,z) = (1,2,0), we
have
r (0)  x(0)i  y(0) j  z(0)k  i  2 j  0k
To find the position vector, we should integrate twice, each time
using one of the initial conditions to solve for the constant of
integration. The velocity vector is then


v(t )  a(t )dt 
  j  2k dt  t j  2tk  c

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 57

 14. Given the digits 0, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, how many 5-digit numbers will
be formed if the resulting numbers are even, less than 70000 and
without repetition of digits?

4 3 2
15. What is the coefficient of a b c d in the expansion of

a  b  c  2d 10
1. Express 16. My birthday is June 23, 1982 and that is a Wednesday. On what day
0.142857 will it be 132011 days from that date?
into its simplest fraction representation. 17. How many Pythagorean triplets can you form if the measure of one
leg is equal to 36?
2. Let
m  1111111 (2004 1' s) 18. What is the remainder when
and 20082009  20092010  20102011
n  1111111 (666 1' s) is divided by 25?
Find gcdm, n .
19. How many positive integers less than 2011 are relatively prime to
3. If a, b and c are the roots of 2011?
3 2
x  9 x  11x  1  0 20. Solve for all possible real values of x:
 2x  1   
  arctan 2 x  1   
4 2
and suppose that s  a  b  c . Find the value of s  18s  8s . arctan
 3   3  4
   
4. If
log 2  a ; log 3  b ; log 7  c 21. If
Find the value of x tan 39

log100 7
45
x  tan 219  tan115 
 
cot  65
16 then what is the value of arctanx ? Answer should be between 0 to
2pi.
5. In the xy-plane, the solution set to
24 10 120 22. If A, B and C are angles of a triangle and
 
y x xy tan A  tan B  tan C  5.67
splits up naturally into four regions, only one of which is bounded. Find Find the value of tan Atan Btan C  .
the area of that bounded region.
23. Five real numbers are chosen and put in order from smallest to largest.
6. Alice, Bob and Charlie go to the park on January 1, 2011. Alice returns The average of all five is 14. The average of the three middle numbers
on January 7, 13, …, every sixth day. Bob returns every fourth day and is only 13. What is the average of the largest and smallest numbers?
Charlie returns every fifteenth day. When is the first day after January
1, 2011 when all three go to the park? 24. Find the smallest counting number which leaves a remainder of 5
when divided by 7, a remainder of 8 when divided by 11 and a
7. Compute: remainder of 2 when divided by 13.

2 23 2 4 25 2  25. What is the largest negative integer value that y can take in the
equation
8. Evaluate: 1001x  572 y  286
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 if x and y can only take integer values as solution?
1         
2 3 4 6 8 9 12 16 18 26. Find the polynomial equation y = f(x) of least degree that satisfies the
 5
9. Evaluate: points 1,0,  0,  and  5,5 .
1 1 1 1  6
 1  3  1  9  1  27  1  81
         27. Assume that b and c are integers greater than 1. In base b, c2 is written
 2  4 8  16 
as 10. Then b2 when written in base c is what?
10. How many odd numbers are there in the 2011th row of the Pascal’s
Triangle? Take note that in a Pascal’s Triangle, the topmost row (row 28. What is the sum of all the digits of all integers from 1 to 2011?
with 1 entry) is called row zero.
29. Evaluate:
11. Expand 1  2  3  n
2011
lim
  n n3 2
 2  2 i
 2 2 
  30. The sum of the 21st square number and 22nd square number is equal
to the nth pentagonal number. Find n.
12. Compute
log35i 4  7i  31. Express tan15x in terms of powers of tan x .

32. Find the vertical asymptotes of the graph of the function

13. Evaluate
 x 5 
i i y  2010  2011cot  
2 3 

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 58

33. If

x2  2x  1
f x  
x2  4x  7
then f 11 is equal to what?

34. Given that

x  3sin   sin 3 ; y  cos3  3cos
23 23
Evaluate x y .

35. Find the determinant of the matrix below:

 1 2 3  46. Suppose we draw 100 horizontal lines and 100 vertical lines in the
  plane. How many “pieces” of the plane are formed by cutting along all
A  5 0 4
  1 4 3  of these lines? (Note: Some of the pieces will have infinite area).

47. There are four cowboys in a saloon. At midnight, each cowboy

36. The integer n is the smallest positive multiple of 15 such that every digit randomly chooses one of the other three cowboys and shoots him.
n What is the probability that exactly two cowboys are shot?
of n is either 8 or 0. Compute for .
15
48. Find
37. A small square is constructed inside a square of area 1 by dividing each  n k
1 
side of the unit square into n equal parts and then connecting the
vertices to the division points closest to the opposite vertices. Find the
lim 
n   n  en 

 k 1 
value of n if the area of the small square is exactly 1 1985 .
49. Consider the points A(-5,-1), B(-1,0), C(1,2) and D(1,3). Let P be a point
and
d  PA2  PB2  PC 2  PD2
so that d is the sum of the squares of the distances from P to each of
A, B, C and D. What is the least possible value for d?

50. At what time after 3 o’clock will the hands of the clock be bisected by
the second hand for the first time?

38. What is the largest possible distance between two points on the
sphere of radius 19 with center (-2,-10,5) and the other on the sphere
of radius 87 with center (12,8,-16)?

39. Compute:

(104  324)(224  324)(344  324)(464  324)(584  324)

(44  324)(164  324)(284  324)(404  324)(524  324)

40. Find the smallest positive integer whose cube ends in 888.

41. Evaluate:

52  6 43 3 2  52  6 43 3 2
42. Evaluate:
100
 logi 100!
1

i 1
43. Find the 46th digit after the decimal point in the decimal expansion of
1
2011

44. When the product

x  5x  102x2  3x3  6x  16 x  9x  43x  18

2

is expanded, how many of the coefficients are odd?

45. A cylindrical can is 6 inches tall and its base is 4 inches in diameter. A
bug crawls from a point P on the upper rim of the can once around
the can to a point Q which is 4 inches directly below P. Then the bug
crawls from Q once around the can to a point R on the bottom rim of
the can directly below P (so the distance from Q to R is 2 inches). What
is the length of the shortest path in inches that the bug could have
made from P to R?

Prepared by: Joselito Torculas 59