Power System Practice and Design (Prepared by Dr.

Vijay H Makwana)

Electrical Design of Transmission Lines

Q: 1 Explain the factors to be considered in the selection of a voltage suitable for transmitting a
certain amount of power over a given distance.

Ans:  Amount of power transfer – With increase in power to be transmitted over longer
distance, use of high voltages for power transmission has been developed.
 Economical aspects – The voltage selected has to be economical and depends on the
cost of the lines, cost of apparatus such as transformers, circuit breakers, insulators, etc.
 Series compensation aspects – For higher power, it is worthwhile to check whether the
required power can be transmitted using lower voltages, e.g., transmission at 230 kV
using capacitors installed on the line instead of using higher voltages.
 Other lines vicinity aspects – In the selection of voltage of transmission lines, the
existing and the future voltage of the other lines in the vicinity should be considered.
 Location development – Possible developments in the location should be considered in
justifying the choice of voltage.
 Technical aspects – The choice of voltage is linked with the conductor size, the
performance of the line as expected within permissible percentage losses and the
regulation of the lines or the receiving end voltage in relation to sending end voltage,
when transmitting the required power.
 Power and distance relationship – The power to be transmitted and the distance over
which it is to be transmitted together decide the voltage requirement to a certain extent.
A very rough preliminary guide, the folioing table may be used.
Line-to-line voltage (kV) Line loading (kW-km)
11 24 × 103
33 200 × 103
66 600 × 103
110 11 × 106
132 20 × 106
166 35 × 106
230 60 × 106
 Fixed and running costs – The best method to decide the voltage for transmission
would be to study the initial and operating costs corresponding to the various voltages
under consideration, the necessary equipment, and different sizes of conductors under
consideration.

Q: 2 How does the size of the conductor affect the line performance?

Ans:  The size of the conductors selected depends on the length of the transmission line, load
on the line and the voltage of the line.
 For a given loss of energy, expressed as percentage of the energy to be transmitted, the
cross section of the conductor as well as its weight varies inversely as the square of the
voltage of the line.
 The current in the line depends on the voltage and the power factor of the load to be
supplied.
 As the voltage increases, the cross section of the conductors reduces, and upto a certain
extent, use of higher voltages reduces the loss. However, for high voltages (above 166
kV) other losses should be considered, viz. due to leakage over insulators and corona
 Power System Practice and Design (Prepared by Dr. Vijay H Makwana)

loss.
 The value of charging current increases for the high voltages and this affects the line
current.
 The cost of conductor depends on their weight.
 The size of conductors for transmission lines is selected by the permissible current
carrying capacity of the conductors and the losses during the year.
 In case of transmission of power by cables, Kelvin’s law holds good for economic
selection of the conductor size.
 In case of high voltage overhead transmission lines, Kelvin’s law does not hold good
because of the loss due to leakage current over the insulators and corona loss.
 Finally, the economical consideration, voltage drop and permissible temperature
limitations decide the choice of conductors.

Q: 3 How does the spacing between conductors affect the line performance?

Ans:  The spacing between the conductors depends on the voltage of the lines and the spans
used.
 The conductors should not touch each other at sag conditions, under different loading,
because of wind pressure, ice loading and changes in temperature.
 It should give reliability of performance against lightning surges.
 The inductance and the reactance of the lines depend on the spacing and should suit the
requirement needed.
 Economic factors should also be considered.
 The spacing arrangement may be horizontal or vertical or equilateral triangular as may
suit the circumstances. The approximate equivalent spacing of the lines is given in table
below.
Line-to-line voltage (kV) Equivalent spacing (m)
11 1
33 1.3
66 2.6
110 5
132 6
166 8
230 10.2
 Fig. 3.3 in the book of M V Deshpande shows the relation between the equivalent
spacing of the conductors against line-to-line voltage.
 For high voltage lines (above 230 kV), bundled conductors may be considered as an
alternative to a single conductor for each phase.

Q: 4 Define the following terms:

Ans: Corona – When the alternating potential between two parallel conductors increases
beyond a certain limit, a point is reached when a pale violet glow appears on the
conductor surface, and accomplished by a hissing sound. This phenomenon is known as
corona.

Disruptive critical voltage – The minimum potential difference required between the
conductors, to start ionization is termed as the disruptive critical voltage for corona
formation.
 Power System Practice and Design (Prepared by Dr. Vijay H Makwana)

Visual critical voltage – When the line-to-line voltage is above the disruptive critical
voltage, the corona occurs but there is no visual glow. For a visual glow, a higher voltage
is necessary and this is termed as visual critical voltage.
Disruptive strength or Dielectric strength – The potential gradient g at which a dielectric
completely is termed as disruptive strength or dielectric strength.

Q: 5 How the bundled conductors reduce corona loss in high-voltage transmission lines?

Ans: Multiple conductors or bundled conductors having n conductors arranged uniformly,

around the circumference of a circle have higher visual critical voltage than a single
conductor of the same cross section. This is because the maximum surface field for a
multiple conductor is less, and also the critical voltage is lower for a conductor of larger
diameter than for one of a smaller diameter. It is, therefore, possible to use higher voltages
without the effect of corona when a multiple conductor system is used than when solid
single conductors are used.

Q: 6 State the Peek’s and Peterson’s formulae and their limitations.

(OR)
State the expressions for corona loss in kW per km of transmission line. What are the
limitations of Peek’s formula and Peterson’s formula? Explain the various factors
affecting the corona.

Ans: When corona occurs, it produces loss of power. Peak gives the following formula for the
loss of power due to corona under fair weather conditions derived by experimental data:
244
Pc   f  25 r E  Ed 2  10 5 kW per phase per km
 D
Where
E = kV to neutral (rms)
f = frequency in Hz
δ = air density factor
r = radius of the conductor in cm
D = spacing between conductors in cm
Ed = disruptive voltage in kV (rms)

Under stormy conditions, corona loss would be obtained by taking Ed as 0.8 times its
value under fair weather condition. The limitations of the formula are:
1. The frequency range should be 25 to 120 Hz
2. The conductor radius r must be greater than 0.25 m
3. The ratio of E/Ed must be greater than 1.8
4. The formula is applicable only to fair weather condition

When the ratio E/Ed is less than 1.8, Perterson’s formula holds good and is given by,
21  10 6  fE 2
Pc  2
 F kW per km per conductor
 D
l  og 
 r
Where, F is the factor which varies with the ratio E/Ed.
 Power System Practice and Design (Prepared by Dr. Vijay H Makwana)

Q: 7 How is the type and number of insulators selected for a transmission line?

Ans: The insulators are designed and manufactured for a certain voltage range. The maximum
voltage per insulator is about 35 kV. The types of insulator used in transmission lie work
are:
1. Pin type insulators
2. Suspension type insulators
3. Strain type insulators
 Pin type insulators are made in one piece upto 25 kV and, above that voltage range, in
2, 3 or 4 pieces. The maximum range of voltage to which this type of insulators are
used is 50 kV.
 Suspension type insulators are made in the form of discs and a number of them are used
together in a string for the voltage range desired. The advantage of using suspension
type insulators on high voltage transmission lines is that the working voltage can be
increased at small cost by adding extra insulator units.
 When a string of suspension insulators is used in a horizontal position, they can take
the tension off the conductors also and, in such a position, are known as strain
insulators. The strain are used at the line terminals or at the anchor towers where lines
are dead ended.
 For low voltages upto 11 kV, shackle insulators can be used for taking the strain off the
line conductors but above that voltage, strain insulators of suspension type are used.

Q: 8 Why is the voltage distribution between the insulator units non-uniform? Explain in
detail. Also discuss about the string efficiency with respect to the same.

Ans: When AC voltage is applied across the insulator string, the voltage across each unit is not
uniform. This is because there is a capacitance between the units as well as the
capacitance between each unit and earth or frame-work.
The maximum voltage on any unit in the string should not exceed the value used while
designing and the number of units will have to be increased depending on the working
voltage of the line.
The insulator units have capacitance between the units, C about 6 to 10 times the
capacitance of the units to earth Ce. It is seen that the maximum voltage occurs on the
insulator nearest to the conductor. This decides the limit of working voltage of the line for
the number of insulators in the string under consideration.
If the flash-over voltage of the line is E volts peak, the peak or the maximum voltage
across the insulator is e, and the number of insulators in the string is n. then the string
efficiency is defined as follows:
E
Percentage string efficiency   100
ne

Q: 9 Explain the loading limits of a given transmission line by surge impedance loading
considerations.

Ans:  The surge impedance loading of the transmission line is a function of the inductance
and the capacitance of the transmission line and is numerically equal to (L/C)1/2. This is
independent of the length of the line.
 If an average length of transmission lines is taken, and the surge impedance is found
out for each, then value is generally found to be constant and about 400 Ω. This
 Power System Practice and Design (Prepared by Dr. Vijay H Makwana)

depends, to a certain extent, on the type of conductors used, stranded or solid and
copper or ACSR.
 It is also found that this factor, viz. surge impedance gives an idea of the permissible
loading on the line. Surge impedance loading can be defined as the load that can be
delivered by the line having no resistance, the load being at unity power factor. In such
cases, I2X of the line gives the charging kVA of the line.
2
Surge impedance loading of the line 
line kV 
Surge impedance
 The surge impedance loading is not necessarily the maximum loading on the line. To
find out the permissible loading on the line, the stability studies have to be considered
in detail.
 Surge impedance loading can be used for comparison of th load that can be carried on
the lines at different voltages.
 Power System Practice and Design (Prepared by Dr. Vijay H Makwana)

Mechanical Design of Transmission Lines

Q: 1 Explain in brief about various types of loading on overhead transmission lines.

Ans: Loading on transmission conductors is generally due to:

1. Weight of the conductor – vertical load
2. Weight of ice accumulated on the conductor in cold weather, if any
3. Wind load acting on the surface of the conductor – horizontal
 In most of the countries, weather charts are prepared showing the wind pressure belts
with expected values and ice loading where this type of load exists.
 Transmission lines loadings are classified as heavy loading, medium loading and light
loading for purposes of mechanical design of lines.
 The wind pressure is assumed to act on two-third project area of the conductor.
 In USA and UK, ice loading is considered. But, in India, there is no ice loading on the
lines.

Q: 2 Derive sag-tension relation for a given span with the towers at the ends located at unequal
levels. How is the expression simplified for conductors supported at equal levels?

Ans: Refer Topic 3.11 of book M V deshpande.

Q: 3 What is stringing? Explain it in detail.

Ans:  The process of pulling conductors between supports of the towers is known as stringing
of the lines. Stretching conductors as tightly as possible within safety limits helps is
reducing the height of the towers. In stringing the lines, the necessary clearance should
be kept between the lowest point of the conductors and the ground.
 Stringing is done either by measuring the tension correctly while pulling at the supports
or by measuring the sag accurately. While stringing, the weather conditions may vary
(particularly temperature) and so it is necessary to know the temperature-tension and
sag-temperature curves for the conductor.
 The maximum sag may occur at either maximum temperature to which the line will be
subjected or the maximum loading condition. This has to be carefully worked out
before hand and the un-stretched length of the line conductors found at the temperature
at the time of erection. Otherwise the tension may exceed that permitted under the
worse conditions.
 Strain towers can stand even if all the wires on one side are broken. Flexible or semi-
flexible towers are used between strain-towers in the interest of economy. The length of
conductors will vary with the elasticity of the material and the change of temperature.

Q: 4 State the effect of temperature on the length of the conductor.

Ans: The length of conductor will change due to changes in temperature. The effect of this
should be considered while stringing the line at the time of erection.
If α is the linear coefficient of thermal expansion and if the temperature changes from t1 to
t2, the length l2 at temperature t2 is given by,
l2  l11   t2  t1 
The value of α should be that at t1. If it is at any other temperature, this should be
converted to correspond to the value at t1 and then used in the above equation for
 Power System Practice and Design (Prepared by Dr. Vijay H Makwana)

accuracy.

Q: 5 State different steps which required to be followed while locating the transmission towers.

Ans:  For normal or average spans used for particular lines and the normal size of the tower
to be used, the sag and the nature of the curve that the conductor will occupy under
expected load conditions is calculated and plotted as a template.
 The minimum clearance required from the ground surface can be plotted as a similar
curve parallel to the conductor shape curve on the template.
 If the height of the tower is standard and same, the curve for the tower footing line can
also be shown on the template. This type of template is shown in Fig. 3.10 of book.
 Knowing the nature of the ground where the line is to be erected, and using the
template, it is very easy to locate the position of towers maintaining the minimum
clearance required from the ground at any point in the span length.

Q: 6 Write the function of an earth wire used in transmission lines. Give the name of material
from which it is made. Clearly define its working during occurrence of short circuit or
lightning stroke on the transmission line.

Ans:  The main function of earth wire is to protect the transmission line against lightning
strokes. This is done by reducing the tower footing resistance.
 Earth wires are of copper weld or stranded GI wires.
 Direct strokes to a tower will raise its potential to IZ where I is the stroke current and Z
is the tower footing impedance. Experience has shown that the tower footing resistance
should be reduced to about 10 Ω as measured with the earth wires removed.
 The earth wires afford protection by acting as short-circuited secondary to any
travelling waves that are set up.
 If the lightning strikes at mid-span along the earth wire, and divides equally between
the two paths available, the potential at the point of strike is raised to IZE where I is the
stroke current and ZE is the characteristic impedance of the earth wire.
 Power System Practice and Design (Prepared by Dr. Vijay H Makwana)

Design of EHV Transmission Lines

Q: 1 State the requirements of high-voltage and ultra-high-voltage transmission. How is the
voltage selected for a given power transmitted over a given distance?

Ans: For developing power systems and transmission lines, and for the economical
transmission of large blocks of power over long distances, it is necessary to go in for
higher transmission voltages. Also, in localities where fuel is scarce and hydro energy is
plentiful but far away long-distance high-voltage and ultra-high-voltage transmission lines
has to be used.
In evaluating the transmission system economy and for choosing a high voltage for
transmitting a given power over a given distance economically, a number of factors are to
be considered that are given as below.
 The selection of conductors has to take into account the electric field and current
carrying capacities.
 At high voltages, the tower dimensions are determined by the insulation requirements.
 The annual cost for the terminal equipment in substations and the equipment for
compensation of reactive power and the cost of active power losses due to system-
loading should be considered.
 In a high-voltage and ultra-high-voltage transmission system, technical considerations
such as the voltage regulation, system stability and thermal capacity, for a given
transmitted power and line length, is taken into account.

Q: 2 What are the design considerations for EHV transmission lines?

Ans: The main points to be considered in the designing of EHV lines are:
1. Choice of voltage for the required transmission power over the required distance.
2. In case of EHV lines, the lines must be grounded permanently and solidly at all
transformation points.
3. Line conductors are selected so as to optimize the power transmission capability of the
line, with reference to the energy losses. The use of bundled conductors makes it
possible to control the conductor surface-gradient and to increase the natural power-
transmission capability of the line.
4. Calculation of corona loss under fair weather and worst weather conditions.
5. Choice of the conductor to satisfy the minimum requirements of radio interference.
6. Choosing the number and type of conductors.
7. A basic requirement of the transmission line insulators is that they should be capable
of withstanding the service voltage continuously.
8. Voltage regulation of the lines.
9. Line losses at various load factors of the system.
10. Bundled conductors and series capacitors in the power lines and low reactances in
alternators and transformers are used to improve the stability conditions.
11. The insulation levels used can be gradually decreased with the growth of the system
because of the lowered internal voltages.
12. The reliability factor is economically calculable and should be included in economic
comparisons. The cost of interruptions should be assessed from the viewpoint of the
whole nation’s economy.
13. Types of towers, suspension-strings, etc., and their dimensions to suit the particular
system voltage.
 Power System Practice and Design (Prepared by Dr. Vijay H Makwana)

14. A field intensity of the order of 10 kV/m may exist near EHV lines. The electrostatic
field intensity at ground level can be controlled by adjusting the height of the
conductor above ground.

Q: 3 Explain the use of bundled conductors in EHV transmission lines.

Ans:  In the case of high-voltage lines, above 400 kV, bundled conductors are used.
 Bundled conductors have a number of sub-conductors in each phase, suitably spaced
and in parallel so that the size of each member conductor or sub-conductor is much
smaller than the equivalent single conductor. This results in easier handling and
erection of conductors.
 Use of bundled conductors reduces corona loss and radio interference of the line.
 Bundled conductors have reduced inductive reactance per phase which improves the
performance of the line.

Q: 4 Discuss the spacing, selection of size and number of conductors for EHV lines.

Ans:  When using bundled conductors for transmission lines, it is necessary to choose the
number of sub-conductors, their spacing and the phase separation to obtain the
performance required of the lines with reference to the inductance and reactance of the
lines and thus regulation, capacitance of the lines, the surge impedance and thermal
loading capacity of the line.
 It is necessary to analyze the electrical characteristics of bundled conductor
transmission lines, not only with reference to voltage gradient in the vicinity of the
conductor, but also the transmission capability of bundled conductor versus single
conductor lines.

Q: 5 Explain the effect of bundled conductor size on surge impedance of the line.

Ans:  The area of the conductor for transmission line should be determined by the current
carrying capacity of the conductor, economic evaluation of I2R losses, and structural
arrangement of the circuit.
 The change in surge impedance as a function of conductor area has negligible effect on
the change of line capability as long as the current carrying capacity of the conductor is
not exceeded. Fig. 6.4 from book shows the effect of conductor size on the capability of
the line.

Q: 6 Explain the effect of intra-group spacing on bundled conductor line capability.

Ans:  Fig. 6.5 from book shows the effect of intra-group spacing of conductors on increased
transmission line capability.
 It is seen that the bundled conductor spacing has a significant effect on circuit
capability. Increase in the intra-group spacing increases the capability of the line.
 Capability gains are relatively large in terms of the incremental system load growth and
thus have significant saving in any long range transmission needs.

Q: 7 Explain the effect of phase separation on bundled conductor line capability.

Ans:  Fig. 6.6 shows the effect of phase separation on the line capability.
 Power System Practice and Design (Prepared by Dr. Vijay H Makwana)

 It is seen that the gains in the line capability with bundled conductors diminishes with
increase in phase separation.
 There is an advantage in increasing the number of conductors in a bundle as the system
voltage is increased in order to compensate for the decrease in capability because of
increased phase separation.
 The capability of lower voltage transmission lines can be increased to a greater extent
than that of higher voltage lines.

Q: 8 Explain the effect of number of conductors on a bundled conductor line capability.

Ans:  Increasing the number of conductors in a bundle results in smaller increments in

capability than are obtained by adding circuits.
 It is seen that a conductor bundle increases capability by 60% more than a single
conductor line; this, however, is much smaller than the increase in the capability gain
obtained by the double-circuit single-conductor per-phase line which gives 100%
capability gain.
 With increased number of conductors per bundle, the relative efficiency of a
transmission line will decrease, unless the total conductor area per phase is also
increased.

Q: 9 Explain corona on EHV transmission lines. How does it depend on the diameter of the
conductor, the number of insulators and spacing of conductors?

Ans:  The disruptive corona voltage and corona power loss are very much affected by the size
and spacing of the conductors. The greater the insulation level of the line and larger the
spacing between conductors, the higher will be the disruptive corona voltage and lower
the corona loss.
 A change in the conductor size, configuration and surface conditions will shift the
curve, shown in Fig. 6.7 for a typical conductor configuration, up or down the voltage
scale. It is desirable to design the line so that for most of the operating time, it will
work on the flat portion of the corona loss curve.
 For a comparatively low voltage line, it was the practice to design the line for 0.3 to 0.6
kW per km of the line. But it would be economical to allow higher corona loss on
higher voltage lines (400 kV and above) if the increased corona did not produce
excessive radio interference effect.
 The effect of line insulation and spacing on corona loss is shown in Fig. 6.8 for 345 kV,
400 kV and 460 kV lines using different number of insulators on the line as given in
Table 6.3.
 If the conductor diameter were chosen from the standpoint of equal power loss for
different lengths of the insulator strings at a given operating voltage, the range of
conductor diameter would be considerable. This is shown in Fig. 6.8.

Q: 10 Explain radio and TV interference. How does the maximum voltage gradient on the
conductor affect RI? How does the use of bundled conductors affect RI?

Ans:  The interference to radio and TV due to extra high voltage transmission lines having
corona effect should be limited to tolerable limits. The recommended surface gradients
 Power System Practice and Design (Prepared by Dr. Vijay H Makwana)

for EHV lines for satisfactory radio interference levels are given in Fig. 6.10 of book
for urban and rural area.
 The criterion may be that at a frequency of 1 MHz the disturbance should not exceed
40 dB above 1 μV/m at a lateral distance of 30 m above the centre of the circuit. Table
6.5 of book gives the conductor configurations which should give equivalent thermal
capacities and RI performance. It will be seen that the RI criterion requires larger
conductor size.
 The corona performance related to radio interference (RI), audio noise (AN) and
corona loss of bundled conductors should be studied properly. Typical cases are shown
in Figs. 6.11, 6.12 and 6.13 giving corona performance of bundled conductors as
related to RI, AN and corona loss.
 It is seen from the curves that the corona performance is essentially a function of
conductor surface gradient E0. By properly choosing the number of sub-conductors and
their diameter, E0 can be designed to keep the corona performance within acceptable
limits.

Q: 11 Discuss the insulation coordination done for EHV lines and equipment.

Ans:  Insulation coordination is the correlation of the insulation of electric equipment and
circuit in the system to the characteristics of the protective devices provided in the
system such that the insulation is protected from possible excessive over-voltages in the
system.
 For example, in a substation, the insulation of transformers, circuit breakers, bus bar
supports, etc. should have insulation strength higher than the voltage levels that can be
provided by the protective equipment such as lightning arresters, etc.
 The arrester must be applied and used on the system in such a way that it will discharge
any excessive voltage safely to the ground very quickly and then restore itself as an
insulator and protect the insulation of the equipment.
 The coordination between insulation characteristics of an apparatus to be protected,
such as transformer and the protected device used, such as lightning arrester, is shown
in Fig 6.14 of the book.

Q: 12 Discuss the basic insulation levels adopted for EHV lines and equipment.

Ans:  The basic impulse-insulation levels are defined as reference voltage levels expressed in
impulse crest voltage with the standard wave (not longer than 1×40 μs wave).
 The apparatus should withstand tests and should have insulation higher than the basic
standard-impulse level.
 The protective equipment for the station or substation should be chosen to give the
insulation good protection corresponding to the working of these levels as
economically as possible.
 The basic insulation level (BIL) of the equipment insulation must be higher than the
maximum expected surge voltage across the arrester selected for protection.
 The behavior of the apparatus under surge or impulse conditions is checked on high-
speed oscillograph to see that the apparatus satisfies the necessary insulation levels.
 The ratio of the maximum surge voltage the device will permit on discharge to the
maximum crest voltage that it can withstand following the discharge gives a measure of
its protective ability.
 The protective device should also be able to discharge severe surge current safely
 Power System Practice and Design (Prepared by Dr. Vijay H Makwana)

without damage to the equipment.

Q: 13 State the insulation requirements for high-voltage transformers.

Ans: The conditions of service which transformer insulation must meet are three:
1. Normal frequency operation
2. Switching and other over-voltages
3. Lightning surges that may by impressed on the transformer terminals

Q: 14 State requirements of high-voltage switching equipment.

Ans: High speed fault isolation – This is from the following standpoints:
1. System stability
2. Reduced system shock and damage
3. Improved service to consumers
4. Decrease in circuit breaker maintenance.
High-speed reclosing
1. The circuit breaker should be designed for a sufficient interrupting capacity to interrupt
the maximum short circuit current expected on high voltage systems.
2. Equipment should be designed with sufficient high dielectric strength for the lightning
arrester coordination.

Q: 15 Show typical towers used for EHV transmission lines.

Ans: Refer Topic 6.7 of book.

Q: 16 Give details about EHV lines in India.

Ans: 400 kV lines – In India the first 400 kV line was commissioned in 1978. A total of about
62000 circuit kilometers of 400 kV lines have been constructed. Some of these are Dehar
Panipat line. Odra-Sultanpur line, Sultanpur-Lucknow line, Obra-Kanpur line, Kanpur-
Moradnagar line and Koradi-Kalwa line. Another 28000 circuit kilometers of 400 kV
lines are planned for commissioning in the 11th plan.
765 kV lines – The next higher voltage selected for the Indian grid is 765 kV. About 1200
circuit kilometers of 765 kV lines have been constructed. Some of these are: Anpara-
Unnao (UP), Tehri Meerut (UP), Vindhyachal-Bina-Nagda (MP), etc.
 Power System Practice and Design (Prepared by Dr. Vijay H Makwana)

Design of Distribution Systems

Q: 1 State the main points that should be considered while designing and developing the
distribution plan for a particular area.

Ans: When designing and developing the distribution plan for a particular area, the following
main points should be considered:
Service conditions
1. Load to be served
2. Density of customers
3. Length of lines
4. Points of supply
Electrical design
1. Voltage of supply
2. Voltage regulation at the consumers
3. Transformers and accessories
4. Protection of electrical systems
5. Operation of the system
Mechanical design
1. Poles and spans
2. Hardware and guying
3. Wires and clearances
4. Installation of transformers and substations
Cost per kilometer of distribution lines and cost per consumer

Q: 2 State different types of distribution system arrangements in brief.

Ans: The distribution system consists mainly of two parts: (i) the primary distribution system,
and (ii) the secondary distribution system.
The primary distribution system would be the circuits supplying power at high voltage to
large consumers such as industrial consumers and to distribution substations.
The secondary distribution system would take the power to consumers such as domestic
consumers at distribution voltage.

Q: 3 Write a short note on Radial System.

Ans: Fig. 10.2 in book shows a radial system of distribution.

The sub-transmission substation supplies the primary distribution system feeders radiating
from the substation bus.
The primary distribution feeders feed the distribution transformer of substations which
step down the voltage to distribution voltage and supply various loads through
distributors.
Feeders are conductors that are not tapped in between the sub-transmission substation and
the distribution substations.
Distributors are conductors that are tapped throughout at all points when they are laid
from substation transformers to various consumers in the area to be served.
Primary feeder voltages of 11 kV and 3.3 kV are very common.
The secondary distribution voltage at the consumers is 415/240 V, the system being three-
phase four-wire.
 Power System Practice and Design (Prepared by Dr. Vijay H Makwana)

Q: 4 Write a short note on Parallel or Loop System.

Ans: The parallel or loop system is shown in Fig. 10.3 of the book.
From the source of supply such as sub-transmission substation, feeders are laid in parallel
to supply substations from which the secondary distribution of power will be affected.
In this system, the circuit returns to the same point so that there is in effect one feeding
point only.
In case of fault in one part of the circuit, an alternative path is available giving more
reliability than the radial system.

Q: 5 Explain the factors to be considered and the methods of designing primary-distribution

system with reference to choice of voltage.

Ans:  The choice of voltage for transmitting power depends on the distance as well as on the
amount of power to be transmitted.
 In case, the supply is received from the grid at high voltage and the sub-transmission
lines runs upto the city, the voltage to which this should be stepped down for primary
distribution in the city to supply the various distribution transformer substations is to be
chosen.
 The factors affecting the choice of this voltage are generally accepted standards, local
regulations, physical relations with other power systems nearby and relative reliability.
 If a certain load is assumed and a certain length of the line is given, the most
economical voltage can be determined. The main considerations would be percentage
regulation, conductor size and percentage-power loss.
 The percentage power loss and voltage drop for a given load and wire size vary
approximately as the square of the voltage.
 Tough raising the voltage would permit longer lines for a given load, it would also
increase clearances and rating of transformers and accessories which in turn may
increase the cost to more than that would be involved by the use of lower voltage for
the particular conditions.
 For an economical primary voltage, the total costs involved in the system for the
primary voltage chosen must be minimum. The total costs is the sum of the costs
pertaining to substation structures and equipment which are proportional to voltage,
cost of primary lines, annual cost of energy losses in primary lines, cost of distribution
transformers and the annual cost of copper losses in distribution transformers.
 The most economical distance between substations, and hence the number of
substations in the system, is a function of the distribution voltage used.
 A preliminary determination of loads and load densities, which may be assumed
depending on concentration of loads in the given areas, and distances between
substations for each voltage chosen is essential when determining the primary system
voltages.
 Cost of distribution transformers would be more or less proportional to the primary
voltage used.

Q: 6 Explain the methods of designing primary-distribution system with reference to the

conductor size.

Ans:  The size of the feeder is selected by considering the current carrying capacity and using
Kelvin’s law to some extent, whining limitations.
 Power System Practice and Design (Prepared by Dr. Vijay H Makwana)

 The primary feeders may be overhead or, in congested areas, underground.

 The primary feeders may have a rating between 500 kVA to 2500 kVA.
 The installed capacities should be proportional to loads on their secondary circuits.
Therefore, installed transformer capacities can be used as a basis for calculating the
current through the feeders and to calculate the voltage drop that is likely to occur.
 Calculations of voltage drop can be adjusted by multiplying it by the ratio of the actual
maximum demand on the circuit to the total kVA of transformer capacity installed in
the circuit.
 Many a time, a distribution system is designed for total voltage drop of 8% to 10%, the
drop being divided approximately as follows: Primary feeder voltage drop from first to
last transformer 2 to 2.5%; secondary drop, including drop in transformer and
distributors, 6%; service connection voltage drop 0.5 to 1%.
 The voltage at the seeding point should be maintained such that the voltage drop
between the feeding point and the last consumer’s service is within the permissible
limits or the voltage at the last consumer is not less than 6% of that of the declared
voltage from the distribution transformer secondary.

Q: 7 Explain the methods of designing primary-distribution system with reference to the

voltage drop.

Ans: If the primary voltage drop between the first and last transformer exceeds 2%, then this
voltage drop should be reduced. The methods of reducing it are given below.
1. Rearrangement of circuits
2. Installation of additional conductors
3. Installation of feedbacks to avoid long lengths
4. Replacement of conductors is advisable only in the case of short sections as it
needs additional investment
5. Installation of boosters or branch-feed regulations
6. Installation of capacitors
7. Installation of additional substations and/or feeders
The method chosen for reducing the primary voltage drop depends on the relative expense
incurred.
An increase in primary conductor size beyond the feed point does not decrease the total
tosses if the total drop of voltage between the first and last consumer is held constant.
If the feeding point is extended, this increases feeder losses. If the feeder losses are
excessive, then larger feeder conductors or capacitors could be justified by the reduction
in losses.

Q: 8 State the methods of voltage regulation used for distribution systems.

Ans: The methods of voltage regulation used for distribution systems are:
 Transformer taps, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% taps are generally used
 Automatic-control induction-type voltage regulators
 Boosters
 Automatic tap-changers and boosters
 Shunt capacitors
Automatic voltage boosters are less expensive than induction regulators and are important
in improving the service in low-density areas, particularly on long, rural lines.
Automatic on-load tap changing is also used with large-distribution transformers and
 Power System Practice and Design (Prepared by Dr. Vijay H Makwana)

power transformers in substations to control the voltage on a bus or feeder.

For satisfactory operation, operation of regulators on distribution circuits must be
coordinated with the system design and the regulator settings may be determined to give
the best results.

Q: 9 State the limitations with respect to voltage regulation by which the distribution system is
designed.

Ans:  The distribution system may be designed with the following limitations:
 8% voltage drop is allowed between the primary of the first transformer and end of the
secondary of last transformer with maximum load on the circuit and the maximum load
on the last transformer and the secondary.
 Regulators are set up to provide a voltage, at the primary of the first transformer of
about 4% more than the normal voltage.
 When automatic control is used for the value of the distribution system, the contact-
making voltmeters ate set to the value of the standard voltage to be maintained.

Q: 10 Discuss about the causes of lamp flicker.

Ans:  In a distribution system, there is sometimes a sudden change of load which then
changes the voltage suddenly and causes a voltage drop and flicker of lamps.
 Lamp flicker results due to suddenly applied heavy loads of short duration on the
system in addition to normal load current.
 Sudden dip in illumination is caused due to starting of a motor or a welder.

Q: 11 Give classification of flicker with respect to the frequency of it.

Ans: The flicker can be classified into the following types:

High-frequency flicker, cyclic: This causes dips 2 to 10 times per second by loads such as
air compressors, reciprocating pumps or automatic spot welders.
Low-frequency flicker, cyclic: 2 times per second to 12 times per minute. The dips are
caused by loads such as punch presses, arc welders, drop hammers, motor-driven shears,
etc.
Frequent non-cyclic: 1 to 12 times per minute. The dips of this range of frequency are
caused by loads such as cranes, electric hoists, W-ray apparatus, star/delta switching of
motors.
Infrequent non-cyclic: This type may have a frequency of three or more per hour and is
caused by loads such as refrigerators, air-conditioners, pumps, etc.