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Duct (flow)
Ducts are conduits or passages used in heating, ventilation, and
air conditioning (HVAC) to deliver and remove air. The needed
airflows include, for example, supply air, return air, and exhaust
air.[1] Ducts commonly also deliver ventilation air as part of the
supply air. As such, air ducts are one method of ensuring
acceptable indoor air quality as well as thermal comfort.

A duct system is also called ductwork. Planning (laying out), Ducts for air pollution control in a
17000 standard cubic feet per
sizing, optimizing, detailing, and finding the pressure losses
minute regenerative thermal oxidizer
through a duct system is called duct design.[2] (RTO).

Contents
Materials
Galvanized steel
Aluminium (Al)
Polyurethane and phenolic insulation panels (pre-
insulated air ducts)
Fiberglass duct board (preinsulated non-metallic
ductwork)
A round galvanized steel duct connecting
Flexible ducting to a typical diffuser
Fabric ducting
PVC low profile ducting
Waterproofing
Duct system components
Vibration isolators
Take-offs
Stack boots and heads
Volume control dampers
Smoke and fire dampers
Turning vanes Fire-resistance rated mechanical
Plenums shaft with HVAC sheet metal ducting
Terminal units and copper piping, as well as
"HOW" (Head-Of-Wall) joint
Air terminals
between top of concrete block wall
Duct cleaning and underside of concrete slab,
Signs and indicators firestopped with ceramic fibre-based
firestop caulking on top of rockwool.
Commercial inspection
Duct sealing
Signs of leaks
See also
References
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Further reading
External links

Materials
Ducts can be made out of the following materials:

Galvanized steel
Galvanized mild steel is the standard and most common material
used in fabricating ductwork because the zinc coating of this
metal prevents rusting and avoids cost of painting. For insulation
purposes, metal ducts are typically lined with faced fiberglass
blankets (duct liner) or wrapped externally with fiberglass
blankets (duct wrap). When necessary, a double walled duct is Low profile PVC ducting
used. This will usually have an inner perforated liner, then a 1–2"
layer of fiberglass insulation contained inside an outer solid pipe.

Rectangular ductwork commonly is fabricated to suit by specialized metal shops. For ease of handling,
it most often comes in 4' sections (or joints). Round duct is made using a continuous spiral forming
machine which can make round duct in nearly any diameter when using the right forming die and to
any length to suit, but the most common stock sizes range evenly from 4" to 24" with 6"-12" being
most commonly used. Stock pipe is usually sold in 10' joints. There are also 5' joints of the non-spiral
type pipe available, which is commonly used in residential applications.

Aluminium (Al)
Aluminium ductwork is lightweight and quick to install. Also, custom or special shapes of ducts can be
easily fabricated in the shop or on site.

The ductwork construction starts with the tracing of the duct outline onto the aluminium preinsulated
panel. The parts are then typically cut at 45°, bent if required to obtain the different fittings (i.e.
elbows, tapers) and finally assembled with glue. Aluminium tape is applied to all seams where the
external surface of the aluminium foil has been cut. A variety of flanges are available to suit various
installation requirements. All internal joints are sealed with sealant.

Aluminum is also used to make round spiral duct, but it is much less common than galvanized steel.

Polyurethane and phenolic insulation panels (pre-insulated air ducts)

Traditionally, air ductwork is made of sheet metal which was installed first and then lagged with
insulation. Today, a sheet metal fabrication shop would commonly fabricate the galvanized steel duct
and insulate with duct wrap prior to installation. However, ductwork manufactured from rigid
insulation panels does not need any further insulation and can be installed in a single step. Both
polyurethane and phenolic foam panels are manufactured with factory applied aluminium facings on
both sides. The thickness of the aluminium foil can vary from 25 micrometres for indoor use to 200

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micrometres for external use or for higher mechanical characteristics. There are various types of rigid
polyurethane foam panels available, including a water formulated panel for which the foaming
process is obtained through the use of water and CO2 instead of CFC, HCFC, HFC and HC gasses.
Most manufacturers of rigid polyurethane or phenolic foam panels use pentane as foaming agent
instead of the aforementioned gasses.

A rigid phenolic insulation ductwork system is listed as a class 1 air duct to UL 181 Standard for
Safety.

Fiberglass duct board (preinsulated non-metallic ductwork)

Fiberglass duct board panels provide built-in thermal insulation and the interior surface absorbs
[sound], helping to provide quiet operation of the HVAC system.

The duct board is formed by sliding a specially-designed knife along the board using a straightedge as
a guide. The knife automatically trims out a groove with 45° sides which does not quite penetrate the
entire depth of the duct board, thus providing a thin section acting as a hinge. The duct board can
then be folded along the groove to produce 90° folds, making the rectangular duct shape in the
fabricator's desired size. The duct is then closed with outward-clinching staples and special aluminum
or similar metal-backed tape.

Flexible ducting
Flexible ducts (also known as flex) are typically made of flexible plastic over a metal wire coil to shape
a tube. They have a variety of configurations. In the United States, the insulation is usually glass wool,
but other markets such as Australia, use both polyester fibre and glass wool for thermal insulation. A
protective layer surrounds the insulation, and is usually composed of polyethylene or metalised PET.
It is commonly sold as boxes containing 25' of duct compressed into a 5' length. It is available in
diameters ranging from as small as 4" to as big as 18", but the most commonly used are even sizes
ranging from 6" to 12".

Flexible duct is very convenient for attaching supply air outlets to the rigid ductwork. It is commonly
attached with long zip ties or metal band claps. However, the pressure loss is higher than for most
other types of ducts. As such, designers and installers attempt to keep their installed lengths (runs)
short, e.g. less than 15 feet or so, and try to minimize turns. Kinks in flexible ducting must be avoided.
Some flexible duct markets prefer to avoid using flexible duct on the return air portions of HVAC
systems, however flexible duct can tolerate moderate negative pressures. The UL181 test requires a
negative pressure of 200 Pa.

Fabric ducting
This is actually an air distribution device and is not intended as a conduit for conditioned air. The
term fabric duct is therefore somewhat misleading; fabric air dispersion system would be the more
definitive name. However, as it often replaces hard ductwork, it is easy to perceive it simply as a duct.
Usually made of polyester material, fabric ducts can provide a more even distribution and blending of
the conditioned air in a given space than a conventional duct system. They may also be manufactured
with vents or orifices.

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Fabric ducts are available in various colours, with options for silk screening or other forms of
decoration, or in porous (air-permeable) and non-porous fabric. The determination which fabric is
appropriate (i.e. air-permeable or not) can be made by considering if the application would require an
insulated metal duct. If so, an air-permeable fabric is recommended because it will not commonly
create condensation on its surface and can therefore be used where air is supplied below the dew
point. Material that eliminates moisture may be healthier for the occupants. It can also be treated
with an anti-microbial agent to inhibit bacterial growth. Porous material also tends to require less
maintenance as it repels dust and other airborne contaminants.

Fabric made of more than 50% recycled material is also available, allowing it to be certified as green
product. The material can also be fire retardant, which means that the fabric can still burn, but will
extinguish when the heat source is removed.

Fabric ducts are not rated for use in ceilings or concealed attic spaces. However, products for use in
raised floor applications are available. Fabric ducting usually weighs less than other conventional
ducting and will therefore put less stress on the building's structure. The lower weight allows for
easier installation.

Fabric ducts requires a minimum of certain range of airflow and static pressure in order for it to work.

PVC low profile ducting

PVC low profile ducting has been developed as a cost effective alternative to steel low profile ducting.
Low profile ducting has been used extensively in apartment and hotel ventilation since 2005. The
growth of low profile ducting has grown significantly due to the reduction of available space in ceiling
cavities in an effort to reduce cost. Since the Grenfell Tower fire in 2017 there has been a rise in the
discovery of noncompliant building materials, many PVC low profile ducting manufacturers have
struggled to gain or maintain compliance, some building projects have had to resort back to using the
more expensive steel option.

Waterproofing
The finish for external ductwork exposed to the weather can be sheet steel coated with aluminium or
an aluminium/zinc alloy, a multilayer laminate, a fibre reinforced polymer or other waterproof
coating.

Duct system components

Besides the ducts themselves, complete ducting systems contain many other components.

Vibration isolators
A duct system often begins at an air handler. The blowers in the air handler can create substantial
vibration, and the large area of the duct system would transmit this noise and vibration to the
inhabitants of the building. To avoid this, vibration isolators (flexible sections) are normally inserted
into the duct immediately before and after the air handler. The rubberized canvas-like material of
these sections allows the air handler to vibrate without transmitting much vibration to the attached

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ducts. The same flexible section can reduce the noise that can
occur when the blower engages and positive air pressure is
introduced to the ductwork.

Take-offs
Downstream of the air handler, the supply air trunk duct will
commonly fork, providing air to many individual air outlets such
An air handling unit with vibration
as diffusers, grilles, and registers. When the system is designed
isolator (3)
with a main duct branching into many subsidiary branch ducts,
fittings called take-offs allow a small portion of the flow in the
main duct to be diverted into each branch duct. Take-offs may be fitted into round or rectangular
openings cut into the wall of the main duct. The take-off commonly has many small metal tabs that
are then bent to attach the take-off to the main duct. Round versions are called spin-in fittings. Other
take-off designs use a snap-in attachment method, sometimes coupled with an adhesive foam gasket
for improved sealing. The outlet of the take-off then connects to the rectangular, oval, or round
branch duct.

Stack boots and heads

Ducts, especially in homes, must often allow air to travel vertically within relatively thin walls. These
vertical ducts are called stacks and are formed with either very wide and relatively thin rectangular
sections or oval sections. At the bottom of the stack, a stack boot provides a transition from an
ordinary large round or rectangular duct to the thin wall-mounted duct. At the top, a stack head can
provide a transition back to ordinary ducting while a register head allows the transition to a wall-
mounted air register.

Volume control dampers

Ducting systems must often provide a method of adjusting the
volume of air flow to various parts of the system. Volume control
dampers (VCDs; not to be confused with smoke/fire dampers)
provide this function. Besides the regulation provided at the
registers or diffusers that spread air into individual rooms,
dampers can be fitted within the ducts themselves. These
dampers may be manual or automatic. Zone dampers provide An opposed-blade, motor-operated
automatic control in simple systems while variable air volume zone damper, shown in the "open"
(VAV) allows control in sophisticated systems. position.

Smoke and fire dampers

Smoke and fire dampers are found in ductwork where the duct passes through a firewall or
firecurtain.

Smoke dampers are driven by a motor, referred to as an actuator. A probe connected to the motor is
installed in the run of the duct and detects smoke, either in the air which has been extracted from or is
being supplied to a room, or elsewhere within the run of the duct. Once smoke is detected, the
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actuator will automatically close the smoke damper until it is manually re-opened.

Fire dampers can be found in the same places as smoke dampers, depending on the application of the
area after the firewall. Unlike smoke dampers, they are not triggered by any electrical system (which
is an advantage in case of an electrical failure where the smoke dampers would fail to close). Vertically
mounted fire dampers are gravity operated, while horizontal fire dampers are spring powered. A fire
damper's most important feature is a mechanical fusible link which is a piece of metal that will melt or
break at a specified temperature. This allows the damper to close (either from gravity or spring
power), effectively sealing the duct, containing the fire, and blocking the necessary air to burn.

Turning vanes
Turning vanes are installed inside of ductwork at changes of
direction (e.g. at 90° turns) in order to minimize turbulence and
resistance to the air flow. The vanes guide the air so it can follow
the change of direction more easily.

Plenums
Plenums are the central distribution and collection units for an
HVAC system. The return plenum carries the air from several
large return grilles (vents) or bell mouths to a central air handler.
The supply plenum directs air from the central unit to the rooms
which the system is designed to heat or cool. They must be
carefully planned in ventilation design.

Terminal units
While single-zone constant air volume systems typically do not Turning vanes inside of large fire-
have these, multi-zone systems often have terminal units in the resistance rated Durasteel (https://c
branch ducts. Usually there is one terminal unit per thermal zone. ommons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Categor
Some types of terminal units are VAV boxes (single or dual duct), y:Durasteel) pressurisation ductwork
fan-powered mixing boxes (in parallel or series arrangement),
and induction terminal units. Terminal units may also include a
heating or cooling coil.

Air terminals
Air terminals are the supply air outlets and return or exhaust air
inlets. For supply, diffusers are most common, but grilles, and for
very small HVAC systems (such as in residences) registers are
also used widely. Return or exhaust grilles are used primarily for Turning vane close-up.
appearance reasons, but some also incorporate an air filter and
are known as filter returns.[3]

Duct cleaning
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The position of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is that "If no one in your household
suffers from allergies or unexplained symptoms or illnesses and if, after a visual inspection of the
inside of the ducts, you see no indication that your air ducts are contaminated with large deposits of
dust or mold (no musty odor or visible mold growth), having your air ducts cleaned is probably
unnecessary."[4] A thorough duct cleaning done by a professional duct cleaner will remove dust,
cobwebs, debris, pet hair, rodent hair and droppings, paper clips, calcium deposits, children's toys,
and whatever else might collect inside. Ideally, the interior surface will be shiny and bright after
cleaning. Insulated fiber glass duct liner and duct board can be cleaned with special non-metallic
bristles. Fabric ducting can be washed or vacuumed using typical household appliances.

Duct cleaning may be personally justifiable for that very reason: occupants may not want to have their
house air circulated through a duct passage that is not as clean as the rest of the house. However, duct
cleaning will not usually change the quality of the breathing air, nor will it significantly affect airflows
or heating costs.

Signs and indicators

Cleaning of the duct system may be necessary if:

Sweeping and dusting the furniture needs to be done more than usual.
After cleaning, there is still left over visible dust floating around the house.
After or during sleep, occupants experience headaches, nasal congestion, or other sinus
problems.
Rooms in the house have little or no air flow coming from the vents.
Occupants are constantly getting sick or are experiencing more allergies than usual.
There is a musty or stale odor when turning on the furnace or air conditioner.
Occupants are experiencing signs of sickness, e.g. fatigue, headache, sneezing, stuffy or running
nose, irritability, nausea, dry or burning sensation in eyes, nose and throat.

Commercial inspection
In commercial settings, regular inspection of ductwork is recommended by several standards. One
standard recommends inspecting supply ducts every 1–2 years, return ducts every 1–2 years, and air
handling units annually.[5] Another recommends visual inspection of internally lined ducts
annually[6] Duct cleaning should be based on the results of those inspections.

Inspections are typically visual, looking for water damage or biological growth.[5][6][7] When visual
inspection needs to be validated numerically, a vacuum test (VT) or deposit thickness test (DTT) can
be performed. A duct with less than 0.75 mg/100m2 is considered to be clean, per the NADCA
standard.[7] A Hong Kong standard lists surface deposit limits of 1g/m2 for supply and return ducts
and 6g/m2 for exhaust ducts, or a maximum deposit thickness of 60 µm in supply and return ducts,
and 180 µm for exhaust ducts.[8] Another UK standard recommends ducts cleaning if measured
bacterial content is more than 29 colony forming units (CFU) per 10 cm2; contamination is classified
as "low" below 10 CFU/cm2, "medium" at up to 20 CFU/cm2, and "high" when measured above 20
CFU/cm2.[9]

Duct sealing
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Air pressure combined with air duct leakage can lead to a loss of energy in a HVAC system. Sealing
leaks in air ducts reduces air leakage, optimizes energy efficiency, and controls the entry of pollutants
into the building. Before sealing ducts it is imperative to ensure the total external static pressure of
the duct work, and if equipment will fall within the equipment manufacturer's specifications. If not,
higher energy usage and reduced equipment performance may result.

Commonly available duct tape should not be used on air ducts (metal, fiberglass, or otherwise) that
are intended for long-term use. The adhesive on so called duct tape dries and releases with time. A
more common type of duct sealant is a water-based paste that is brushed or sometimes sprayed on the
seams when the duct is built. Building codes and UL standards call for special fire-resistant tapes,
often with foil backings and long lasting adhesives.

Signs of leaks
Signs of leaky or poorly performing air ducts include:

Utility bills in winter and summer months above average relative to rate fluctuation
Spaces or rooms that are difficult to heat or cool
Duct location in an attic, attached garage, leaky floor cavity, crawl space or unheated
basement.[10]

See also
Duct (industrial exhaust)
Darcy friction factor
Fire damper
HVAC
Bus duct
Pressurisation ductwork
Smoke exhaust ductwork
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors' National Association
Uniform Mechanical Code

References
1. The Fundamentals volume of the ASHRAE Handbook, ASHRAE, Inc., Atlanta, GA, USA, 2005
2. HVAC Systems – Duct Design, 3rd Ed., SMACNA, 1990
3. Designer's Guide to Ceiling-Based Room Air Diffusion, Rock and Zhu, ASHRAE, Inc., Atlanta,
GA, USA, 2002
4. "Should You Have the Air Ducts in Your Home Cleaned?" (http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/airduct.ht
ml), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, retrieved April 17, 2008
5. NADCA (2013). "ACR, The NADCA Standard for Assessment Cleaning Restoration of HVAC
Systems" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150211205954/http://www.ductandvent.com/clientupload
s/NADCA-13-ACRbooklet_final.pdf) (PDF). National Air Duct Cleaners Association. Archived from
the original (http://www.ductandvent.com/clientuploads/NADCA-13-ACRbooklet_final.pdf) (PDF)
on 11 February 2015. Retrieved 16 June 2014.

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6. ANSI/ASHRAE/ACCA (2012). "Standard 180 Standard Practice for Inspection and Maintenance
of Commercial Building HVAC Systems" (http://www.techstreet.com/products/1832333). American
Society of Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning Engineers. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
7. Willis, Steve. "Verifying System Cleanliness: A Guide for Commissioning Providers" (http://www.co
mmissioning.org/documents/Steve%20Willis%20Verifying%20Duct%20Cleanliness.pdf) (PDF).
www.commissioning.org. American Commissioning Group (ACG). Retrieved 16 June 2014.
8. AIIB/ACRA/BSOMES/HKBCxC (2004). "A Management Practice Guidance Note on Air Duct
Cleaning of for Hong Kong". Asian Institute of Intelligent Buildings.
9. CIBSE (2000). "TM 26 Hygiene Maintenance of Office Ventilation Ductwork". Chartered Institute
of Building Service Engineers.
10. Ductwork sealing article at Energy Star (https://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=home_improve
ment.hm_improvement_ducts)

Further reading
Air Diffusion Council Flexible Duct Performance and Installation Standard, 4th Ed., 2003

External links
Media related to Ductwork at Wikimedia Commons

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