Conventional Water Treatment Processes...

1. Coagulation...
Surface waters must be treated to remove turbidity, color and bacteria. The object
of coagulation (and subsequently flocculation) is to turn the small particles of color,
turbidity and bacteria into larger flocs, either as precipitates or suspended particles.
These flocs are then conditioned so that they will be readily removed in subsequent
processes. Technically, coagulation applies to the removal of colloidal particles. We
define coagulation as a method to alter the colloids so that they will be able to
approach and adhere to each other to form larger floc particles.

Colloid Stability...

Before discussing colloid removal, we should understand why the colloids are
suspended in solution and cannot be removed by sedimentation or filtration. Very
simply, the particles in the colloid range are too small to settle in a reasonable time
period and too small to be trapped in the pores of a filter. For colloids to remain
stable they must remain small. Most colloids are stable because they possess a
negative charge that repels other colloids particles before they collide with one
another.

Colloid Destabilization...

Since colloids are stable because of their surface charge, in order to destabilize the
particles, we must neutralize this charge. Such neutralization can take place by
addition of an ion of opposite charge to the colloid. Since most colloids found in
water are negatively charged, the addition of sodium ions (Na+) should reduce the
charge. As we would have predicted, then higher the concentration of sodium we
add, the lower the charge, and therefore the lower the repelling forces around the
colloid. If, instead of adding a monovalent ion such as sodium, we add a divalent or
trivalent ion, the charge is reduced even faster. In fact, it was found by schulze and
Hardy that one mole of a trivalent ion can reduce the charge as much as 30 to 50
moles of a divalent ion and as much as 1,500 to 2,500 moles of a monovalent ion.

Coagulants...

The purpose of coagulation is to alter the colloids so that they can adhere to each
other. During coagulation a positive ion is added to water to reduce the surface
charge to the point where the colloids are not repelled from each other. A coagulant
is the substance (chemical) that is added to the water to accomplish coagulation.
There are three key properties of a coagulant :

1. Trivalent cation : As indicated in the last section, the colloids most commonly
found in natural waters are negatively charged, hence a cation is required to
neutralize the charge. A trivalent cation is the most efficient cation.
2. Nontoxic : This requirement is obvious for the production of a safe water.
3. Insoluble in the neutral pH range : The coagulant that is added must precipitate
out of solution so that high concentrations of the ion are not left in the water. Such
precipitation greatly assists the colloid removal process.

The two most commonly used coagulants are aluminum (Al+3) and ferric iron (Fe+3).
Both meet the above three requirements and their reactions are outlined here.

Aluminum...

Aluminum can be purchased as either dry or liquid alum [Al2(SO4)3.14H2O]. When

alum is added to a water containing alkalinity, the following reaction occurs :

Such that each mole of alum added uses six moles of alkalinity and produces six
moles of carbon dioxide. The above reaction shifts the carbonate equilibrium and
decrease the pH. However, as long as sufficient alkalinity is present and CO2 is
allowed to evolve, the pH is not drastically reduced and is generally not an
operational problem. When sufficient alkalinity is not present to neutralize the
sulfuric acid production, the pH may be greatly reduced :

If the second reaction occurs, lime or sodium carbonate may be added to neutralize
the sulfuric acid. Two important factors in coagulant addition are pH and dose. The
optimum dose and pH must be determined from laboratory tests. The optimal pH
range for alum is approximately 5.5 to 6.5 with adequate coagulation possible
between pH 5 to pH 8 under some conditions. One of the most common methods to
evaluate coagulation efficiency is to conduct jar test. Jar tests are performed in an
apparatus such as shown in figure given below. Six beakers are filled with water
and then each is mixed and flocculated uniformly by a gang stirrer. A test is often
conducted by first dosing each jar with the same alum dose and varying the pH in
each jar. The test can then be repeated by holding the pH constant and varying the
coagulant dose.
Iron...

Iron can be purchased as either the sulfate salt (Fe2(SO4)3.xH2O) or the chloride
salt (FeCl3.xH2O). An example of the reaction of FeCl3 in the presence of alkalinity
is :

Forming hydrochloric acid which in turn lowers the pH. Ferric salts generally have a
wider pH range for effective coagulation than aluminum, that is, pH ranges from 4
to 9.

Coagulant Aids...

The four basic types of coagulants aids are pH adjusters, activated silica, clay and
polymers. Acids and alkalies are both used to adjust the pH of the water into the
optimal range for coagulation. The acid most commonly used is sulfuric acid and
the most commonly base is lime [Ca(OH)2]. When activated silica is added to water,
it produces a stable solution that has a negative surface charge. The activated silica
can unite with the positively charged aluminum or with iron flocs, resulting in a
larger, denser floc that settles faster and enhances enmeshment. The addition of
activated silica is especially useful for treating highly colored, low-turbidity waters
cause it adds weight to the floc. However, activation of silica does require proper
 equipment and close operational control and many plants are hesitant to use it.
Clays can act much like activated silica in that they have a slight negative charge
and can add weight to the flocs. Clays are also most useful for colored, low turbidity
waters.

Polymers can have a negative charge (anionic), positive charge (cationic), positive
and negative charge (polyamphotype) or no charge (nonionic). Polymers are long-
chained carbon compounds of high molecular weight that have many active sites.
The active sites adhere to flocs, joining them together and producing a larger
tougher floc that settles better. This process is called interparticle bridging. The
type of polymer, dose and point of addition must be determined for each water and
requirements may change within a plant on a seasonal, or even daily basis.

Factors Which Affect the Coagulation...

The factors which affect coagulation are :

(i) Kind of coagulant

(ii) Quantity of coagulant
(iii) Amount, character of colour and turbidity of water
(iv) pH value of water
(v) Time of mixing and flocculation
(vi) Temperature
(vii) Violence of agitation

Function of Coagulation...

These are to remove :

(i) Turbidity
(ii) Organic and inorganic matter
(iii) Colour
(iv) Harmful and other pathogenic bacteria
(v) Algae, planktons and other organisms
(vi) Taste and odour producing substances

Problem 1...

Two sets of jar tests were conducted on a raw water containing 15 TU and an
HCO3- alkalinity concentration of 50 mg/l expressed as CaCO3. Given the data
below, find the optimal pH, coagulant dose, and the theoretical amount of alkalinity
that would be consumed at the optimal dose.
2. Flocculation...

Clearly, if the chemical reactions in coagulating a water are going to take place, the
chemical must be mixed with the water. Mixing as it is called is the process
whereby the chemicals are quickly and uniformly dispersed in the water. During
coagulation the chemical reactions that take place in rapid mixing form precipitates,
such as aluminum hydroxide or iron hydroxide. The precipitates formed in these
processes must be brought into contact with one another so that they can
agglomerate and form larger particles, called flocs. This contacting process is called
flocculation and is accomplished by slow, gentle mixing.

In the treatment of water and wastewater the degree of mixing is measured by the
velocity gradient, G. The velocity gradient is best thought of as the amount of shear
taking place; that is, the higher the G value, the more violent the mixing. The
velocity gradient is a function of the power input a unit volume of water. It is given
by :

From literature, experience, laboratory or pilot plant work it is possible to select G

value for a particular application. The total number of particle collisions is
proportional to G.t0, where t0 is the detention time in the basin. For time dependent
reactions, the time that a fluid particle remains in the reactor obviously affects the
degree to which the reaction goes to completion. In ideal reactors the time in the
reactor (detention time or retention time) is defined as :

While rapid mix is the most important physical factor affecting coagulant efficiency,
flocculation is the most important factor affecting particle removal efficiency. The
objective of flocculation is to bring the particle into contact so that they will collide,
stick together, and grow to size that will readily settle. Enough mixing must be
provided to bring the floc into contact and to keep the floc from settling in the
flocculation basin. Too much mixing will shear the floc particles so that the floc is
small and finely dispersed. Therefore, the velocity gradient must be controlled
within a relatively narrow range. Flexibility should also be built into the flocculator
so that the plant operator can vary the G value by a factor of two to three. The
heavier the floc and the higher the suspended solids concentration, the more
mixing is required to keep the floc in suspension. This is reflected in table given
below :

Flocculator...

Flucculation is normally accompolished with an axial – flow impeller), a paddle

flocculator or a baffled chamber. The baffle-mixing basin is called also “up and
down baffle mixing basin”. In this, the water (with coagulant) enters at P, flows
down through the channel under baffle, rise up through the channel, sweeps across
the top of baffle and then flows through other channels until it finally flows out at
Q. The velocity is nearly 30 cm/s.

3. Sedimentation...

Particles that will settle within a reasonable period of time can be removed in a
sedimentation basin (also called clarifier). Sedimentation basins are usually
rectangular or circular with either a radial or upward water flow pattern. Regardless
of the type of basin, the design can be divided into four zones; inlet, settling,
outlet, and sludge storage.

The purpose of the inlet zone is to evenly distribute the flow and suspended
particles across the cross section of the settling zone. The inlet zone consists of a
series of inlet pipes and baffles placed about 1 m into the tank and extending the
full depth of the tank. The outlet zone is designed so as to remove the settled water
from the basin without carrying away any of the floc particles. A fundamental
property of water is that the velocity of flowing water is proportional to the flow
rate divided by the area through which the water flows, that is :

To remove the water from the basin quickly, it is desirable to direct the water into a
pipe or small channel for easy transport, which will produce a significantly higher
velocity. If a pipe were to be placed at the end of the sedimentation basin, all the
water would rush to the pipe. This rushing water would create high velocity profiles
in the basin, which would tend to raise the settled floc from the basin and into the
effluent water. This phenomenon of washing out the floc is called scouring, and one
way to create scouring is with an improper outlet design. Rather than put a pipe at
the end of the sedimentation basin, it is desirable to first put a series of troughs,
called weirs, which provide a large area for the water to flow through and minimize
the velocity in the sedimentation tank near the outlet zone. The weirs then feed
into a central channel or pipe for transport of the settled water.

Sedimentation Concepts...

There are two important terms to understand in sedimentation zone design. The
first is the particle (floc) settling velocity, vs. The second is the velocity at which the
tank is designed to operate, called the overflow rate, v0. The easiest way to
understand these two concepts is to view a upward-flow sedimentation tank.

In this design, the particles fall downward and the water rises vertically. The rate at
which the particle is settling downward is the particle-settling velocity, and the
velocity of the liquid rising is the overflow rate. Obviously, if a particle is to be
removed from the bottom of the clarifier and not go out in the settled water, then
the particle-settling velocity must be greater that the liquid-rise velocity (vs,nu v0). If
vs, is greater than v0, one would expect 100 percent particle removal, and if vs is
less than v0, one would expect 0 percent removal. In design, the procedure would
be to determine the particle-settling velocity and set the overflow rate at some
lower value. Often v0 is set at 50 to 70 percent of vs for an upflow clarifier. Let us
now consider why the liquid-rise velocity is called an overflow rate and what its
units are. The term overflow rate is used since the water is flowing over the top of
the tank into the weir system. It is sometimes referred to all the surface-loading
rate because it has units of m3 / day . m2. The units are flow of water (m3/ day)
being applied to a m2 of tank surface area per day, which is similar to loading rate.
Recall from :

that the velocity of flow is equal to the flow rate divided by the area through which
it flows, hence an overflow rate is the same as a liquid velocity :

As long as vs is greater than v0, the particles will settle downward and be removed
from the bottom of the tank regardless of the depth. The percentage of particles
removed, P, with a settling velocity of vs in a sedimentation tank designed with an
overflow rate of v0is :

Problem 3...

The town of San Jose has an existing horizontal-flow sedimentation tank with an
overflow rate of 17 m3 / day . m2, and it wishes to remove particles that have
settling velocities of 0.1 mm / sec, 0.2 mm / sec and 1 mm / sec. What percentage
of removal should be expected for each particle in an ideal sedimentation tank ?

Problem 4...
Determine the surface area of a settling tank for the city of Urbana’s 0.5 m3 / sec
design flow with design overflow rate of 32.5 m3 / day . m2. Compare this surface
area with that which results from assuming a typical overflow rate of 20 m3 / day .
m2. Find the depth of the clarifier using detention time of 95 minutes.
Problem 5...

Design a sedimentation tank to treat 9.092 M1 per day of turbid water. Assume the
detention period as 5 hours and velocity of flow as 15 cm / minute.

4. Filtration...

The water leaving the sedimentation tank still contains floc particles. The settled
water turbidity is generally in the range from 1 to 10 TU with a typical value being
3 TU. In order to reduce this turbidity to 0.3 TU a filtration process is normally
used. Water filtration is a process for separating suspended or colloidal impurities
from water by passage through a porous medium, usually a bed of sand or other
medium. Water fills the pores (open pores) between the sand particles, and the
impurities are left behind, either clogged in the open spaces or attached to the sand
itself.

There are several methods of classifying filters. One way is to classify them
according to the type of medium used such as sand, coal, dual media (coal plus
sand) or mixed media (coal, sand and garnet). Another common way to classify the
filters is by allowable loading rate. Loading rate is the flow rate of water applied per
unit area of the filter. It is the velocity of the water approaching the face of the
filter :

Based on loading rate, the filters are described as being slow sand filters, rapid
sand filters, or high-rate sand filters.

Slow Filters...

Slow sand filters were first introduced in the 1800's. The water is applied to the
sand at a loading rate of 2.9 to 7.6 m3 / day . m2. As the suspended or colloidal
material is applied to the sand, the particles begin to collect in the top 75 mm and
to clog the pore spaces. As the pores become clogged, water will no longer pass
through the sand. At this point the top layer of sand is scraped off, cleaned and
replaced. Slow sand filters require large areas of land and are operator intensive.
Basically, all the filters have the graded layers of gravel or other porous material
(sand) through which water filters. An underdrain system is provided for collecting
the filtered water. The slow sand filter is described below.

( i ) Adaptability : They are not preferred nowadays and rapid sand filters are
replacing them. But still they are economical and are more suited to warm climate
where covers on the filters are not required to protect the filters from freezing.
They are simpler in mechanism and operation and have a high bacterial efficiency
as compared to rapid sand filters.
( ii ) Bacterial removal efficiency : It is 99 %
( iii ) Turbidity limitation : The raw water from lake or river has turbidity up to 100
ppm. The slow sand filters cannot handle this load and even 50 ppm turbidity gives
unsatisfactory results. The pre-sedimentation is the solution of the problem.
( iv ) Colour limitation : The raw coloured water over 30 ppm cannot be treated
satisfactory.
( v ) Flexibility : A rapid change in rate is not permitted. They are not flexible to
change in load. ( vi ) Cleaning : The cleaning of slow sand filter is done in 2 or 3
months depending upon the type of water and turbidity. Cleaning is done by
scarping 5 cm top layer or a thick depth up to which the turbidity has penetrated.

Rapid Filters...

These filters have graded (layered) sand within the bed. The sand grain size
distribution is selected to optimize the passage of water while minimizing the
passage of particulate matter. Rapid sand filters are cleaned in place by forcing
water backwards through the sand. This operation is called backwashing. The
washwater flow rate is such that the sand is expanded and the filtered particles are
removed from the bed. After back washing, the sand settles back into place.

There are different valves which are operated for different operations as described
below :

( a ) Working of filter : Open valve 1 and allow the pre-coagulated and settled
water to flow into the filter. This water percolates through various layers of graded
sand and gravel and through underdrains it is collected in one main pipe, then by
opening valve 4 it flows into the clear water well.
( b ) Washing the filter : Close valve 1 to stop the flow of pre-settled water to filter
and also close valve 4. Open valves 2 and 5 to allow the washwater from the
overhead tank to rise up through the underdrains and layers of gravel and sand.
The dirt etc is washed and the dirty water through the trough is carried away by the
drains.
( c ) Running the filtered water to waste : This is done for a few minutes for
conditioning the filter before it is put into service again. For this, close valves 2,4
and 5 and open valve 1 which will allow the coagulated and settled water to flow
through the filter and underdrain and to run the waste water to the waste water
drain by opening valve 3.
( d ) Resuming filtration : Now, keep valve 1 opened and close valve 3 and instead
open valve 4 to allow the filtered water to go into filtered water reservoir.

The largest particles settle first, resulting in a fine sand layer on top and a coarse
sand layer on the bottom. Rapid sand filters are the most common type of filter
used in water treatment today. Traditionally, rapid sand filters have been designed
to operate at a loading rate of 120 m3 / day . m2.

In general, the rapid filter characteristics are :

( i ) Adaptability : It is adopted in case of municipal water supply for colour and

turbidity removal and for softening pre-treatment with lime and soda ash.
( ii ) Bacterial removal efficiency : It is 90-99% if properly operated.
( iii ) Turbidity limitation : The rapid sand filter is very efficient in handling a highly
turbid water.
( iv ) Colour limitation : It is quite efficient in colour removal also.
( v ) Flexibility : The rate of filtration can be varied. But skilled operators are
required for these filters to operate the mechanical equipment.

Filter Hydraulics...

During filtration the filter bed will become more and more clogged. As the filter
clogs, the water level will rise above the sand as it becomes harder to force water
through the bed. Eventually, the water level rise to the point that the filter bed
must be cleaned. This point is called terminal head loss.

When water passes through filter and underdrain, it experiences frictional

resistance and therefore a loss of head occurs. The top layer offers maximum
resistance. This effect reduces greatly the rate of filtration and so a negative head
more than 1.5 m should not be allowed.

The loss of pressure (commonly termed head loss) through a clean stratified-sand
filter with uniform porosity was described by Rose in the following form :
Horizontal Pressure Filter (HPF)...

The horizontal pressure filter system is applied for all filtration applications where
the flow rate is more than 1 MGD and less than 5 MGD. Single or dual media beds
are available. A gravel support bed is used with all media combinations.

Vertical Pressure Filter (VPF)...

The vertical pressure filter system is applied for all filtration applications with flow
rates of 2 MGD or less.

5. Disinfection...
Disinfection is used in water treatment to reduce pathogens (disease – producing
microorganisms) to an acceptable level. Disinfection is not the same as sterilization.
Sterilization implies the destruction of all living organisms. Drinking water need not
be sterile. Three categories of human enteric pathogens are normally of
consequence: bacteria, viruses and amebic cysts. Purposeful disinfection must be
capable of destroying all three. To be of practical service, such water disinfectants
must possess the following properties :

1. They must destroy the kinds and numbers of pathogens that may be introduced
into water within a practicable period of time over an expected range in water
temperature.
2. They must meet possible fluctuations in composition, concentration and condition
of the waters or wastewaters to be treated.
3. They must be neither toxic to humans and domestic animals nor unpalatable or
otherwise objectionable in required concentrations.
4. They must be dispensable at reasonable cost and safe to store, transport, handle
and apply.
5. Their strength or concentration in the treated water must be determined easily,
quickly, and automatically.
6. They must persist within disinfected water in a sufficient concentration to provide
reasonable residual protection against its possible recontamination before use or
because this is not a normally attainable property-the disappearance of residuals
must be a warning that recontamination may have taken place.

Disinfection Kinetics...

Under ideal conditions, when an exposed microorganism contains a single site

vulnerable to a single unit of disinfectant, the rate of die-off follows Chick’s law,
which states that the number of organisms destroyed in a unit time is proportional
to the number of organisms remaining :

This is a first-order reaction. Under real conditions the rate of kill may depart
significantly from Chick’law. Increased rates of kill may occur because of a time lag
in the disinfectant reaching vital centers in the cell. Decreased rates of kill may
occur because of declining concentrations of disinfectant in solution or poor
distribution of organisms and disinfectant.

Chlorination...

Chlorine is the most common disinfecting chemical used. The term chlorination is
often used synonymously with disinfection. Chlorine may be used as the element
(Cl2), as sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), or as calcium hypochlorine [Ca(OCl)2].when
chlorine is added to water, a mixture of hypochorous acid (HOCl) and hydrochloric
acid (HCl) is formed :

This reaction is pH dependent and essentially complete within a very few

milliseconds. In dilute solution and at pH levels above 1.0, the equilibrium is
displaced to the right and very little Cl2 exists in solution. Hypocholorous acid is a
weak acid and dissociates poorly at levels of pH below about 6. Between pH 6.0 and
8.5 there occurs a very sharp change from undissociated HOCl to almost complete
dissociation :

Thus, chlorine exists predominantly as HOCl at pH levels between 4.0 and 6.0.
Below pH 1.0, depending on the chloride concentration, the HOCl reverts back to
Cl2. At 20OC, above about pH 7.5, and at 0OC, above about pH 7.8, hypochlorite
ions (OCl-) predominate. Hypochlorite ions exist almost exclusively at levels of pH
around 9 and above. Chlorine existing in the form of HOCl and / or OCl- is defined
as free available chlorine. Hypochlorite salts dissocuate in water to yield
hypochlorite inos :

The hypochlorite ions establish equilibrium with hydrogen ions, again depending on
pH. Thus, the same active chlorine species and equilibrium are established in water
regardless of whether elemental chlorine or hypochlorites are used. The significant
difference is in the resultant pH and its influence on the relative amounts of HOCl
and OCl- existing at equilibrium. Elemental chlorine tends to decrease pH; each
mg/l of chlorine added reduces the alkalinity by up to 1.4 mg/l as CaCO3.
Hypochlorites, on the other hand, always contain excess alkali to enhance their
stability and tend to raise the pH somewhat. We seek to maintain the design pH
within a range of 6.5 to 7.5 to optimize disinfecting action.

Chlorine-Disinfecting Action...

Chlorine disinfection involves a very complex series of events and is influences by

the kind and extent of reactions with chlorine-reactive materials (including
nitrogen), temperature, pH, the viability of test organisms, and numerous other
factors. Such factors greatly complicate attempts to determine the precise mode of
action of chlorine on bacteria and other microorganisms. Microorganism kill by
disinfectant is assumed to follow the CT concept, that is, the product of disinfectant
concentration (C) and time (T) yields a constant. CT is widely used as a criteria for
CYST and virus disinfection. CT is an empirical expression for defining the nature of
biological inactivation where :

This relationship means that the required combination of concentration and time
(CT) for reduction in Giardia cysts by free chlorine can be estimated if the free
chlorine concentration, pH and water temperature are known.

Chlorine / Ammonia Reactions...

The reactions of chlorine with ammonia are of great significance in water

chlorination processes. When chlorine is added to water that contains natural or
added ammonia, the ammonia reacts with HOCl to form various chloramines, which
like HOCl, retain the oxidizing power of the chlorine. The reactions between chlorine
and ammonia may be represented as follows :

The distribution of the reaction products is governed by the rates of formation of

monochloramine and dichloramine, which are dependent upon pH, temperature,
time, and initial Cl2 : NH3 ratio. In general, high Cl2 : NH3 ratios, low temperatures,
and low pH levels favor dichloramine formation. Chlorine also reacts with organic
nitrogenous materials, such as proteins and amino acids, to form organic
chloramines complexes. Chlorine that exists in water in chemical combination with
ammonia or organic nitrogen compounds is defined as combined available chlorine.

Practices of Water Chlorination...

Evolution : Early water chlorination practices (variously termed “plain chlorination,”

simple chlorination and marginal chlorination) were applied for the purpose of
disinfection. Chlorine-ammonia treatment was soon thereafter introduced to limit
the development of objectionable tastes and odors often associated with marginal
chlorine disinfection. Subsequently, “super-chlorination” was developed for the
additional purpose of destroying objectionable taste-and odor – producing
substances often associated with chlorine – containing organic materials. The
introduction of “breakpoint chlorination” and the recognition that chlorine residuals
can exist in two distinct forms established contemporary water chlorination as one
of two types.

Combined residual chlorination : Combined residual chlorination practice involves

the application of chlorine to water in order to produce, with natural or added
ammonia, combined available chlorine residual, and to maintain that residual
through part or all of a water treatment plant or distribution system. Combined
available chlorine forms have lower oxidation potentials than free available
chlorineforms and, therefore, are less effective as oxidants. Moreover, they are also
less effective disinfectants. In fact, about 25 times as much combined available
residual chlorine is necessary to obtain equivalent bacterial kills under the same
conditions of pH, temperature, and contact time. And about 100 times longer
contact is required to obtain equivalent bacterial kills under the same conditions
and for equal amounts of combined and free available chlorine residuals.

When a combined available chlorine residual is desired, the characteristics of the

water will determine how it can be accomplished :

1. If the water contains sufficient ammonia to produce with added chlorine a

combined available chlorine residual of the desired magnitude, the application of
chlorine alone suffices.
2. If the water contains too little or no ammonia, the addition of both chlorine and
ammonia is required.
3. If the water has an existing free available chlorine residual, the addition of
ammonia will convert the residual to combined available residual chlorine. A
combined available chlorine residual contain little or no free available chlorine.

The practice of combined residual chlorination is especially applicable after filtration

(posttreatment) for controlling certain algae and bacterial growths and for providing
and maintaining a stable residual throughout the system to the point of consumer
use.

Although combined chlorine residual is not a good disinfectant, it has an advantage

over free chlorine residual in that it is reduced more slowly and therefore persists
for a longer time in the distribution system. Thus, it is useful as an indicator of
major contamination. Water plant personnel routinely monitor the chlorine level in
the distribution system. The presence of available chlorine either combined or free
indicates that no major contamination has occurred. If major contamination does
take place, the combined chlorine residual will be depleted, albeit at a slow rate.
This depletion serves as warning that contamination may have taken place.

Because of its relatively poor disinfecting power, combined residual chlorination is

often preceded by free residual chlorination to ensure the production of potable
water.
Free residual chlorination : Free residual chlorination practice involves the
application of chlorine to water to produce, either directly or through the
destruction of ammonia, a free available chlorine residual and to maintain that
residual through part or all of a water treatment plant or distribution system. Free
available chlorine forms have higher oxidation potentials than combined available
chlorine forms and therefore are more effective as oxidants. Moreover, as already
noted, they are also the most effective disinfectants.

When free available chlorine residual is desired, the characteristics of the water will
determine how it can be accomplished :

1. If the water contains no ammonia, the application of chlorine will yield a free
residual.
2. If the water does contain ammonia that results in the formation of a combined
available chlorine residual, it must be destroyed by applying an excess of chlorine.

With molar Cl2 : NH3, concentrations up to 1:1 monochloramine and dichloramine

will be formed. The relative amounts of each depend on pH and other factors.
Chloramine residuals generally reach a maximum at equimolar concentrations of
chlorine and ammonia. Further increase in the Cl2 : NH3 ratio result in the oxidation
of ammonia and reduction of chlorine. These oxidation/reduction reactions are
essentially complete when two moles of chlorine have been added for each mole of
ammonia present. Sufficient time must be provided to allow the reaction to go to
completion. Chloramine residuals decline to a minimum value, the breakpoint, when
the molar Cl2 : NH3 ratio is about 2 : 1. At this point, oxidation/reduction reactions
are essentially complete.

6. Aeration...

The aeration can be accomplished by various means. It may be done by spraying

the air through nozzles under a pressure of about 1.05-1.40 kg / cm2 or it can be
done by allowing the water to flow over cascades or series of steps or weirs. It can
also be done by blowing compressed air through diffuser porous plates at the
bottom of the settling tanks. The water due to aeration absorbs oxygen and allows
carbon dioxide gas to escape. The aeration improves the taste and odour. It also
removes the excess of iron from ground waters. Soluble iron is readily oxidized by
the following reaction :

Aeration also removes corrosiveness to some extent. Too much aeration should be
avoided. For the waters which are drawn from great depths and are pure
sufficiently and do not require filtration etc, the aeration is the only process
adopted to further improve the quality.
 Water Treatment System...

The raw (untreated) surface water enters the plant via pumps. Usually screening
has taken place prior to pumping. During mixing, chemicals called coagulants are
added and rapidly dispersed through the water. The chemical reacts with the
desired impurities and forms precipitants (flocs) that are slowly brought into
contact with one another during flocculation. The objective of flocculation is to allow
the flocs to collide and grow to a settleable size. The particles are removed by
gravity (sedimentation). This is done to minimize the amount of solids that are
applied to the filters. For treatment works with a high – quality raw water, it may
be possible to omit sedimentation and perhaps flocculation. This modification is
called direct filtration. Filtration is the final polishing (removal) of particles. During
filtration the water is passed through sand or similar media to screen out the fine
particles that will not settle. Disinfection is the addition of chemicals (usually
chlorine) to kill or reduce the number of pathogenic organisms. Disinfection of the
raw water is neither economical nor efficient. The color and turbidity consume the
disinfectant thus requiring the use if excessive amounts of chemical. In addition,
the presence of turbidity may shield the pathogens from the action of the
disinfectant and thereby prevent efficient destruction. Storage may be provided at
the plant or located within the community to meet peak demands and to allow the
plant to operate on a uniform schedule. The high – lift pumps provide sufficient
pressure to convey the water to its ultimate destination. The precipitated chemicals,
original turbidity, and suspended materials are removed from the sedimentation
basins and form the filters. This sludge must be disposed of properly.