MT 131 T2

Module #3 - Sets
2. Sets, Functions and

Matrices
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Sets
• Sets are one of the basic building blocks for the types of
objects considered in discrete mathematics.
– Important for counting.
– Programming languages have set operations.
• Set theory is an important branch of mathematics.
– Many different systems of axioms have been used to
develop set theory.
– Here we are not concerned with a formal set of axioms
for set theory. Instead, we will use what is called naïve
set theory.
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics
Module #3 - Sets
Sets
• A set is an unordered collection of objects.
– The students in this class.
– The chairs in this room.
• The objects in a set are called the elements, or members of the
set. A set is said to contain its elements.
• The notation a ∈ A denotes that a is an element of the set A.
• If a is not a member of A, write a ∉ A
• There must be an underlying Universal set U, either specifically
stated or understood.
• For example:
 A = {1, 3, 5, 7}; 3  A , 2  A
 C = {x | x = n2 + 1, n is an integer, 0 ≤ n ≤ 10}
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank
Module #3 - Sets
Describing a Set: Roster Method
• S = {a, b, c, d}
• Order not important
S = {a, b, c, d} = {b, c, a, d}
• Each distinct object is either a member or not; listing more
than once does not change the set.
S = {a, b, c, d} = {a, b, c, b, c, d}
• Ellipses (…) may be used to describe a set without listing
all of the members when the pattern is clear.
S = {a, b, c, d, …, z }
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Roster Method
• Set of all vowels in the English alphabet:

V = {a, e, i, o, u}
• Set of all odd positive integers less than 10:
O = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
• Set of all positive integers less than 100:
S = {1, 2, 3, …, 99}
• Set of all integers less than 0:
L = {…, -3, -2, -1}
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Some Important Sets
• N = natural numbers = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}

• Z = integers = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
• Z⁺ = positive integers = {1, 2, 3, …}
• R = set of real numbers
• R+ = set of positive real numbers
• C = set of complex numbers
• Q = set of rational numbers
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Describing a Set: Set-Builder

Notation
• Specify the property or properties that all members must
satisfy:
S = {x | x is a positive integer less than 100}
T = {x | x is an odd positive integer less than 10}
O = {x ∈ Z⁺ | x is odd and x < 10}
• A predicate may be used:
S = {x | P(x)}
• Example: S = {x | Prime(x)}
• Positive rational numbers:
Q+ = {x ∈ R | x = p/q, for some positive integers p, q}
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank
Module #3 - Sets
Describing a Set: Interval

Notation
[a, b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}
[a, b) = {x | a ≤ x < b}
(a, b] = {x | a < x ≤ b}
(a, b) = {x | a < x < b}
Closed interval [a, b]

Open interval (a, b)
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Examples
Use the set builder notation to describe the sets

A = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, …}
B = {a, d, e, h, m, o}
A = { x | x = n2 , n is positive integer}
B = { x | x is a letter of the word mohamed}
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Describing a Set: Venn Diagrams
U : universal set
S
2 3
5 7
Prime < 10 John Venn

1834-1923
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Membership in Sets and the

Empty Set
• x  S : x is an element or member of the set S.
e.g. 3  N
“a” {x | x is a letter of the alphabet}
• x  S : (x  S) “x is not in S ”
•  (null or the empty set) is the unique set that contains no
elements.
•  = {}
• Empty set  does not equal the singleton set { }
 ≠ { }
9/30/2017
Module #3 - Sets
Definition of Set Equality
• Two sets are declared to be equal if and only if they

contain exactly the same elements.
i.e. A and B are equal if and only if
x (x  A  x  B)
Example: (Order and repetition do not matter)

{1, 3 , 5} = {3, 5, 1} = {1, 3, 3, 3, 5, 5, 5}
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Subset Relation
• S  T (“S is a subset of T ”) means that every element of S

is also an element of T.
S  T  x (x  S  x  T )
•  S &S S
• If S  T is true and T  S is true then S = T,
x (x  S  x  T)
• (S  T ) means S / T
i.e.  x (x  S  x  T )
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Proper Subset
• S  T (S is a proper subset of T ) means every element of
S is also an element of T, but S  T.
Venn Diagram equivalent of S  T
S
T
e.g. {1, 2}  {1, 2, 3}
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Sets Are Objects, Too!
• The objects that are elements of a set may themselves be

sets.
e.g. let S = {x | x  {1,2,3}}
then S = {,
{1}, {2}, {3},
{1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3},
{1,2,3}}
• Note that 1  {1}  {{1}}
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Module #3 - Sets
Cardinality and Finiteness
• |S| or card(S) (read the cardinality of S ) is a measure of

how many different elements S has.
e.g. | | = |{ }| = 0
|{1, 2, 3, 5}| = 4
|{a, b, c}| = 3
|{{1, 2, 3},{4, 5}}| = 2
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
The Power Set Operation
• The power set P(S) of a set S is the set of all subsets of S.

e.g.
 P({a}) = {, {a}}
 P({a, b}) = {, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}
 P({1, 2, 3}) = {, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2},
{1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}
 P({}) = {, {}}
 P() = {}
Note: If a set has n elements then P(S) has 2n elements.
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Ordered n-tuples
• The ordered n-tuple (a1, a2, …, an) is the ordered collection

that has a1 as its first element, a2 as its second element and
so on.
• These are like sets, except that duplicates matter, and the
order makes a difference.
e.g. (2, 5, 6, 7) is a 4-tuple.
• Note that (1, 2)  (2, 1)  (2, 1, 1).
• Note that 2-tuples are called ordered pairs.
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Cartesian Products of Sets
• The Cartesian product of any two sets A and B is defined by

AB : {(a, b) | a  A  b  B }.
e.g. {a, b}{1, 2} = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2)}
• Note that for finite A and B, |AB| = |A||B|.

• Note that the Cartesian product is not commutative: AB ≠
BA.
e.g. {1, 2}{a, b} = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b)}
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Cartesian Products of Sets
• The Cartesian products of the sets A1, A2, …, An, denoted by

A1  A2  …  An , is the set of ordered n-tuples (a1, a2, …,
an) where ai belongs to Ai for i = 1, …, n.
Example: What is A  B  C where A = {0, 1}, B = {1, 2} and

C = {0, 1, 2}
Solution: A  B  C = {(0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1), (0, 1, 2), (0, 2, 0),
(0, 2, 1), (0, 2, 2), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 0), (1, 2,
1), (1, 2, 2)}
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Set Operations
The Union Operator 
• For any two sets A and B, AB is the set containing all
elements that are either in A, or in B or in both.
• Formally:
AB = {x | x A  x  B}.
{2, 3, 5}{3, 5, 7} = {2, 3, 5, 3, 5, 7} = {2, 3, 5, 7}
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
The Intersection Operator 

• For any two sets A and B, their intersection AB is the set
containing all elements that are in both A and in B.
• Formally:
AB = {x | x  A  x  B}.
• {a, b, c}  {2, 3} =  disjoint
• {2, 4, 6}  {3, 4, 5} = {4}
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
• How many elements are in AB?

|AB| = |A|  |B|  |AB|
Example:
{1, 2, 3}  {2, 3, 4, 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
{1, 2, 3}  {2, 3, 4, 5} = {2, 3}
|{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}| = 3 + 4 – 2 = 5
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Set Difference
• For any two sets A and B, the difference of A and B,
written A  B, is the set of all elements that are in A but not
in B.
A  B : x  x  A  x  B
 x  x  A  x  B
A – B = A  B is called the complement of B with respect
to A.
e.g. {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}  {2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11} = {1, 4, 6 }
Set A  B
Set A Set B
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank
Module #3 - Sets
Symmetric Difference
• For any two sets A and B, the symmetric difference of A
and B, written , is the set of all elements that are in
A but not in B or in B but not in A.
: x  (x  A  x  B)  (x  B  x  A)
 (A – B)  (B – A)  (A  B) – (A  B)
U
A B
e.g. {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}  {2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11} = {1, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11}

9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank
Module #3 - Sets
Set Complements
• U : Universe of Discourse
A : For any set A  U, the complement of A,
i.e. it is U  A.
A  {x | x  A} A
A
e.g. If U = N,
U
{3, 5}  {0,1, 2, 4, 6, 7, ...}
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Example
Let A and B are two subsets of a set E such that AB = {1,
2}, |A|= 3, |B| = 4, A = {3, 4, 5, 9} and B = {5, 7, 9}. Find the
sets A, B and E.
A 7 1 3 B
E 2 4
5 9
A = {1, 2, 7}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4},

E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9}
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank
Module #3 - Sets
Example
U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}.
• AB = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
• AB = {4, 5}
• A = {0, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
• B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 9, 10}
• A  B = {1, 2, 3}
• B  A = {6, 7, 8}
• AB = {1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8}
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Set Identities
• Identity: A = A = AU
• Domination: AU = U , A = 
• Idempotent: AA = A = AA
• Double complement: ( A )  A
• Commutative: AB = BA , AB = BA
• Associative: A(BC) = (AB)C
A(BC) = (AB)C
• Distribution: A(BC) = (AB)(AC)
A(BC) = (AB)(AC)
• De Morgan’s Law: A  B  A  B
A B  A  B
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank
Module #3 - Sets
Proving Set Identities
To prove statements about sets of the form E1 = E2, where the

Es are set expressions, there are three useful techniques:
1. Proving E1  E2 and E2  E1 separately.
2. Using set builder notation and logical equivalences.
3. Using set identities.
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Example: Show AB = A B
Method 1: Prove E1  E2 and E2  E1
Assume x  AB
 x  AB by the definition of the complement
  x  AB by the definition of the negation
  ((x  A)  (x  B)) by the definition of intersection
  (x A)   ( x B) by De Morgan’s law
 x  A  x  B by the definition of negation
 x  A  x  B by the definition of the complement
 x  A  B by the definition of union
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Method 2: Set Builder Notation

Show that A B  A B
A  B  {x | x  A  B}
 { x | ( x  A  B )}
 { x | ( x  A  x  B )}
 { x | x  A  x  B )}
 { x | x  A  x  B )}
 { x | x  A  x  B )}
 { x | x  A  B )}  A  B
(c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank 32

Module #3 - Sets
Method 3 : Using Set Identities
Show that A  ( B  C)  (C  B)  A
A  ( B  C )  A  ( B  C ) De Morgan' s law
 A  ( B  C ) De Morgan' s law
 ( B  C )  A Commutative law
 (C  B)  A Commutative law
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Method 3 : Using Set Identities
Show that ( B  C )  A  ( B  A)  (C  A).
(B  C)  A  (B  C)  A
 ( B  A)  (C  A)
 ( B  A)  (C  A).
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Method 4 : Membership Tables

Construct a membership table to show that the distributive
law holds:
A B C
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank
Module #3 - Sets
Computer Representation of Sets
• Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}. The bit string (of

length |U| = 10) that represents the set A = {1, 3, 5, 6, 9}
has a one in the first, third, fifth, sixth, and ninth position,
and zero elsewhere. It is
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0.
9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Module #3 - Sets
Functions
Definition: Let A and B be nonempty sets. A function f from
A to B, denoted f : A  B is an assignment of each element
of A to exactly one element of B. We write f (a) = b if b is
the unique element of B assigned by the function f to the
element a of A.
Grades
• Functions are sometimes Students
A
called mappings or Carlota Rodriguez
transformations. B
Sandeep Patel
C
Jalen Williams D
Kathy Scott F
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Module #3 - Sets
Functions
• A function f : A  B can also be defined as a subset of

A×B (a relation). This subset is restricted to be a relation
where no two elements of the relation have the same first
element.
• Specifically, a function f from A to B contains one, and
only one ordered pair (a, b) for every element a ∈ A.
xx  A  y[ y  B  ( x, y)  f ]
and
x, y1, y2 [(x, y1)  f  ( x, y2 )  f ]  y1  y2 
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Module #3 - Sets
Functions
Given a function f : A  B
• We say f maps A to B or
f is a mapping from A to B.
• A is called the domain of f.
• B is called the codomain of f.
• If f (a) = b,
– then b is called the image of a under f.
– a is called the preimage of b.
• The range of f is the set of all images of points in A under
f. We denote it by f (A).
• Two functions are equal when they have the same domain,
the same codomain and map each element of the domain to
the same element of the codomain.
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Module #3 - Sets
Representing Functions
Functions may be specified in different ways:

– An explicit statement of the assignment
Students and grades example
– A formula.
f (x) = x + 1
– A computer program
A Java program that when given an integer n,
produces the nth Fibonacci Number.
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Module #3 - Sets
Injections
Definition: A function f is said to be one-to-one, or

injective, if and only if f (a) = f (b) implies that a = b for
all a and b in the domain of f. A function is said to be an
injection if it is one-to-one. A B
a x
e.g. The function f (x) = x  1 from Z v
b
to Z is one-to-one since y
c
f (a) = f (b) z
d
a1=b1
w
a=b
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Module #3 - Sets
Surjections
Definition: A function f from A to B is called onto, or

surjective, if and only if for every element b  B there is
an element a  A with f (a) = b. A function f is called a
surjection if it is onto. A B
a x
b
e.g. The function f (x) = x  1 from Z y
c
to Z is onto since z
d
for all b  Z, there is a  Z
such that f (a) = b (a = b + 1)
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Module #3 - Sets
Bijections
Definition: A function f is a one-to-one correspondence, or a

bijection, if it is both one-to-one and onto (surjective and
injective).
A B
a x
b
e.g. The function f (x) = x  1 from Z y
c
to Z is one-to-one and onto, hence z
d
bijective w
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Module #3 - Sets
Showing that f is one-to-one or onto
9/30/2017 44
Module #3 - Sets
Showing that f is one-to-one or onto

Example 1: Let f be the function from {a, b, c, d} to {1, 2, 3}
defined by f (a) = 3, f (b) = 2, f (c) = 1, and f (d) = 3. Is f an
onto function?
Solution: Yes, f is onto since all three elements of the codomain
are images of elements in the domain. If the codomain were
changed to {1, 2, 3, 4}, f would not be onto.
Example 2: Is the function f (x) = x2 from the set of integers to

the set of integers onto?
Solution: No, f is not onto because, for example, there is no
integer x with x2 = −1.
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Module #3 - Sets
Inverse Functions
Definition: Let f be a bijection from A to B. Then the inverse

of f, denoted f 1, is the function from B to A defined as
No inverse exists unless f is a bijection. Why?
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Module #3 - Sets
Inverse Functions
f
A B A B
v a v
a
b b
w w
c c
d x x
d
y y
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Module #3 - Sets
Questions
Example 1: Let f be the function from {a, b, c} to {1, 2, 3} such
that f (a) = 2, f (b) = 3, and f (c) = 1. Is f invertible and if so
what is its inverse?
Solution: The function f is invertible because it is a one-to-one
correspondence. The inverse function f -1 reverses the
correspondence given by f, so f -1 (1) = c, f -1 (2) = a, and f -1
(3) = b.
Example 2: Let f : Z  Z be such that f (x) = x + 1. Is f
invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?
Solution: The function f is invertible because it is a one-to-one
correspondence (f (a) = f (b)  a + 1 = b + 1  a = b). The
inverse function f -1 reverses the correspondence so
f -1 (y) = y – 1.
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Module #3 - Sets
Composition
Definition: Let f : B → C, g: A → B. The composition of f with
g, denoted f ∘ g is the function from A to C defined by
f ∘ g (x) = f (g(x))
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Module #3 - Sets
Composition
Example 1: Let g be the function from the set {a, b, c} to itself such that
g(a) = b, g(b) = c, and g(c) = a. Let f be the function from the set {a, b,
c} to the set {1, 2, 3} such that f (a) = 3, f (b) = 2, and f (c) = 1. What is
the composition of f and g, and what is the composition of g and f.
Solution: The composition f ∘ g is defined by
f ∘ g (a)= f (g(a)) = f (b) = 2.
f ∘ g (b)= f (g(b)) = f (c) = 1.
f ∘ g (c)= f (g(c)) = f (a) = 3.
Note that g ∘ f is not defined, because the range of f is not a subset of
the domain of g.
Example 2: If f (x) = x2 and g(x) = 2x + 1, then
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Module #3 - Sets
Composition
Example 3: Let f and g be functions from the set of integers to the

set of integers defined by f (x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = 3x + 2. What
is the composition of f and g and also the composition of g and
f?
Solution:
f ∘ g (x) = f (g(x)) = f (3x + 2) = 2(3x + 2) + 3 = 6x + 7
g ∘ f (x) = g(f (x)) = g(2x + 3) = 3(2x + 3) + 2 = 6x + 11

Module #3 - Sets
Graphs of Functions
Let f be a function from the set A to the set B. The graph of the
function f is the set of ordered pairs {(a, b) | a ∈ A and f (a) = b}.
Graph of f (n) = 2n + 1 from N to N Graph of f (x) = x2 from Z to Z

Module #3 - Sets
Important Functions
(a) The floor function, denoted
is the largest integer less than or equal to x.
(b) The ceiling function, denoted
is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x.
Graphs of floor and ceiling from R to Z

Module #3 - Sets
Matrices*
• An m×n matrix is a rectangular array of mn objects

(usually numbers) arranged in m horizontal rows and n
vertical columns.
• An nn matrix is called a square matrix, whose order is n.
2 3 
5  1 2 1
  3 1
7 0   
32 22
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Module #3 - Sets
Matrix Equality*
• Two matrices A and B are equal if and only if they have the
same number of rows, the same number of columns, and
all corresponding elements are equal.
 3 2  3 2 0
 1   
 6   1 6 0
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Module #3 - Sets
Row and Column Order*
• The rows in a matrix are usually indexed 1 to m from top to

bottom. The columns are usually indexed 1 to n from left to
right. Elements are indexed by row, then column.
 a11 a12  a1n 

a a22 
 a2 n 
A  [aij ]   21
     
 
am1 am 2  amn 
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Module #3 - Sets
Matrix Sums*
• The sum A + B of two matrices A, B (which must have the

same number of rows, and the same number of columns) is
the matrix given by adding corresponding elements.
• A + B = [aij + bij]
2 6   7  5  9 1
0  8  4  1  4  9
     
1 2  3 6  4 8 
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Module #3 - Sets
Matrix Products*
For an mk matrix A and a kn matrix B, the product AB is

the mn matrix:
k 
AB  C  [cij ]   aipb pj 
 p 1 
i.e. The element (i, j ) of AB is given by the vector dot
product of the ith row of A and the jth column of B
(considered as vectors).
Note: Matrix multiplication is not commutative!
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Module #3 - Sets
Matrix Product Example 1*
2 1  4 6
A  and B    ,
 3 0 2  1 
 (2  4  1 2) (2  6  1 -1) 
AB   
 (3  4  0  2) (3  6  0  -1)
10 11
 
12 18 
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Module #3 - Sets
Matrix Product Example 2*
0  1 1 0
0 1  1   1 0  5  1
2 0 3  2 0  2 0  
3  2 11 3 
  1 0 3 1 

2×3 3×4 2×4
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Module #3 - Sets
Identity Matrices*
• The identity matrix of order n, In , is the order-n matrix

with 1’s along the upper-left to lower-right diagonal and
0’s everywhere else.
• A In = A
1 0  0
0 1  0 1 if i  j
In      
     0 if i  j
 
0 0  1
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Module #3 - Sets
Powers of Matrices*
• If A is an nn square matrix and p  0, then:

Ap  AAA ··· A (A0  In)
p times
3
 2 1  2 1  2 1  2 1
  1 0    1 0   1 0   1 0
     
 2 1  3 2  4 3
     
  1 0   2  1   3  2 
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Module #3 - Sets
Matrix Transposition*
• If A is an mn matrix, then the transpose of A is the nm

matrix AT given by interchanging the rows and the
columns of A.
2 0
2 1 3 1  1 
A   AT

 0  1  2   
3  2
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Module #3 - Sets
Symmetric Matrices*
• A square matrix A is symmetric if and only if AT = A.

• Which is symmetric?
1 1  2 1 3 3 0 1
1 1  1  0 2  1
  0 1  
 
1 1  3  1 2  1 1  2
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Module #3 - Sets
Zero-One Matrices
All elements of a zero-one matrix are 0 or 1, representing

False & True respectively.
e.g.
1 1 0
A  0 1 0
1 0 1
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Module #3 - Sets
Zero-One Matrix Operations
• The join of A and B (both mn zero-one matrices) is

A  B : [aij  bij].
• The meet of A and B (both mn zero-one matrices) is:
A  B  [aij  bij].
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Module #3 - Sets
Example
1 0 1 0 1 0 
A=   B =  
0 1 0  1 1 0 
1 1 1 
• The join between A and B is A  B =  
1 1 0 
0 0 0
• The meet between A and B is A  B =  
0 1 0 
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Module #3 - Sets
Boolean Products
• Let A be an mk zero-one matrix and B be a kn zero-

one matrix,
• The Boolean product A ⊙ B of A and B is like normal
matrix product, but using  instead + and using  instead
.
9/30/2017
Module #3 - Sets
Example
1 0
  1 1 0
Let A  0 1 and B   
   0 1 1 
1 0
(1  1)  (0  0) (1  1)  (0  1) (1  0)  (0  1)
(0  1)  (1  0) (0  1)  (1  1) (0  0)  (1  1)
A⊙ B=  
(1  1)  (0  0) (1  1)  (0  1) (1  0)  (1  0)
1 1 0
 0 1 1 
 
1 1 0
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Module #3 - Sets
Boolean Powers
• For a square zero-one matrix A, and any k  0, the kth

Boolean power of A is simply the Boolean product of k
copies of A.
A[k]  A ⊙ A ⊙ … ⊙ A
k times
9/30/2017 70
Module #3 - Sets
Example
1 1 0
Let A  0 1 0. Find A[2].
1 0 1
1 1 0  1 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 0  0 1 0   
A = A ⊙ A = 
⊙    0 1 0
[2]

1 0 1  1 0 1  1 1 1
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Module #3 - Sets
Example
Let Find A[n] for all positive integers n.
9/30/2017 72

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Module #3 - Sets

2. Sets, Functions and

9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

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Describing a Set: Roster Method

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• Set of all vowels in the English alphabet:

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Some Important Sets

• N = natural numbers = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}

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Describing a Set: Set-Builder

Describing a Set: Interval

Closed interval [a, b]

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Use the set builder notation to describe the sets

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Describing a Set: Venn Diagrams

Prime < 10 John Venn

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Membership in Sets and the

Definition of Set Equality

• Two sets are declared to be equal if and only if they

Example: (Order and repetition do not matter)

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• S  T (“S is a subset of T ”) means that every element of S

9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Venn Diagram equivalent of S  T

9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Sets Are Objects, Too!

• The objects that are elements of a set may themselves be

Cardinality and Finiteness

• |S| or card(S) (read the cardinality of S ) is a measure of

9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

The Power Set Operation

• The power set P(S) of a set S is the set of all subsets of S.

Note: If a set has n elements then P(S) has 2n elements.

9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

• The ordered n-tuple (a1, a2, …, an) is the ordered collection

9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Cartesian Products of Sets

• The Cartesian product of any two sets A and B is defined by

• Note that for finite A and B, |AB| = |A||B|.

9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Cartesian Products of Sets

• The Cartesian products of the sets A1, A2, …, An, denoted by

Example: What is A  B  C where A = {0, 1}, B = {1, 2} and

9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

{2, 3, 5}{3, 5, 7} = {2, 3, 5, 3, 5, 7} = {2, 3, 5, 7}

9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

The Intersection Operator 

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• How many elements are in AB?

9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

e.g. {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}  {2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11} = {1, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11}

9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

A = {1, 2, 7}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4},

9/30/2017 (c)2001-2003, Michael P. Frank

Proving Set Identities

To prove statements about sets of the form E1 = E2, where the

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Method 2: Set Builder Notation