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ranganathan svn kondala's

ANCIENT
INDIAN
HISTORY
The Story from INDUS TO
Satavahana
UPSC / PSC 2020

HTTPS://WWW.ILEARNIAS.COM/
The author of the book is
an senior faculty at IAS
Coaching institutes in
Hyderabad, Delhi and
Kerala .The Book is an
abstract compilation of
Ancient Indian History. The
book is best suitable for
UPSC and all State PSC
competitive exam.

Ancient
Indian
History
COMPREHENSIVE BOOK
FOR UPSC/ STATE PSC
PRELIMS AND MAINS

Nathan Vikas Kondala


nvkondala@gmail.com
www.facebook.com/historyartculture

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Contents
Indus Valley Civilisation ................................................................................................................. 8
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 8
Town Planning ............................................................................................................................... 9
Crafts and Traditions ................................................................................................................. 15
Agriculture..................................................................................................................................... 18
Art .................................................................................................................................................... 21
Political Organisation................................................................................................................. 22
Script ............................................................................................................................................... 25
Social Stratification .................................................................................................................... 26
Late Harappa and End .............................................................................................................. 27
Vedic Civilisation ............................................................................................................................. 31
Polity and Administration......................................................................................................... 35
Tribe and Family ......................................................................................................................... 38
Vedic Economy............................................................................................................................. 41
Religion ........................................................................................................................................... 42
Later Vedic Era ................................................................................................................................ 47
Later Vedic Polity and Administration ................................................................................. 47
Later Vedic Economy ................................................................................................................. 50
Later Vedic Society ..................................................................................................................... 52
Later Vedic Science and Technology ..................................................................................... 57
Harappan and Vedic .................................................................................................................. 58
Jainism and Buddhism ................................................................................................................. 60
Emergence of heterodox sects: ................................................................................................... 60
Causes for the rise and growth of heterodox sects: ......................................................... 61
Jainism ....................................................................................................................................... 62
Vardhamana Mahavir ............................................................................................................ 63
Teachings of Mahavira: ............................................................................................................. 63
Three jewels or triratna ............................................................................................................. 64
(1) Right faith / perception (Samyak darshana) ........................................................... 64
(2) Right knowledge (Samyak jnana): ............................................................................... 65
(3) Right conduct (Samyak charitra):................................................................................ 65
Five Main Vows: ........................................................................................................................... 66
Divisions in Jainism: ................................................................................................................. 66

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Jaina councils: ............................................................................................................................. 67
Jaina Church: .............................................................................................................................. 67
Jaina Philosophy: .................................................................................................................... 68
Spread of Jainism: ...................................................................................................................... 69
Jaina Literature: ...................................................................................................................... 70
Jaina Canonical Texts ............................................................................................................... 70
Non-canonical works: ................................................................................................................ 71
Causes for decline of Jainism: ................................................................................................ 72
1. Lack of Royal Patronage: ................................................................................................. 72
2. Lack of Efforts: .................................................................................................................... 72
3. Severity of Jainism: ........................................................................................................... 72
4. Unintelligible Philosophy: ................................................................................................ 72
5. Factionalism in Jainism: ................................................................................................. 73
6. Spread of Buddhism: ........................................................................................................ 73
7. Role of Hindu Preachers: ................................................................................................. 73
Contribution of Jainism:........................................................................................................... 73
1. Growth of Language and Literature: ............................................................................ 73
2. Principle of Non-Violence: ............................................................................................... 74
3. Influence on Politics .......................................................................................................... 74
4. Growth of Trading Community:..................................................................................... 75
5. Creation of Healthy Society: ........................................................................................... 75
6. Growth of Charitable Institutions: ............................................................................... 75
7. Growth of Art and Architecture: .................................................................................... 75
8. New Touch of Life: .............................................................................................................. 76
Buddhism and Gautama Buddha: ............................................................................................ 77
Doctrines of Buddhism: ............................................................................................................ 78
Buddha taught his followers the Four “Noble Truths” (Arya Satya): ..................... 78
Eight Fold Path or Astangika marg ................................................................................... 78
The Buddhist Sangha or Church: ......................................................................................... 81
Buddhist Councils: ................................................................................................................. 82
First Council: 400 BC ............................................................................................................ 82
Second Council: 383 BC ....................................................................................................... 82
Third Council: 250 BC........................................................................................................... 82
Fourth Council:........................................................................................................................ 83

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Spread of Theravada: ............................................................................................................. 83
Spread of Mahayana: ............................................................................................................. 84
Comparison between Mahayana and Hinayana: .......................................................... 85
Hinayana: .................................................................................................................................. 86
Mahayana: ................................................................................................................................. 86
Bodhisattva ............................................................................................................................... 86
The Buddhist Scriptures .......................................................................................................... 88
I. The Vinaya Pitaka: .............................................................................................................. 88
II. The Sutta Pitaka: ............................................................................................................... 89
III. The Abhidhamma Pitaka ................................................................................................ 90
Non-Canonical Pali Texts: ........................................................................................................ 90
Sanskrit Texts: ............................................................................................................................. 91
1. Prajna-Praramita:............................................................................................................... 91
2. Sadharma-Pundarika (250 A.D.): ................................................................................. 91
3. Avatamsaka: ........................................................................................................................ 91
4. Gandha-Vyuha: .................................................................................................................. 91
5. Sukhavati-Vyuha: .............................................................................................................. 91
6. Vajrachhedika or the Diamond Sutra ......................................................................... 92
7. Mahapari:.............................................................................................................................. 92
8. Lankavatara – (400 A.D.): ................................................................................................ 92
9. Surangama:.......................................................................................................................... 92
Expansion and Development of Buddhism: ....................................................................... 92
Factors for the Rise of Buddhism: ......................................................................................... 93
1. Influence of Time:............................................................................................................... 93
2. Simple Doctrines: ............................................................................................................... 93
3. Simple Language ................................................................................................................ 94
4. Personality of Buddha: ..................................................................................................... 94
5. Inexpensive: ......................................................................................................................... 94
6. No Caste Harried: ............................................................................................................... 94
7. Royal Patronage: ................................................................................................................. 95
8. Role of the Universities: ................................................................................................... 95
9. Buddhist Monks and Sangha: ....................................................................................... 95
10. Buddhist Councils: ......................................................................................................... 96
11. Absence of Strong Rivals:.............................................................................................. 97

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Causes for the Decline of Buddhism: ................................................................................... 97
1. Corruptions in Buddhist Sanghas: .............................................................................. 97
2. Reform in Hinduism:......................................................................................................... 98
3. Division among the Buddhists ...................................................................................... 98
4. Use of Sanskrit Language: .............................................................................................. 98
5. Patronage of Brahmanism: ............................................................................................. 98
6. Role of Hindu Preachers: ................................................................................................. 99
7. Rifts in Buddhist Order: .................................................................................................. 99
8. Buddha Worship: ............................................................................................................... 99
9. Lose of Royal Patronage: ................................................................................................ 100
10. Huna Invasion: ............................................................................................................... 100
11. Emergence of Rajputs: ................................................................................................. 100
12. Muslim Invasion: ........................................................................................................... 100
Contribution of Buddhism: .................................................................................................... 101
Buddhist Architecture: ............................................................................................................ 101
Maha Janapadas to the Maurya .............................................................................................. 103
Mahajanapada ........................................................................................................................... 103
The Rise of Magadha ................................................................................................................ 107
The Political Summary of Magadha Empire ..................................................................... 107
Brihadrath Dynasty ......................................................................................................................... 108
Bimbisara ................................................................................................................................ 109
Ajatashatru ............................................................................................................................. 111
Shishunaga Dynasty ................................................................................................................ 113
Nanda ............................................................................................................................................ 113
Persian and Greek invasions ..................................................................................................... 116
Persian Invasions ...................................................................................................................... 116
Cyrus ......................................................................................................................................... 116
Darius I..................................................................................................................................... 116
Xerxes ....................................................................................................................................... 116
Effects of the Persian Invasion ............................................................................................. 116
Alexander’s Invasion of India (327-325 B.C.) ...................................................................... 117
Causes of the Invasion ............................................................................................................ 117
Battle of Hydaspes .................................................................................................................... 117
Effects of Alexander’s invasion ............................................................................................. 118

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Mauryan Empire............................................................................................................................ 119
Maurya Dynasty ........................................................................................................................ 119
Chandragupta Maurya (324-300 B.C.) .......................................................................... 120
Bindusara ................................................................................................................................ 124
Ashoka ...................................................................................................................................... 124
Rock Edicts ............................................................................................................................. 127
Ashoka Dhamma ................................................................................................................... 128
Decline of Mauryans ............................................................................................................ 129
Reasons for Mauryan Decline ........................................................................................... 130
Society....................................................................................................................................... 133
Provincial Administration ................................................................................................... 135
City Administration .............................................................................................................. 136
Later Mauryas ............................................................................................................................ 138
Post Maurya Kingdoms ............................................................................................................... 140
The lndo -Greeks ....................................................................................................................... 140
Some of the kings of indo-Greek dynasties are : ........................................................................ 141
Antiochus II ............................................................................................................................. 141
Demetrius I of the Bactria .................................................................................................. 141
Apollodotus I ........................................................................................................................... 141
Apollodotus II ......................................................................................................................... 142
Menander II ............................................................................................................................. 142
Shakas .......................................................................................................................................... 142
Parthians...................................................................................................................................... 145
Kushanas ..................................................................................................................................... 145
Kujula Kadphises (AD 30-AD 80)..................................................................................... 147
Vima Taktu or Sadashkana (AD 80 -AD 95) ................................................................ 147
Vima Kadphises: (AD 95-AD 127) .................................................................................... 147
Kanishka I ............................................................................................................................... 147
Impact of Central Asian Contacts ........................................................................................ 149
Trade and Technology.......................................................................................................... 150
Polity .......................................................................................................................................... 151
New Elements of the Society ............................................................................................. 151
Religion ..................................................................................................................................... 152
Mahayana Buddhism........................................................................................................... 152

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Sunga to Satavahana................................................................................................................... 153
Sunga ............................................................................................................................................ 153
Pushyamitra Shunga ........................................................................................................... 153
Agnimitra ................................................................................................................................. 154
Bhagabhadra .......................................................................................................................... 155
Devabhuti ................................................................................................................................ 155
Kanva Dynasty ........................................................................................................................... 155
Vasudeva Kanva .................................................................................................................... 155
Mahameghavahans of Kalinga .............................................................................................. 155
Satavahana ................................................................................................................................. 156
Satkarni-I ................................................................................................................................. 158
Satkarni II ................................................................................................................................ 158
Hala ........................................................................................................................................... 159
Gautamiputra Satakarni .................................................................................................... 159
Vasisthiputra Sri Pulmavi .................................................................................................. 160
Economic Condition ................................................................................................................. 160
Social Organisation .................................................................................................................. 162
Administration ........................................................................................................................... 164
Religion ......................................................................................................................................... 165
Language ...................................................................................................................................... 165
Architecture ................................................................................................................................ 166
Satavahana Empire: Observations ...................................................................................... 167
Gupta Empire ............................................................................................................................. 169
Origin of Guptas ........................................................................................................................ 170
Origins and Caste ................................................................................................................. 170
The Kings ..................................................................................................................................... 170
Chandragupta (319 – 335 AD) .......................................................................................... 170
Samudragupta ( 335 – 380AD ) ........................................................................................ 171
Conquests of Samudragupta ............................................................................................. 172
Culture and Religion ................................................................................................................ 173
Ramagupta .............................................................................................................................. 175
Chandragupta II ( Vikramaditya ) .................................................................................... 176
Kumaragupta I (412-454 A.D.) ......................................................................................... 179
Skandagupta (454-467 A.D.): ........................................................................................... 179

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Huna Invasion ............................................................................................................................ 180
Decline of the Gupta Empire:................................................................................................ 180
Causes of Decline of Guptas: ................................................................................................ 181
GUPTA ADMINISTRATION ..................................................................................................... 182
Revenue Administration ......................................................................................................... 184
Gupta Economy ........................................................................................................................ 185
Social Developments ................................................................................................................ 186
Status of Women ....................................................................................................................... 187

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Indus Valley Civilisation

Introduction
The Harappan civilization was discovered in 1920-21 following
the excavations by R.D. Banerjee at Mohenjodaro and by D.R.
Salini at Harappa. Since at that time the remains of the
civilization were found only in the Indus valley, it came to be
known also as the Indus civilization. A culture may also be
named after the site from where it came to be known for the first
time. Since, it was at Harappa that the relics of this civilization
were first noticed, it is also known as the Harappan civilization.
The Indus or the Harappan culture is older than the chalcolithic
cultures which have been existent earlier, but it is far more
developed than these cultures. It arose in the north-west· ern
part of the Indian subcontinent. The Harappan culture covered
parts of Panjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and the
fringes of western Uttar Pradesh. It extended from Jammu in the
north to the Narmada estuary in the south, and from the
Makran coast of Baluchistan, in the west to Meerut in the
north-east. The total geographical area over which this
civilization flourished is more than 20 times of the area of
Egyptian and more than 12 times of the area of Egyptian and
Mesopotamian civilizations combined. It covers an area of about
12,50,000 sq. kms. These settlements are mostly located on river
banks. No other cultural zone in the third and second
millennium B.C. in the world was as large as the Harappan zone.

Although over 250 Harappan sites are known, only six can be
regarded as cities. Of these the two most important cities were
Harappa in Panjab and Mohenjo-daro in Sindh, both forming
parts of Pakistan. Situated at a distance of 483 kilometres they
were linked together by the Indus. A third city lay at Chanhudaro
about 130 km south of Mohenjodaro in Sindh, and a fourth at
Lothal in Gujarat at the head of the Gulf of Cambay. A fifth city
lay at Kalibangan in northern Rajasthan, a sixth called Banwali
is situated in Hissar district in Haryana. It saw two cultural
phases, pre-Harappan and Harappan, similar to that of
Kalibangan. The distribution pattern of settlements that the
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focus of Harappan civilization was not the Indus but the
Saraswati river and its tributaries which flowed between the
Indus and the Ganga. It is because of this reason that some
scholars call it Indus-Saraswati civilization, and few prefer the
nomenclature Saraswati civilization. Each of these cities were
surrounded by vast agricultural lands, rivers and forest that were
inhabited by scattered farming and pastoral communities and
bands of hunter food-gatherers. The Harappan culture is
noticeable· in its nature and flourishing stage at all these six
places. It is also found in its mature phase in, the coastal cities of
Sutkagendor and Surkotada, each one of which is marked by a
Citadel. The later Harappan phase is found in Rangpur and Rojdi
in the Kathiawar peninsula in Gujarat.

Major excavations undertaken at the sites of Mohenjodaro,


Harappa Kalibangan, Lothal, Surkotada, Dholavira etc. have
given a fair idea about the various aspects like town planning,
economy, technology, religion etc. of this civilization.

Town Planning
The Harappan culture was notable by its system of town-
planning. The overall layout of the Indus-Saraswati cities is
distinguished by the orientation of streets and buildings,
according to the cardinal directions - east-west, and north-south.
The idea of settlement planning did not appear suddenly with the
first large cities but was already well established in earlier period
as has been revealed from the excavations at Kot Diji,
Kalibangan, Harappa, Rahman Dheri, Nausharo etc. Harappa
and Mohenjo-daro each had its own citadel or acropolis. The
basic layout at all these settlements was established along a grid
that was defined by large streets running northsouth and east-
west and fortification all around. Earlier it was thought that all
cities were having a standard division into a high western citadel
and a lower town to the east reflecting the division of the cities
into rulers and the service communities, with the crafts
workshops located in the lower city. However, recent evidence,
particularly from Dholavira (in Gujarat), shows that it was
divided into four distinct localities, which were occupied
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respectively by rulers in the citadel, noblemen in the bailey or
castle, merchants, traders, farmers and craftsmen in the middle
town and the working class in the lower town.

Each city comprised a series of walled sectors or mounds,


oriented in different direction. The entire township had strong
fortifications but the first three sectors had additional enclosure
walls. making them ghetto-like units. The obvious implication is
that it was a class-structured society with a rigid hierarchical
order in which residents of different areas were not supposed to
mix with each other.

Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Kalibangan have a high rectangular


mound on the west and extensive mound to the north, south and
the east. But at the sites like Dholavira and Banavali there was
only a single walled mound internally divided into three or four
walled sectors. The excavations at the Harappan city sites like
Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Surkotada show that there
were large gateways at various entry points of the city. These
gateways are seen even in the inner fortification areas also. At
Dholavira a large inscription, possibly a fallen signboard, was
found close to the main gateway. The letters of the inscription are
the largest example of writing ever discovered from any Harappan
city, is made from white gypsum paste inlay set into a wooden
plank. Ten symbols proclaim some name or title mounted above
the gateway. The signboard would have been visible from a long
distance.

The houses built by people usually show considerable variation


in the raw materials used and the style of construction. The most
common building materials in the alluvial plains, where most
settlements are located, were mud-bricks and kiln-fired-bricks,
wood and reeds. However, in
rocky foothills and on the
Islands of Kutch and in
Saurashtra, where stone is
commonly available, dressed
stone replaced bricks. The

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average size of brick used for houses was 7x15x30 cm but for the
construction of fortification walls the size of the brick was of
bigger size viz 10x20x40 cm. Both sizes of bricks have identical
proportions 1 :2:4, that the width is double the thickness and the
length four times, the thickness.

The doors windows were made of wood


and mats. The floors of houses were
generally hard-packed earth that was
often plastered. Bathing areas and
drains were made with baked bricks or
stone. Some rooms were paved with
bricks or fired terracotta cakes. Very few actual roof fragments
have been recovered. They were probably made of wooden beams
covered with reeds and packed clay. In rare instances timber also
seems to have formed a semi-structural frame or lacing for
brickwork.

Excavations have uncovered many types of houses and public


buildings at both large and small settlements. Most of the
architecture can be grouped into three categories, with some
variations:

(i) private houses


(ii) large houses surrounded by smaller units
(iii) large public structures
Considerable variation is seen in the size of dwellings, which
range from single roomed tenements to houses with courtyards
having up to dozen rooms of varying sizes. Doorways and
windows rarely opened out into the main street, but faced side
lanes. The view into the house was blocked by a wall or a room
around the front door. This was done to protect the activities in
the central courtyard from the view of passers-by. This pattern is
still maintained in traditional houses throughout the Indo-
Gangetic plains.

Many houses were at least two stoned and some scholars think
that some of the houses may have been three storied. Hearths

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were commonly found in Houses. Almost every house had a
bathroom, and in some cases there is evidence of bathrooms on
the first floor. The doors were made with wooden frames and a
brick socket set in the threshold served as door pivot. Some of
the doors seem to have been painted and possibly carved with
simple ornamentation The windows were small at first and
second stories. The adjacent houses were separated by a n arrow
space of "no man's land". Almost all the big houses had a well
within their courtyard. Deep grooves on the bricks at the top edge
of the well show that ropes were used to lift the water up,
probably with leather or wooden buckets.

In several cities some large and distinct structures have been


found. Their special nature is seen in their plan and in their
construction.

The most remarkable feature of the citadel mound at


Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath. It is an example of beautiful
brickwork. Flights of steps at either end lead to the surface.
There are side rooms for changing clothes. The floor of the
Bath was made of burnt bricks. Water was drawn from a large
well in an adjacent room, and an outlet from one corner of the
Bath led to a drain. It is suggested that the Great Bath served
ritual bathing, which was so vital to any religious ceremony in
India.

Mohenjodaro (in Sindh) was a brand new metropolis, planned


and built like Delhi, long after it was abandoned by the earlier
inhabitants whose remains he buried in subsoil water. It was the

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largest and most prosperous city of the ancient world as is
evident from the impressive buildings of baked bricks on stone
foundations. The multi-roomed and storied mansions had tiled
floors, paved baths, covered wells and an underground drainage
system. The average house was about 100-200 sqm- comparing
favourably with the upper-middle class apartments of our own
times. The general plan of the metropolis reveals that there was
the citadel in the west while the lower city in the cast was
probably divided into three parts, of which the area in the north
was for industrial workshops and kilns as it has yielded bronze
artefacts. In the south, the HR area was occupied by the elite
with elegant spacious mansions (extending to three hundred sq.
m.), some of which contained hordes of gold and jewellery. In
between, there were houses of the common people in the adjacent
area along poorly aligned streets.

Every house in Mohenjodaro had a well for water. which was


lined with specially made wedge-shaped bricks. The Harappan
wells are probably the earliest of their kind in the world. There
were arrangements for drawing water. Bathroom floors were
paved with fired bricks filled on edge and toilets too were
provided. Sewage was drained out through terracotta pipes joined
to underground drainage. The drains had sluice gates or grills.
This is the earliest evidence of underground drainage for which
the Harappans devised a new type of arch- 'The Corbelled Arch'.

Immediately to the west of the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro is a


group of 27 blocks of brickwork crisscrossed by narrow lanes.
Overall it measures 50 m. east-west and 27 m. north-south.
Somewhat similar structures have been found at Harappa,
Kalibangan and Lothal. These
structures have been identified as
granaries which were used for
storing grains. To the south of
granaries at Harappa lay working
platforms consisting of the rows of
circular brick platforms. During

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the course of excavation, impression of a large wooden mortar
was found placed in the centre of one of these circular brick
platforms. Such wooden mortars are used in many parts of the
world to remove the husk from the grain.

An important structure is the dockyard found at Lothal. It is a


large structure measuring 223
m. in length, 35 m. in width
and 8 m. in depth, provided
with an inlet channel (12.30 m.
wide) in the eastern wall and a
spillway. The inlet channel
was connected to a river. By
its side is a 240 m. long and
21.6 m wide wharf. Most scholars have identified this structure
as a dockyard where ships and boats came for loading and
unloading of goods. In view of the fact that a large number of
seals have been found in a warehouse close to the dockyard,
scholars think that Lothal was a major trading centre of the
Harappa n civilization.

Well laid-out streets and side lanes equipped with drains are the
most outstanding features of the Harappan civilization. The
towns were well planned and the streets cut each other on the
right angles. Even the width of these streets were in a set
ratio. If the narrowest lane was one unit in width, the other
streets were twice, thrice and so on in width. Further, the civic
sense of people in this civilization was such that during the hey-
day of the civilization, no encroachment on the streets was to be
seen. According to scholars, such town planning was not seen
even in the nineteenth century London and Paris.

Even smaller towns and villages had impressive drainage


systems. This indicates that people had a great civic sense of
sanitation and care for health and hygiene. Small drains made of
burnt bricks were connected with bathing platforms and latrines
of private houses joined the medium sized drains in the side
streets. These drains ran into larger sewers in the main streets

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which were covered with bricks or dressed stone blocks.
Corbelled-arch drains have also been found. One of them is
almost 6 ft. deep which functioned as main drain taking all the
waste water out of the town. At regular intervals along the main
sewage drains were rectangular sump pits for collecting waste
and these were regularly cleaned.

The use of burnt bricks in the Harappan cities is remarkable,


because in the contemporary buildings of Egypt dried bricks
were mainly used. We find the use of baked bricks in
contemporary Mesopotamia, but they were used to a much larger
extent in the Harappan cities.

In almost all cities every big or small house had its own
courtyard and bathroom. In Kalibangan many houses had their
wells. Water flowed from the house to the streets which had
drams Sometimes these drams were covered with bricks and
sometimes with stone slabs. The street drains were equipped with
manholes. The remains of streets and drains have also been
found at Banwali, Altogether the drainage system and the quality
of the domestic bath-rooms and drains arc remarkable, and the
drainage system of Harappa is almost unique perhaps no other
civilization gave so much attention to health and cleanliness as
the Harappan.

Crafts and Traditions


Although the Harappan civilization is referred to as a bronze age
civilization, mostly unalloyed copper was used for
manufacturing artefacts, and only rarely
tin was alloyed in copper to make bronze.
Tools and weapons were simple in form.
They included flat -axes, chisels,
arrowhead, spearheads, knives, saws,
razors, and fish-hooks. People also made
copper and bronze vessels. They made
small plates and weights of lead, and gold and silver jewellery of
considerable sophistication.

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The Harappans continued to use knives of chert blades also.
Some of these chert blades are the finest examples known from
any early culture. A great skill and expertise is seen in precious
and semi-precious stone beads and weights. Long barrel shaped
cornelian beads (upto 10 cm. long) are the finest examples of
craftsmanship.

Steatite was used for making a variety of objects like seals,


beads, bracelets, buttons, vessels, etc. but its use in making
faience (a form of glass) is particularly noteworthy. In this
material beads, amulets, sealings and even animal models have
been found. In the Harappan civilization, gold objects occur in
the form of beads, pendants, amulets, brooches, and other small
ornaments. The Harappan gold is of light colour indicating high
silver content. On the basis of alloys, it has been suggested that
gold may have come from Karnataka. Silver was relatively more
common than gold which is indicated by the occurrence of a
number of large vessels and other objects.

Mature Harappan pottery represents a blend of the ceramic


tradition of the pre-Harappan culture of both west of the Indus
region as well as of the Saraswati area. The pottery technology
was quite advanced. Most of the pots were wheel-made. Big
storage jars were also produced. Pots were beautifully painted
in black on the bright red surface with geometric designs,
plants, animals, and a few paintings seem to depict scenes from
stories.

Nearly 2500 seals have been found. These are made of steatite.
They mostly depict a single animal-unicorn bull, elephant,
rhinoceros etc. but some also depict trees, semi-human and
human figurines, in some cases participating in a ceremony.
Shell working was another flourishing industry. Artisans,
settlements close to the sea manufactured shell ornaments like
pendants, rings, bracelets, inlays, beads etc., beside object as
bowls, ladles and gamesmen.

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In the Harappan civilization, the elaborate social structure and
the standard of living must have been achieved by a highly
developed system of communication and strong economy. In this,
intensive agricultural production and large-scale trade played
significant roles. In the beginning, trade may have been
internal, i.e. between one zone and another, and later external
trade also developed. Agricultural produce, industrial raw
material, like copper ores, stone, semi precious shells, etc. were
traded. Besides the raw material, finished products of metals
(pots and pans, weapon, etc.), precious and semiprecious stones
(beads, pendants, amulets etc.) ornaments of gold and silver were
also traded to various areas.

 Copper procured from Khetri mines of Rajasthan


 chert blades from Rohri hills of Sindh
 carnelian beads from Gujarat and Sindh
 lead from south India
 lapis-lazuli from Kashmir and Afghanistan
 turquoise and jade from central Asia or Iran
 amethyst from Maharashtra
 agate, chalcedony, and carnelian from Saurashtra.
The occurrence of mature Harappan seals and other artefacts in
contemporary Mesopotamian civilization, and some of the
Mesopotamian and Egyptian objects in Harappan civilization, and
the evidence of Mesopotamian documents, establish that the
Harappans had trading relationship with that land.

The trade, both long as well


as short distance, implies a
regulation of exchange and
of weights and measures.
Harappan weights and
measures were cubical and
spherical in shape and were
made of chert, jasper and
agate. The weights proceed
in a series, first doubling,

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from 1,2,4,8, to 64, then going to 160 and from then on in
decimal multiples of sixteen, 320, 640, 1600, 6400 (1600x4),
8000 (1600x 5) and 128,000 (i.e.16000 x 8). Interestingly, the
tradition of 16 or its multiples continued in India till 1950s.
Sixteen chhatank made a ser, and 16 annas made one rupee.
The measures of length were based upon a foot of 37.6 cm. and a
cubit of 51.8 to 53.6 cm.

Representations of ships and boats are found on some seals and


as graffiti as pottery from Harappa and Mohenjodaro. A terracotta
model of a pottery resemble the ones used today in Sindh and
Punjab areas. Travel and
transport were carried on
through ships and boats. For
the overland transport bullock-
carts and pack animals like
bull, camel, ass etc. were used.
The terracotta models of
bullock-cart and cart tracks
found on roads from various sites indicate that carts used in
those days were in size and shape practically like the present day
ones.

Agriculture
The Indus region is not so fertile and comparatively rainless. Its
prosperous villages and towns show that it was fertile in ancient
times. The granaries at some Harappan cities clearly suggest that
cereals were produced in such large quantities that not only were
all the immediate needs of people duly met with, but there was
also enough reserve to face any future emergency.

In earlier times the Indus possessed more natural vegetation


which attracted more rainfall. It supplied timber fuel for baking
bricks on a large scale, and also for construction. In course of
time, natural vegetation was destroyed by the extension of
agriculture, large-scale grazing, and supply of fuel A far more
important reason for the fertility of the area seems to have been
the annual inundation in the Indus river. Walls made of burnt

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bricks raised for protection show that floods took place
annually.

The Indus carried far more alluvial soil than the Nile in Egypt
and deposited it on the flood plains Just as the Nile created
Egypt and supported its people, so also the Indus created Sindh
and fed its people. The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood
plains in November, when the flood water receded, and reaped
their harvests of wheat and barley in April before the advent of
the next flood. No hoe or ploughshare has been discovered, but
the furrows discovered in the pre-Harappan phase at Kalibangan
show that the fields were ploughed in Rajasthan in the Harappan
period The Harappans probably used the wooden ploughshare.
It is not known whether the plough was drawn by men or oxen.
Stone sickles may have been used for harvesting the crops.
Gabarbands or nalas enclosed by dams for storing water were a
feature in parts of Baluchistan and Afghanistan, but channel or
canal irrigation seems to have been absent.

The Harappan villages, mostly situated near the flood plains,


produced sufficient food grains not only to feed themselves but
also the town people. They must have worked very hard to meet
their own requirements as well as those of the artisans,
merchants and others, who lived in the city and who were not
directly concerned with food-producing activities.

The principal cereals seem to have been wheat and barley. The
Indus people produced wheat, barley, peas, etc. They produced
two types of wheat and barley. A good quantity of barley has been
discovered at Banwali. Rice, though known, was a favoured
grain. Six varieties of millets including ragi, kodon, sanwa, and
jowar were cultivated, as also peas and beans. Remains of rice
have been found mainly from Gujarat and Haryana areas. Other
crops include dates, varieties of legumes, sesame and mustard.
Fragments of cotton cloth found at Mohenjodaro and other
sites show that cotton was also grown. Cotton has been found at
Mehrgarh at least 2000 years before the mature phase of the
Civilization. This is the oldest evidence of cotton in the world. In

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addition to this, they produced sesamum and mustard. But the
position seems to have been different with the Harappans at
Lethal. Fcodgrains were stored in huge granaries in both
Mohenjodaro and Harappa and possibly in Kalibangan. Probably,
cereals were received as taxes from peasants and stored in
granary for the payment of wages.

For tilling fields, wooden plough with a


copper or wooden ploughshare was used.
Terracotta models of the plough have been
found at Mohenjodaro and Banawali.
Harvesting of crops would have been done
with copper sickles as well as stone blades
hafted in wood. The range of animals
domesticated by the Harappan people is quite large. Bones of
several animals have been found in excavations. Skeletal remains
include sheep, goat, bull, buffalo, Elephant, camel, pig, dog and
cat, which were all domesticated. A large number of animal have
been depicted on the seals. These include sheep, goat, humped
bull, buffalo, elephant, etc. Bones of wild animals like spotted
deer, sambhar deer, hog deer, wild pig, etc. are also found which
evidently were hunted for food. Several types of birds as well as
fishes were also hunted for food.

The bones of camels have been found in large number from


various sites but the animal is not depicted on seals. Bones of
horses have been reported from Lothal, Surkotada,
Kalibangan and several other sites. Terracotta figurines of the
horse have been found at Nausharo and Lothal. But no
unambiguous depiction of this animal on seal has so far been
found.

The humped bulls were favoured by the Harappans. From the


very beginning dogs were regarded as pets Cats were also
domesticated, and signs of the feet of both dogs and cats have
been noticed They also kept asses and camels, which were
possibly used as beasts of burden. Elephants were well known to
the Harappans, who were also acquainted with the rhinoceros.

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The contemporary Sumerian cities in Mesopotamia practically
produced the same foodgrains and domesticated the same
animals as the Harappans did but the Harappan people in
Gujarat produced rice and domesticated elephants, which was
not the case with the people of Mesopotamian cities.

Art
A large variety of objects such as seals, stone
statues, terracotta, etc. are superb examples of art
activities. The most outstanding pieces are a yogi
from Mohenjodaro and two small figurines from
Harappa. Bronzes are rare, the most famous being
a small female statue of about 11.5 cm. in height
identified as dancing girl, from Mohenjodaro.
Significantly, this has been made by the lost wax
method of casting. Daimabad bronze animal’s
workmanship most probably belong to
Harappan period. The red sandstone torso
found at Harappa is made of detachable limbs
and head and the grey stone torso perhaps
shows a dancing figure. Both these are so
realistic that had they not been found in
archaeological excavations none would believe that they belong to
the Harappan period.

Harappan people produced a large number of terracotta figurines


which were handmade. The figurines
include humans, animals, birds, monkeys,
dogs, sheep and cattle. Figurines of both
humped and hump less bulls are found.
The largest number of seals depict
unicorn. But the most artistic depictions
are the figures of humped bull. Other animals are elephants,
tigers, rhinoceros, ram, etc. Humans are also occasionally
depicted. As for the evidence of paintings we have it only on
pottery. Unfortunately no wall paintings, even if there were any,
have survived. The potter's wheel was in full use, and the

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Harappans produced their own characteristic pottery, which was
made glossy and shining.

Political Organisation
There is no clear idea about the political organization of the
Harappans, In sharp contrast to Egypt and Mesopotamia no
temples have been found at any Harappan site. There are no
religious structures of any kind except the Great Bath, which
may have been used for ablutions. Therefore, it would be wrong
to think that priests ruled in Harappa, as they did in the cities of
Lower Mesopotamia. There are some indications of the practice of
fire cult at Lothal m Gujarat in the later phase, but no temples
were used for the purpose. Perhaps the Harappan rulers were
more concerned with commerce than with conquests, and
Harappa was possibly ruled by a class of merchants.

There are generally two aspects of religion: one conceptual or


philosophical, and the other, practical or ritualistic. The former
is enshrined in metaphysical texts while the latter is reflected in
the material remains. Since archaeologists have not been able to
decipher the script it is difficult to talk about the metaphysical
aspect, but due to abundance of material remains we have some
idea about the other aspect of the Harappan religion.

From the available evidence it may be said that the religion of the
Indus people comprised:

(i) the worship of the Mother Goddess


(ii) the worship of a male deity, probably of Siva
(iii) worship of animals, natural, semi-human, or fabulous
(iv) worship of trees in their natural state or of their
indwelling spirits
(v) worship of inanimate stones or other objects, of linga and
yoni symbols
(vi) chrematheism as illustrated in the worship of the sacred
"incense-burners"
(vii) faith in amulets and charms indicative of demonophobia:
and
(viii) practice of yoga

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These characteristics suggest that this religion
was mainly of an indigenous growth and "the
lineal progenitor of Hinduism", which is
characterised by most of these features. A large
number of female figurines of terracotta have
been discovered. The accepted view is that these
are representations of the Great Mother
Goddess. A striking oblong sealing found at
Harappa represents the Earth or Mother
Goddess, with a plant growing from her womb.

Also depicted are a man with a knife in hand, and a woman


with raised hands. A male deity, "the prototype of the historic
Siva," is portrayed on a seal with three faces, seated on a low
throne in the typical posture of a Yogi, with two animals on each
side - elephant and tiger on right and rhinoceros and buffalo
on left, and two deer standing under the throne. The depiction
shows Siva as Pasupati. There is also the last characteristic of
the historic Siva in this figure, a pair of horns crowning his
head with a central bump which appears like the trisula or
trident of the Saivas. Another seal depicts a deity in the same
posture of a Yoga, with a Naga kneeling in prayer to him with
uplifted hands on either side of him.

Some linga and yoni like objects have been found. Some scholars
opined that these were not linga and
yonis but gamesmen. However, the find
of a terracotta piece from Kalibangan
having linga and yoni in one piece, like
the ones in the historical period, show
that these were linga and yoni meant for
worship. Whether they were worshipped
independently or are symbolic
representation of Siva and Sakti respectively, cannot be
ascertained.

There is also evidence of tree-worship in two forms. In one, the


tree was worshipped in its natural form. In the other, what was

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worshipped was not the tree but its indwelling spirit. A
remarkable seal found at Mohenjodaro represents a deity,
standing between two branches of a pipal tree. The worship of
the deity is indicated by a line of seven human figures and by the
figure of a half-kneeling suppliant with long hair, behind whom is
a goat, with a human face. The continuance of this religious
tradition is found in the sculptures of Bharhut and Sanchi
showing the Yakshis as Dryads.

Evidence of animal worship is also found in the animals


represented on seals and sealings, or in terracotta, faience, and
stone figurines. Firstly, there are mythical and composite
creatures; e.g. human faced goat or part ram or goat, part bull
and part elephant, three-headed chimeras, semihuman semi-
bovine creatures. The most common depiction seal is unicorn,
which is perhaps mythical. Thirdly, there are the natural
animals, such as

(i) the water buffalo


(ii) the gaur or Indian bison
(iii) the Indian humped bull or zebu
(iv) the rhinoceros
(v) a short-horned humpless bull
(vi) the tiger
(vii) the Indian elephant
In later period some of these animal figure as the vehicles of
Hindu deities, e.g. the bull of Siva, the lion of Durga, and the
buffalo of Yam a, the elephant of Indra. A large number of 'fire-
altars' have been found from sites in Gujarat, Rajasthan and
Haryana. At Kalibangan, Lothal, and Banawali a number of 'fire-
altars' have been found which seem to have been used as
sacrificial altars. Besides these the Swastika, a sacred symbol
with Hindus, Buddhists and Jaina has been depicted on seals,
painting and graffiti, etc.

There is yet another aspect of the Harappan people that needs


consideration. A large number of terracotta figurines depict the

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individuals in various yogic postures (asanas) indicating
thereby that the Harappans practised yoga

Script
The language of Harappans is at present still unknown and must
remain so until the Harappan script is read. The Harappans
invented the art of writing like the people of ancient
Mesopotamia. Although the earliest specimen of Harappan script
was noticed in 1853 and the complete script discovered by 1923,
it has not been deciphered so far. Some try to connect it with the
Dravidian or the proto-Dravidian language, others with the
Sanskrit language, and still others with the Sumerian language,
but none of these readings is satisfactory. As the script has not
been deciphered, we cannot judge the Harappan contribution to
literature, nor can we say anything about their ideas and beliefs.

There are nearly 400 specimens of Harappan signs on seals and


other materials such as copper tablets, axes, and pottery. Most of
the inscriptions on seals are small, a group of few letters A few
bear only one single sign. It is generally agreed that it is not an
alphabetic form of writing. Some scholars opine that Harappan
inscriptions present a logo syllabic writing system, where a
sequence of two or more signs would represent either a complete
word, a syllable or a sound and sometimes even a sentence of
several words and grammatical indicators. The script was
written from right to left. When the inscription was of more
than one line it could be first line from right to left and second
from left to right. Unlike the Egyptians and Mesopotamians, the
Harappans did not write long inscriptions. Most inscriptions were
recorded on seals, and contain only a few words. These seals may
have been used by propertied people to mark and identify their
private property. Altogether there are about 250 to 400
pictographs, and in the form of a picture each letter stands for
some sound, idea or object. The Harappan script is not
alphabetical but mainly pictographic. Attempts have been made
to compare it with the contemporary scripts of Mesopotamia and
Egypt. But it is the indigenous product of the Indus region, and
does not show any connection with the scripts of Western Asia.
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Social Stratification
The Harappan society seems to have been divided into three
sections, viz. an elite class associated with the Citadel, a well-
to-do middle class, and a relatively weaker section, occupying
the lower town which were generally fortified. Some of the
craftsmen and labourers resided outside the fortified area.
Whether these divisions were based purely on economic
factors or had a socio-religious basis we cannot say. At
Kalibangan it appears that the priests resided in the upper part
of the citadel and performed rituals on fire altars in the lower
part of it.

It is difficult to be sure of the kind of political setup that prevailed


at the time of the Harappan civilization. An Indus empire is often
talked about, implying that the entire area was administered
from one capital, with a few regional administrative centres or
provincial capitals. However, it is also possible that there were
several independent states or kingdoms each with cities like
Mohenjodaro in Sindh, Harappa in Punjab, Kalibangan in
Rajasthan, Lothal in Gujarat as their capitals. It may be recalled
that during the first millennium B.C. though the archaeological
culture all over northern India was almost the same, yet the area
was divided into sixteen Mahajanapadas each independent with
its own capital.

Scattered burials, as well as discreet cemeteries, have been


found at many major sites. The skeletal remains are few in
comparison to the size of settlements and the population that
may have lived on them. Obviously,
cremation was also practised.
This is proved by many cinerary
urns or other receptacles
containing calcined human bones
and ashes together with vessel
offerings for the use of dead person
in the next life. Only certain groups practised burials. The
general practice was that skeletons were placed in an extended
position with the head towards the north. Earthen pots
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containing food grains, etc. were placed in the grave and, in some
cases, the body was buried with ornaments.

Late Harappa and End


Mature Harappan period expected to be 700 years is an
extremely long time, spanning nearly 30 generations. Many
changes in social organisation, politics, language and even
religion would have taken place during this long period. We know
that in contemporary Egypt and Mesopotamia many kingdoms
rose and fell within a period of even 100 years. The Harappan
culture existed between 2500 B. C. and 1750 B.C. Its mature
phase lay between 2200 B C. and 2000 B C. but throughout the,
period of its existence. It seems to have retained the same kind
of tools, weapons and houses. The whole style of life appears to
be uniform. The same town-planning, the same, seals, the same
terracotta works, and the same long chert blades are evident. But
the view stressing changelessness cannot be pushed too far.
There are changes in the pottery of Mohenjodaro over a period of
time. Around 1750 B. C the two important cities of the Harappan
culture, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, disappeared, but the
Harappan culture at other sites faded out gradually and
continued in its degenerate phase in the outlying fringes in
Gujarat, Rajasthan and western Uttar Pradesh.

Historian John Marshall suggested that Harappan civilization


flourished between 3250 and 2750 B.C. Mortimer Wheeler dated
it to 2500-1500 B.C. Eventually radiocarbon dating method was
been invented and on the basis of radiocarbon dating of this
civilization following chronology emerges:

Early Harappan Phase : c. 3500 - 2600 B.C.

Mature Harappan Phase: c. 2600 -1900 B.C.

Late Harappan Phase : c. 1900 - 1300 B.C.

It is as difficult. to explain the origin of the Harappan culture as


its end. Several pre-Harappan settlements have been found in
Baluchistan and in Kalibangan in Rajasthan, but the connection

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between them and the mature Harappan culture is not clear,
though the, Harappan culture may have evolved out of these
indigenous settlements. There is no clear proof of outside
influence on the Harappan cities. Contact with the
Mesopotamian cities may have provided some stimulus to the
development of the Harappan culture. But there can be no doubt
about the Indian ness of the Harappan culture. Certain elements
distinguish it from the' contemporary cultures in Western Asia. It
planned its towns with their chess-board system, streets,
drainage, pipes and cess pits. On the other hand the
Mesopotamian cities show a haphazard growth. Rectangular
houses with brick-lined bathrooms and wells together with their
stairways are, found in all Harappan cities. Such town-planning
is not to be found in the cities of Western Asia. No other people in
antiquity had built such an excellent drainage system except
perhaps those of Crete in Knossos, nor did the people of Western
Asia show such skill in the use of burnt bricks as the Harappans
did.

The Harappans produced their own characteristic pottery and


seals, the latter represented the local annual world. Above all,
they invented their own typical script, which bears no
resemblance to the Egyptian and Mesopotamian scripts.
Although the Harappan culture was a Bronze Age culture, they
used bronze on a very limited scale, and largely continued to use
stone implements. Finally, no contemporary culture spread over
such a wide area as the Harappan culture did. The structures of
Harappa cover 5 km in circuit, and in that way are the largest of
their type in the Bronze Age · No urban complex of the Harappan
magnitude has been discovered so far.

While the ancient cultures of Mesopotamia continued to exist


even after 1750 B C, the Harappan culture disappeared at about
that tune. John Marshall and many other scholars, on the basis
of evidence available from the sites along the Indus river, felt that
this civilization declined due to environmental degradation.
The cutting of forests for agricultural land and timber for fuel and

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overexploitation of resources, etc. resulted in the land to become
barren and in the silting of rivers. Various other causes have
been suggested. Some ascribe it to the decreasing fertility on
account of the increasing salinity of the soil caused by the
expansion of the neighbouring desert others attribute it to a
sudden subsidence or uplift of the land which caused floods.
And still others point out that the Harappan culture was
destroyed by the Aryans.

Wheeler who dated the Harappan civilization between 2500 and


1500 B.C. opined that it was destroyed by the 'barabarian'
Aryans who came to India in about 1500 B.C. Later researches
challenged Wheeler's thesis of Aryan being destroyers of the
Harappan civilization as a misconception. In fact, there is no
reliable archaeological or biological evidence for invasion or mass
migration from west or central Asia to the Indus or Saraswati
valleys between 5000 and 800 B.C. All skeletons found during
this period belong to the same group of people.

In the later phases of the Harappan culture, some exotic tools


and pottery indicate the slow percolation of new peoples in the
Indus basin. A few signs of insecurity and violence appear in the
last· phase of Mohenjodaro, Hoards of jewellery were buried at
places, and skulls were huddled together at one place There is
also evidence of new types of axes, daggers, knives with mid-
ribs and flat tangs appear in the upper levels of Mohenjodaro.
Although basically they seem to be Indian, they may betray some
foreign influence. Traces of new peoples appear in a cemetery
belonging to the late phase of Harappa, where new kinds of
pottery occur in the latest levels. New types of pottery also occur
in some Harappan sites in Baluchistan.

The Harappan civilization was spread over a large area, and the
causes of its decline in all the regions cannot be one and the
same. While in the Saraswati region it declined mainly due to
shifting of river channels, along the Indus it declined largely due
to recurring floods. The rainfall declined in general which
affected the agriculture, the main economic resource. With the

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decline in economic conditions all other institutions like trade
and commerce, administrative and political structures, civic
amenities, etc. also declined over a period of time.

However, it must be emphasised that Harappan civilization did


not disappear suddenly. Archaeological evidence shows that the
decline was gradual and slow which is witnessed over a period
of almost six hundred years from c. 1900-1300 B.C. Although the
Rig Vedic Aryans settled down mostly in the land of the Seven
Rivers, in which the Harappan culture once flourished, we have
no evidence of any mass scale confrontation between the
Harappans and the Aryans. Harappan civilization disappeared by
about 1300 B.C., number of cultural traits developed in this
civilization can be seen as a part of our daily cultural and
material life.

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Vedic Civilisation
The Vedas are neither any individual religious work nor a
collection of definite number of books compiled at a particular
period. The best possible source of Vedic civilization is its source
- the Vedic literature. The most important source are the Vedas.
Veda means "knowledge". The Vedic literature had grown in the
course of many centuries and was handed down from generation
to generation by word of mouth. It consists of successive classes
of literary creations. Some of these still exist, but many have
been completely lost for ever. These three classes are

1. The Vedas: A collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies


and sacrificial formulae. There are four Vedas, namely:
(i) RigVeda - a collection of hymns
(ii) Samveda - a collection of songs mostly taken from Rig
Veda
(iii) Yajurveda - a collection of sacrificial formulae
(iv) Atharvaveda - a collection of spells and charms
The Vedas formed the earliest segment of Vedic literature
and amongst the Vedas, RigVeda is the oldest.

2. The Brahmanas : These are prose texts which contain


details about the meaning of Vedic hymns, their
applications, stories of their origins, etc. In a way these
contain details about rituals and philosophies.
3. Aranyakas and Upanishads: These are partly included in
the Brahmanas or attached there to, and partly exist as
separate works. They embody philosophical meditations of
the hermits and ascetics on soul, god, world etc
The Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads are attached
to one or the other of the four Vedas. Although the hymns are
attributed to rishis, pious Hindus have always laid stress upon
their divine origin. Thus, the Vedas are called apaurusheya (not
created by man) and nitya (existing in all eternity) while the
rishis are known as inspired seers who received the mantras
from the Supreme deity.

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The Aryans spoke the Indo-European languages, which are
current in changed forms all over Europe, Iran and the greater
part of the Indian subcontinent. Originally the Aryans seem to
have lived somewhere in the area east of the Alps, in the region
known as Eurasia. Certain names of animals such as goats,
dogs, horses, etc., and names of certain plants such as pine,
maple, etc , are similar to one another in all the Indo-European
languages. These common words indicate the fauna and flora of
Eurasia. They show that the Aryans were acquainted with rivers
and forests. Curiously enough, common words for mountains
exist only in a few Aryan languages although the Aryans crossed
many hills. Their earliest life seems to have been mainly
pastoral, agriculture being a secondary occupation. The Aryans
did not lead a settled life, with the result that they could not
leave behind any solid maternal remains. Although the Aryans
used several animals, the horse played the most significant role
in their life. Its swiftness enabled them and some allied peoples
to make successful inroads into Western Asia from about 2000
BC onwards.

On their way to India the Aryans first appeared in Iran, where


the Indo-Iranians lived for a long time. We know about the
Aryans in India from the Rig Veda, which is the earliest specimen
of the Indo-European language. The date of Rig Veda and Vedic
literature has formed the subject of keen and protracted
controversy. Max Muller, who first dealt with the question, began
with the age of Buddha and arbitrarily assigned 200 years to the
development of each of the three stages of Vedic literature and
thus came to the conclusion that RigVeda must have been
composed around 1200- 1000 B. C. When questioned and
criticised by his contemporaries like W.D. Whitney for his totally
arbitrary, 'unscientific and unacademic method, Max Muller
confessed that he was merely speculating and stated: "whether
the Vedic hymns were composed 1000,1500 or 2000 or 3000
B.C., no power on earth will ever determine". It may, in passing
be stated that Max Muller as a true Christian believed in the
genesis stories of the Bible and that the world was created in

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4004 B.C. Similarly, on the analogy of the language of Avesta,
some scholars opined that the date of RigVeda may be 1000 B.C.
But the fact that some of the Vedic gods namely Indra, Varuna,
Mitra and the two Nasatyas are mentioned in Boghaz-Koi (Asia
Minor) inscription of 1400 B.C. prove that Rig Veda must have
come into existence much before that date. The BoghazKoi
inscription records a treaty between the Hittite and the Mitanni
Kings and these gods are cited as witness to this treaty, exactly
the way even today oath is taken in the courts and on
assumption of a public office in the name of god.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak, on astronomical grounds, dated RigVeda


to 6000 B.C. According to Harmon Jacobi Vedic civilization
flourished between 4500 B.C. and 2500 B.C. and the Samhitas
were composed in the latter half of the period. Famous
Sanskritist, Winternitz felt that the Rig Veda was probably
composed in the third millennium B.C. R.K. Mookerjee opined
that "on a modest computation, we should come to 2500 B.C. as
the time of Rig Veda". G.C. Pande also favours a date of 3000
B.C. or even earlier.

Rig Veda is a collection of prayers offered to Agni, Indra, Mitra,


Varuna and other gods by various families of poets or sages. It
consists of ten mandalas or books, of which Books II to IX form
its earliest portions Books I and X seem to have been the latest
additions. The Rig Veda has many things in common with the
Avesta, which is the oldest text in the Iranian language. The two
texts use the same names for several gods and even for social
classes Some Aryan names mentioned in the Kassite
inscriptions of 1600 B C. and the Mitanni inscriptions of the
fourteenth century B.C. found in Iraq suggest that from Iran a
branch of the Aryans moved towards the west.

The earliest Aryans lived in the geographical area covered by


eastern Afghanistan, Panjab and fringes of western Uttar
Pradesh. Some rivers of Afghanistan such as the river Kubha,
and the river Indus and its five branches, are mentioned in the
Rig Veda, The Sindhu, identical with the Indus, is the river par

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excellence of the Aryans, and it is repeatedly mentioned. Another
river mentioned is the Sarasvati, now lost in the sands of
Rajasthan; the area represented by it is covered by the Ghaggar
river. In the north, the Rigveda mentions the Himalayas and
Mujavant mountains. It also mentions ocean (samudra) in
connection with rivers Sindhu and Saraswati falling into ocean.
The ocean is also mentioned in the context of foreign trade. The
RigVedic geography, therefore, covers present-day western Uttar
Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, whole of Pakistan
and south Afghanistan.

Most of the Rig-Veda civilization was centred on the River


Saraswati which is now lost in Deserts of Rajasthan. The Rig-
Veda mentions rivers Kabul, Swat,
Kurram, Gumal, Indus, Jhelum,
Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej etc. which
proves that the settlements were in
Afghanistan and Punjab as well. The
cradle of Rig-Vedic civilization is Sapt
Saidhav Region. Sapta-Sindhu meaning
7 rivers is the term which gave birth to
the word "Hindu". Sapta-Sindhu was referred to as Hapta-Hindu
by Persians. Even in the book Zend Avesta the term Sapta Sindu
is mentioned.

The Aryans came to India in several waves. The Rig Vedic people
represent the earliest wave of Aryans; they seem to have come
into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the dasas,
dasyus, etc. Since the dasyas are mentioned in the ancient
Iranian literature, they seem to have been a branch of the early
Aryans. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of Sambara by
Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan. In this case, the
term dasa appears in the name Divodasa, Possibly the dasyus in
the Rig Veda represent the original inhabitants of the country,
and an Aryan chief who overpowered them was called
Trasadasyu. The Aryan chief was soft towards the dasas, but
strongly hostile: to the dasyus. The term dasyuhatya, slaughter
of the dasyus is repeatedly mention in the Rig Veda. The dasyus
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possibly worshipped the phallus and did not keep cattle for dairy
products. In the Rig Veda Indra is called Purandara, which
means that he was the breaker of forts

A battle fought between the Bharatas on the one hand and the
host of ten kings on the other was known as the Battle of Ten
Kings. The territory known to Vedic people was divided into a
number of states-republics and monarchical. The battle of ten
kings, gives names of ten kings who participated in a war against
Sudas who was Bharata king of Tritsus family. The ten kings
were of the states of Purus, Yadus, Turvasas, Anus and Druhyus
along with five others viz Alinas, Pakhtas, Bhalanas, Sibis and
Vishanins. In the battle fought on the bank of Parushani (Ravi)
and Sudas emerged victorious. In the context of another battle of
Sudas, Rig Veda mentions people and kings like Ajias, Sigrus,
Yaksh us etc. The Bharatas, who gave their name to the whole
country as Bharatvarsha, are the most important people of the
Rig Veda. They settled in the region between the Saraswati and
Yamuna. Similarly, the RigVeda gives the location of other people
like the Purus in the region of Kurukshetra; the Tritsus east of
Ravi; the Alinas, the Pakhtas, the Bhalanas and the Sibis west of
Indus upto Kabul River and so on. The struggle for supremacy
among different kings and republics chiefs was a part of the
evolutionary process towards the formation of a larger political
entity.

Polity and Administration


The political structure of RigVedic India may be traced in the
following ascending order:

(i) The Family (kula)


(ii) The Village (grama)
(iii) The Clan (vis)
(iv) The People (Jana)
(v) The Country (rashtra)
Kula (family) was the smallest unit. It included all the people
living under the same roof (griha). An aggregate of several families
made up the grama like today, and its headman called gramini.

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The next larger formation was called the vis, under the head
called vispati. Larger than vis was jana. Regarding jana we get
mention of panchajanah and of people called Yadus, (Yadva-
janaha) and Bharatas (Bharata-janaha). The king is also called
the protector of the jana or people. Above the jana was rashtra –
The country.

The hereditary monarchy was the normal form of Government


but an elected king also finds mention. We also hear of chiefs,
democratically elected by the assembly of people.

It seems that in the Rig Vedic period the king's post was
hereditary. However, the king did not exercise unlimited
power, for he had to reckon with the triba organizations.
Although his post was hereditary, there are some traces of
election by the tribal assembly called the samite. The king was
the protector of his tribe. He protected its cattle, fought its wars
and offered prayers to gods on its behalf.

Several tribal assemblies such as the sabha, samiti, vidatha,


gana existed in the Rig Veda. These assemblies exercised
deliberative, military and religious functions. Even woman
attended the sabha and vidatha in Rig Vedic times. However, the
two most important assemblies from the political point of view
seem to have been the sabha and the samiti. These two were so
important that the kings showed eagerness to win their support.

In the day-to-day administration, a few functionaries assisted


the king. The most important functionary seems to have been
the purohita. The two priests who played a major part in the time
of Rig Veda are Vasishtha and Visvamitra. They inspired the
tribal chiefs to action· and lauded their exploits in return for
handsome rewards in cows and women slaves. The· next
important functionary seems to be the senani, who used spears,
axes, swords, etc. There seem to be no specific officer concerned
with the collection of taxes. Probably the princes received from
the people voluntary offerings called bali. The Rig Veda docs
not mention any officer for administering justice. However, it was

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not an ideal society. There were cases of theft and burglary, and
especially common was the theft of cows. To keep an eye on such
unsocial activities Spies were employed. The samiti, mainly dealt
with policy decisions and political business, included common
people while the sabha, less political in character, was a more
select body of the Elders or Nobles.

The titles of the officials do not indicate their administration of


territory. However, some officers seem to have been attached to
territories. They enjoyed positions of authority in the pasture
grounds and settled villages, The officer who enjoyed authority
over the pasture ground is called vrajapati. He led the heads of
the families called kulapas, or the heads of the fighting hordes
called gramanis, to battle.In the beginning the gramani was Just
the head of a small tribal fighting unit. However, when the unit
settled the gramani became the head of the village, and in course
of time he became identical with the vrajapati.

The king did not maintain any regular or standing army, but in
times of war he mustered a militia whose military functions were
performed by different tribal groups called vrata, gana, grama,
sardha. Largely it was a tribal system of government with a
strong military element. There was no civil system or territorial
administration because people were in a stage of perpetual
expansion, migrating from one area to another.

The Rigvedic society comprised four varnas, namely Brahmana,


Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra. the occupation of individuals was
the basis of this classification of society. The teacher and priests
were Brahmanas; rulers and administrators kshatriyas;
farmers, merchants and bankers vaisyas; and artisan and
labourers as sudras. Persons according to their ability and liking
followed these vocations, and the occupations had not become
hereditary as they become later on. Members of the same family
took to different professions and belonged to different varnas as
illustrated by a hymn of the RigVeda. There was freedom and
mobility for the adoption of a profession and the idea of

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hereditary trades and occupations was not envisaged in the
society.

Tribe and Family


Kinship was the basis of social structure, and the clan to which
he belonged, as can be seen in the names of several Rig Vedic
kings, identified a man. People gave their primary loyalty to the
tribe, which was called jana. The term Jana occurs at about
275 places in the Rig Veda, and the term Janapada or territory
is not used even once. The people were attached to the tribe,
since the territory or the kingdom was not yet established. When
the gramas clashed with one another, it caused samgrama or
war. The most numerous varna of vaisya arose out of the vis or
the mass of the tribal people.

The term for family (kula) · is mentioned rarely in the Rig Veda. It
comprised not only mother, father, sons, slaves, etc., but many
more people also It seems that family in early Vedic phase was
indicated by the term griha, which frequently occurs in this text.
In the earliest Indo- European languages the same term rs used
for nephew, grandson, cousin, etc This would mean that
differentiation m family relationships leading to the setting up of
separate households had not proceeded far, and the family was a
very large joint unit. It was obviously a patriarchal family headed
by the father, as was the case in the Roman society. It seems that
several generations of the family lived under the same roof
because it was a patriarchal society - the birth of a son was
desired again and again, and especially people prayed to the gods
for brave sons to fight the wars. In the Rig Veda no desire is
expressed for daughters, though the desire for children and cattle
is a recurrent theme in the hymns.

The eldest male member of the family was known as Kulapa


(protector of the family). The social structure was based on
kinship, which was rather simple. Terms for father, mother,
brother, sister, son and daughter existed distinctly but nephews,
grandsons and cousins were known by a common term naptri.

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Girls were normally married off after puberty (between the age
of 16 and 17). Unmarried girls grew up in the home of their
parents. Some unmarried woman like Visvavara and Apala
offered sacrifices on their own. There are also evidences of widow
remarriage in the Rig-Veda Child marriage was not in vogue.
There are a few references to the freedom of choice in marriage. A
widow could marry the younger brother of her deceased
husband. The wife was husband's partner in all religious and
social ceremonies. Son inherited the father’s property. The
daughter could inherit it only if she was the only child of her
parents. Right to property was known in moveable things like
cattle, horse, gold and ornament and so also in immoveable
property like land and house.

Women could attend assemblies, they could offer sacrifices along


with their husbands. There is even an instance of five women
who composed hymn although the later texts mention 20 such
women. Obviously, the hymns were composed orally, and nothing
written belongs to that period.

The institution of marriage was established, although symbols of


primitive practices survived. We hear of a proposal made by
Yami, the twin-sister of Yama, for establishing love relations, but
the offer is resisted by Yama. There are some indications of
polyandry. For instance, the Maruts are stated to have enjoyed
Rodasi, and the two Asvin brothers are represented as living with
Surya, the daughter of the sun god. But such instances are not
too many. Possibly they indicate matrilineal traces, and we have
a few instances of sons being named after their mother, as in
the case of Mamateya.

The home of the teacher was the school where he taught the
particular sacred texts. The texts were in the first instance learnt
by pupils repeating the words taught by their teacher. A great
importance was attached to enunciation and pronunciation.
Intense training was given to students in oral tradition. It was
this training and learning which saved a huge mass of Vedic
literature. Gayatri mantra mentioned only in Rigveda is a

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prayer to savitri for the stimulation of the intellect. There were
women teachers. Many of them possessed the highest spiritiual
knowledge. Maitreyi and Gargi were gifted scholars.

Gotra or cowpen was a mechanism for widening social ties a


new relationship were established between hitherto unrelated
people. It is possible that animals were herded in common and
such a place was known as gotra and from this it acquired the
character of an exogamous institution. Music, both vocal and
instrumental, was well known. Vedic Aryans seemed to have
played the Vina and flute Vana to the accompaniment of drums
and cymbals. Some authors claim that Dhrupad of Indian
classical music originated in Vedic Era. Dancing was common.
The chariot race was a favourite sport and source of
entertainment. Chariot race was a symbolic source of political
authority of the king. The fascination of gambling and the ruin
caused by its addiction find mention in the Rig-Veda.

The Griha sutra prescribes a code of conduct, which gives a


fairly good idea of the manners and etiquette of the later-Vedic
age. A guest (atithi) was welcomed at all times and special
guests, like the guru, the king, and the father-in-law, etc. were
given special treatment. Respect for the elders self-restraint,
moral purity, abstinence of all kinds and faithfulness were some
of the virtues. Cleanliness was a passion. Daily bath, washing of
the feet and hands every now and then, and purifying the
atmosphere with Vedic mantras were a part of ritual when
ritualism acquired special significance in the later-Vedic age. It
became one of the many sources of the development of hierarchy
and the supremacy for the Brahmanas.

The main cereal produced by the Rig Vedic people was Yava or
barley. Wheat and rice where not known to them. Godhuma or
wheat is mentioned in several later-Vedic texts only. Yava was
also a generic term for various kinds of cereals. In later-Vedic
times there is evidence of rice (Vrihi), bean-pulse (masa),
sesamum (tila), millet (syamaka), kidney bean (mudga) mustard
(sarshapa), etc. Milk, Milk products and cattle meat was popular.

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Alcoholic drinks were known and common. Soma and Sura are
two intoxicating liquors. Sura may be a kind of beer and Soma
was acceptable to Gods. There is also mention grain cooked with
milk (kshira-pakamodanam). Not only were fish, birds, wild
animals like boar, antelopes, and buffalo (gaur), etc. eaten but on
ceremonial occasions the meat of animals which were sacrificed,
such as sheep, goat and buffalo etc. was also eaten. The cow was
already deemed aghanya "not to be killed". The Vedas pre scribe a
penalty of death or expulsion from the kingdom to those who kill
or injure cows.

Two pieces of cloth were normally worn- the upper garment was
called uttariya and the lower one was known as antariya. The
dress for the male and the female did not differ much. Everyone
aspired for and everyone was blessed to live for a hundred years.
Epilepsy was common and it affected the children as well.
Superstitions and magical charms were employed to cure the
diseases. Miraculous cures are ascribed to the twin-gods, the
Ashvins, who are the great healers of diseases and experts in
the surgical art. They were divine physicians who restored
eyesight and cured the blind, sick and maimed.

Vedic Economy
Rig Vedic economy was primarily pastoral . They domesticated
Pashu (which included cattle, horse and even human beings), as
opposed to Mriga, i.e. wild animals. Cattle was synonymous
with wealth and a wealthy person was called Gomat. Cattle was
so important that the terms of battle were derived from Gau
itself, such as Gavisti, Gosu, Gavyat, Gavyu. Godhuli was a
measure of time. Gopa and Gopati were epithets given to the
king. Duhitri was the term used for daughter because she used
to milk the cow. One of the four categories of gods was known as
Gojata, i.e. cowborn. Buffalo was called Gauri and Gavala or
cow-haired.

The cattle obtained in raids were divided among the families.


Cattle formed an important item of donation and it may also have
formed a part of bali, the tribute given to the raja by the clan or

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vis members. The cattle in general and cow in particular was the
main medium of exchange during the Rig Vedic period.

The economy was based upon agriculture. The people were well
acquainted with the sowing, harvesting, threshing and various
agro seasons. The people were pastoral, Cow was revered but
the cows, and bulls were sacrificed too. The gifts to the priests
were in terms of number of Cows and women slaves but not in
measurements of lands. Oxen were used for ploughing and
drawing carts and horses for drawing the chariots. The plough
was drawn by the oxen at times in teams of six, eight or even
twelve. The grains were harvested with sickles. The manure was
also used. From various references in the Rigveda it appears that
irrigation was also practised; excess of rains and drought is
mentioned as damaging the crops. The grains are collectively
called Yava and dhanya. The later Vedic texts mention ten
cultivated kinds of grains.

Among the other occupations, pottery-making, weaving,


carpentry, metal working, leather-working etc. are most
noteworthy. During the Rigvedic period only copper was used for
which the general term - 'ayas' has been used. In a later period
when iron came into use, copper and iron came to be known as
lohit ayas and syam ayas respectively.

The trade and traders (vanik) were known in the Rigvedic era.
Barter was in vogue. It has been found that ten cows were
quoted as the price for an image of Indra. The conception of
money can be traced in the mention of a gift of 100 nishkas.
Money-lending was also known. There is a mention of an eighth
or a sixteenth part of one being paid either as an interest or part
of the principle. The sea is mentioned in the context of trade and
ocean wealth, like pearls and shells.

Religion
The Vedic gods can be classified into three categories namely;

1. terrestrial (prithivisthana)
2. aerial or intermediate (antarikshasthana)

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3. celestial (dyusthana).
Prithivi, Agni, Soma, Brihaspati and rivers belong to the first
category; Indra, Apam-napat, Rudra, Vayu-Vata, Prujanya,
andApah (water) to the second and Dyaus, Varuna, Mitra, Surya,
Savitri, Pushan, Vishnu, the Adityas, Ushas and the Asvins to
the third. Indra and Varuna (the supreme cosmic and moral
ruler) stand out, in that order, pre-eminent above the rest. Agni
and Soma were also popular deities. Agni was revered as the
messenger between the earth and the heaven. Further, Agni is
the only God who is regarded as present among all the categories
of Gods.

The Aryans were solely theists. They contemplation about life


and the world was from the spiritual standpoint. The Vedic
Aryans believed in the concept of one in many. They worshipped
the forces of nature, but at the same time believed in the basic
unity of nature. The Vedic people worshipped many gods not
because of the fear of natural phenomena but for gaining their
favours. All the natural phenomena such as the sky, thunder,
rain, air were believed to be guided by their presiding deities,
while natural devastations were taken to be an expression of
their wrath. The hymns of the Rig-Veda were mainly sung for the
glorification of the gods in order to appease them. God was
regarded as the ruler, ordainer of the period of life, protector of
men and giver of happiness. This implies that the religion of the
Vedic Aryans was a form of nature worship. There were no places
of worship like temples. There are no indications in the Rig-Veda
of any "temples reared by mortal hands” and consecrated as
places of worship. On the contrary, every householder, every
patriarch of his family, lighted the sacrificial fire in his own
home and poured libations of the Soma and prayed to the gods
for happiness to his family, for abundant crops and wealth and
cattle, for immunity from sickness, and for victory over the black
aborigines. There was no separate priestly caste, and men did
not retire into forests and subject themselves to penances in
order to meditate on religion and chant these hymns.

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The Gods are described as born, yet they are immortal. In
appearance they are humans, though sometimes they are
conceived as animals, e.g. Dyaus as bull and Sun as a swift
horse. The food of men such as milk, grain, flesh, etc. becomes
the food of Gods when offered in the sacrifice. On the whole, the
gods are benevolent, some of them also had malevolent traits,
like Rudra and Maruta. Splendour, strength, knowledge,
possession and tnlth are common attributes of the deities.

Prayers and offering to these Gods were made for material gains,
also for enlightenment and knowledge. For example, the most
popular and famous Gayatri Mantra is recited daily by the pious
Hindus even today.

Besides the ritualistic aspect of religion, there is profound


philosophy. The multiplicity of gods is openly questioned and the
ultimate unity of universe is asserted as the creation of one God
to whom different designations applied. The creation is deemed
as the outcome of the sacrifice made by the Viratpurusha or of
evolution from nonbeing manifested in the form of water. It is
said that Hiranyagarbha arose from the great waters, pervading
the universe, and thus created the waves out of eternally pre-
existing matter. This hymn devoted to Visvakarman tells us that
the waters contained the primordial germ -- the floating world egg
from which arises Visvakarman , the first born in the universe -
the creator and maker of the world. It is now confirmed by
science that life first developed in water. One of the RigVedic
hymns pointedly says, "There is one reality (ekamsat) whom the
sages speak of in many ways, calling it Agni, Yama or
Matarisvan". Varuna, apart from being the god of the sky, is also
the god of law of nature called Rita. Varuna is also lord of the
Patal Loka (Under world). He is one of the most prominent
Devas in the Rig-Veda, and lord of the heavens and the earth.

Indra was conceived as a warlike deity, battling with the clouds,


called Vritra, to obtain copious torrents of rain for man, and
fighting with the demons of darkness, called Panis, to restore to
the world the light of the morning. The Maruts or storm-gods

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were supposed to help Indra in his contest with the reluctant
clouds, for in India the first showers of the rainy season are often
attended with storms and thunder.

Savitri is another name of the same deity Sun, and the sacred
hymn, the Gayathri Mantra, which is still repeated every morning
by pious Hindus all over world; is a verse dedicated to Savithri.
Vishnu, which in later Hindu mythology has become a name of
the Supreme Preserver of all beings, was a name of the sun in the
Vedic age. The rising sun, the sun at Zenith, and the setting sun
were considered the three steps of Vishnu striding across
limitless space. Vayu or the wind is sometimes invoked in the Rig
Veda.

The Rigveda broadly dealt with ritualistic (Karmakanda) and


philosophical aspects. The ritualistic aspect was elaborated in the
Brahmanas and the philosophic aspect is elaborated in the
Upanishads. Upanishads did not believe in the sacrificial
acquiring ceremonies but in knowledge by which deliverance is
obtained from mundane existence through the absorption of the
individual soul (Atman) in the world-soul. (Brahma). The two
oldest and most important of the Upanishads are the
Chhandogya and Brihadaranyaka. Other important Upanishads
include Kathak, isa, Mundaka, Prasna, etc.

The collections of the Vedic hymns or mantras were known as the


Samhitas. The Rig Veda Samhita is the oldest Vedic text, on the
basis of which we have described the early Vedic age. For
purposes of singing, the prayers of the Rig Veda were set to tune,
and this modified collection was known as the Sama Veda
Samhita. In addition to the Sama Veda, in post-Rig Vedic times
two other collections were composed These were the Yajur Veda
Samhita and the Atharva Veda Samhita. The Yajur Veda
contains not only hymns but also rituals which have to
accompany their recitation. The rituals reflected the social and
political milieu in which they arose. The Atharva Veda contains
charms and spells to ward off evils and diseases. Its contents
throw light on the beliefs and practices of the non-Aryans . The

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Vedic Samhitas were followed by the Brahmanas. These are
full of ritualistic formulae and' explain the social and' religious
aspects of rituals. The period of compilation of these texts is
commonly termed as the Later Vedic Period.

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Later Vedic Era
Later Vedic period generally seen between 1000BC to 600BC
introduced certain changes in the Socio-economic and political
setup of the Vedic Civilisation. During the period represented by
the later Samhitas and Brahmanas discussed earlier the
settlements covered virtually the whole of northern India. The
centre of civilization now shifted from Saraswati to Ganga
which now occupies the proud place of the most revered and
sacred river of India. This progress was accompanied by another
remarkable development and that is gradual expansion and
consolidation of vis. The earlier known jana like Bharatas,
Purus, Tritsus, and Turvasas of the Rigvedic period slowly were
merging with other janas and disappearing from the scene. In a
way gradual consolidation and expansion of some of the states
started taking place. Relatively minor janas of Rigvedic times like
Purus became more powerful and began to play more dominant
role. We no longer hear of the Anus, Druhyus, Turvasas, the
Krivis, etc. Besides these, in the eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
areas also such states as Kasi, Kosala, Videha, Magadha and
Anga developed. However, the areas of south India are not clearly
mentioned. The political life became more vivid and the struggle
for supremacy among different states was of frequent occurrence.
The ideal of universal empire loomed large.

The expansion of people towards the east is indicated in a legend


of Satapatha Brahmana - how Videhi Madhav migrated from
Saraswati region, the land of Vedic Culture, crossed Sadanira
(modern Gandak river), the eastern boundary of Kosala and came
to the land of Videha (modern Tirhut). The texts testify the growth
of three kingdoms, namely, Kosala, Kasi and Videha.

Later Vedic Polity and Administration


Side by side with the growth of larger states, we find that detailed
political and administrative structure was also emerging.
Kingship was consolidating itself as the normal form of
government with the states growing both in number and size. The
kingship was being given the status of divine origin. There was
also emerging the concept of a king of kings. Expressions like
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adhiraj, rajadhiraja, samrat and ekrat are used in most of the
texts. The Atharvaveda defines ekrat to be the paramount
sovereign. There also developed special ceremonies for the
anointment of kings, such as the Vajpeya, Rajsuya and
Ashvamedha.

Though the monarchy established itself on firm foundations, it


was not absolute but limited in several ways. Within the
framework of kingship, there were operating certain democratic
elements. These were:

(i) The people's right in choosing their king


(ii) The conditions imposed on king's rights and duties
(iii) The kings dependence on the council of his ministers
(iv) The assemblies of people, sabha and samiti, as check
upon king's absolutism.
Under no circumstances was the king considered the sole
owner of the kingdom with absolute power over the objects and
subjects. The king was supposed to be only a trustee and the
kingdom as a trust. The condition of his holding it was, "the
promotion of the people's well being and progress". Besides, the
ministers and officials, sabha and samiti played important role in
the administration. The sabha functioned as a parliament for
disposal of public business by debate and discussion. The Chief
of the sabha was called sabhapati, the keepers as sabhapala
and the members as sabheya, sabhasad or sabhasina.

There were rules which governed the debate in sabha and


Vajsaneyi Samhita mentions that erring members were
'rebuked'. Sabha also seems to have functioned as a court of
justice. It is said that, "one who attends the sabha sits as a law
court to dispense dharma Justice)".

The samiti was different than sabha in the function and


composition. The sabha was a smaller select body and also
functioned as the lower court, while the samiti was the larger
General Assembly of the people. Accordingly, the latter is referred
to as expressing the voice of vis (people), which is explained by

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the fact that in one instance it is the samiti which chooses the
king and in another it withdraws that choice for the king's
misdeeds and tyranny.

However, the increase in complexity in the society and political


structure is duly reflected in the enlarged entourage of the state.
We hear of new officials such as suta (charioteer), sangrahitri
(treasurer), bhagadugha (collector of taxes) , gramini (head of
village), sthapati (chief judge), takshan (carpenter), kshatri
(chamberlain) and several others whose exact function cannot be
ascertained. Everything indicates that the administrative
machinery was highly organised and became an efficient
instrument for ruling over a large kingdom.

Legal institutions were also coming into sharper focus. The king
administered justice and wielded the rod of punishment. Among
the crimes enumerated are theft, robbery, adultery, incest,
abduction, killing of man. Killing of cow, slaying of brahmana,
drinking intoxicating liquor, treachery, etc. were punishable by
death. Petty offences were left to "village judges". For
evidence, the eye-witness was more important than informer. The
punishments for crime were rather severe. The law was also very
clear on the question of inheritance of property, ownership of
land, etc. The father's property was to be inherited by sons alone.
The daughters could inherit it only if she was the only child or
there were no male issues.

The term Rastra which indicated a territorial country got


prominent in the later Vedic Age. Ashvamedha Yagya was
considered to authorize the unquestioned authority over an area
where the Royal Horse could run. The levy of taxes started and
became prominent and the officer responsible for this function
was sangrihitri. The standing army was not possessed by the
king even in Later Vedic period and gramas mustered in times of
war.

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Later Vedic Economy
The growth of economic prosperity is indicated in many prayers
contained in the Atharvaveda for the success of farmers,
shepherds, merchants and so on. There are prayers for
ploughing, sowing, rains, increase in cattle, wealth and exorcism
against beasts, wild animals and robbers and the likes. The
plough was known as sira and the furrow sita. Cow dung was
used as manure. There is mention of six, eight and even twenty-
four oxen yoked to a plough. Many kinds of grains were grown
such as rice, barley, beans and sesame. Their seasons are also
mentioned: barley sown in winter, ripened in summer; rice sown
in the rains, reaped in autumn. The Satapatha Brahmana
enumerates various operations of agriculture such as ploughing,
sowing, reaping and threshing.

Agriculture suffered from the usual pests - the moles that


destroyed the seed and other creatures that harmed the tender
shoots. The Atharvaveda mentions that drought and excess
rains threatened agriculture. Cattle wealth was considered to
be of great significance and a fairly long hymn in the Atharvaveda
shows reverence to cow and the death penalty prescribed for cow
-killing.

Rich merchants have been often referred to. Moneylending was


in vogue. Specific weight and measure-units were also known.
Niska and satamana were the units of currency. There is no
evidence of the use of coins with specific weight, size and device
during the time under discussion. Haggling in the market was
known from RigVedic times itself. Sea-borne trade was well
known and Aitareya Brahmana speaks of the "inexhaustible sea"
and "the sea as encircling the earth".

Towards the end of the Vedic period knowledge of iron spread in


eastern Uttar Pradesh and Videha, Iron implements have been
discovered in this area from the seventh century B C., and the
metal itself is called syama or krishna ayas in the later Vedic
texts. Bali, which was earlier only a voluntary gift to chief, had

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now become a regular tax and was collected to maintain the
political and administrative structure.

There has been a striking development in industry and


occupations. Some of the prominent occupations were fishermen,
fire and rangers, washer men, barbers, butchers, elephant-
keepers, footmen, messengers, makers of jewels, baskets, ropes,
dyes, chariots, bows, smelters, smiths, potters etc. Guilds of
craftsmen also came into existence. The word sreshthi, head of
guild, finds mention in several texts.

Weaving was confined to women but was practised on a wide


scale. Leather work, pottery, and carpenter's work made great
progress. The later Vedic people were acquainted with four types
of pottery: black-and-red ware, black-slipped ware, painted grey
ware and red ware. The last type of pottery was most popular
with them, and has been found almost all over. western Uttar-
Pradesh. The most distinctive pottery of the period is known as
Painted Grey Ware. It consisted of bowls and dishes, which were
used either for rituals or for eating or for both but by the upper
orders. Glass hoards and bangles found in the PGW layers may
have been used, as prestige objects by a few persons. On the
whole both Vedic texts and excavations indicate the cultivation of
specialized crafts. Jewel-workers are also mentioned in later
Vedic texts, and they possibly catered to the needs of the, richer
sections of society.

Painted Grey Ware sites are found not only in western Uttar
Pradesh and Delhi, which was the Kuru-Panchala area, but also
in the adjoining parts of Panjab and Haryana, which was the
Madra area and in those of Rajasthan, which was the Matsya
area Altogether we ran count nearly 500 sites, mostly belonging
to the upper Gangetic basin Only a few sites such as Hastinapur,
Atranjikhera and Noh have been excavated.

People lived in mudbrick, houses or in wattle-and-daub houses


erected on wooden poles. Although the, structures , are poor,
ovens and cereals (rice) , recovered from the sites show that the

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Painted Grey Ware people, who seem to be the same as the later,
Vedic people, were agricultural and led a settled life. But since
they cultivated with the wooden ploughshare, the peasants could
not produce enough for feeding those who were engaged in other
occupations. Hence peasants could, not contribute much to the
rise of towns.

Although the term Nagara used in later Vedic texts we can trace o
only the faint beginings of towns towards 'the' end of the 'later
'Vedic' period. Hastinapur and Kausambi (near Allahabad) can be
regarded 'as primitive' towns belonging to the end of the Vedic
period. They may be called proto-urban sites. On the whole the
later Vedic phase registered a great advance in the material life of
the people. The pastoral and semi-nomadic forms of living
were relegated to the background. Agriculture became the
primary source of livelihood, and life became settled and
sedentary. Supplemented by diverse arts and crafts the Vedic
people settled down permanently m the upper Gangetic plains.
The peasants living in the plains produced enough to maintain
themselves, and they could also spare a marginal, part of their
produce for the support of princes and priests.

Later Vedic Society


The later Vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called
the brahmanas, rajanyas or kshatriyas, vaisyas and sudras. The
growing cult of sacrifices enormously added to the power of the
brahmanas.

In the beginning the brahmanas were only one of the sixteen


classes of priests, but they gradually overshadowed the other
priestly groups and emerged as the most important class. They
conducted rituals and sacrifices for their clients and for
themselves, and also officiated at the festivals associated with
agricultural operations. They prayed for the success of their
patron in war, and in return the king pledged not to do any harm
to them. Sometimes the brahmanas came into conflict with the
rajanyas, who represented the order of the warrior-nobles, for
positions of supremacy. But when the two upper orders had to

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deal with the lower orders they made up their differences. From
the end of the later Vedic period it began to be emphasized that
the two should cooperate to rule over the rest of society. The
vaisyas constituted the common people, and they were
assigned the producing functions such as agriculture, cattle-
breeding, etc some of them also worked as artisans. Towards the
end of the Vedic period they began to engage in trade. The
vaisyas appear to be the only tribute payers in later Vedic
times, and the Kshatriyas are represented as living on the
tributes collected from the vaisyas. The process of subjugating
the mass of the tribesmen to the position of tribute-payers was
long and protracted. Rituals were prescribed for making the
refractory people (vis or vaisya) submissive to the prince
(rajanya). All the three higher varnas shared one common
feature; they were entitled to upanayana or investiture with
the sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras. The fourth
varna was deprived of the sacred thread ceremony, and with
this began the imposition of disabilities on the sudras.

The prince, who represented the rajanya order, tried to assert his
power over all the three other varnas. According to the Aitareya
Brahmana, in relation to the prince the Brahmana is described
as a seeker of livelihood and an acceptor of gifts but removable at
will. A vaisya is called tribute-paying, meant for being beaten,
and to be oppressed at will. The worst position is reserved for the
sudra. He is called the servant of another, to be made to work at
will by another, and to be beaten at will.

In later Vedic period, varnas came to be birth-based rather than


profession-based. The proliference of professions gave rise to
jatis. But the jati system was not yet as rigid as it became
during the period of the sutras. It was somewhere in the middle
of flexible Rigvedic society and rigid society of the Sutra period

In the family the increasing power of the father, who could even
disinherit his son is observed. In princely families the right of
primogeniture was getting stronger. Male ancestors came to be
worshipped. Women were generally given a lower position

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Although some women theologians took part m philosophic
discussions and some queens participated in coronation rituals,
ordinarily women were thought to be inferior and subordinate to
men. The marriage of a man of higher Varna with a girl from
lower Varna was called “Anuloma Vivah”. It was allowed by the
sacred texts. The marriage of a girl of higher Varna with a man of
a lower Varna was called “Pratiloma Vivah” and it was NOT
allowed in the texts. Eight forms of Marriage were established
with the first four being accepted by the society and the later four
being unacceptable. Acceptability in case of a marriage was
primarily focused on the varna status of the children born of the
marriage.

No marriage could take place between persons belonging to the


same gotra or having the same ancestor.

Four stages of the lifespan of 100 years were not established in


the early Vedic era. They were well established in the later Vedic
era and 4 Ashrams were:

 Brahamcharya Ashram: The first 25 years were set for


student life
 Grihastha Ashram: The age from 25 to 50 years was kept for
having a family and discharging the worldly duties such as
giving birth to children and raising them
 Vanaprastha Ashram: Age from 50-75 years was fixed for
partial retirement and living life in forests
 Sanyas Ashram: The last age of 75-100 years was fixed for
complete retirement from the world

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The 4th ashram has not been mentioned in early Vedic texts. The
Sanyas ashram is mentioned in Jabala Upanishad

Purushartha refers to a goal, end or aim of human existence. The


Four Purushartha of Hinduism are as follows:

 Dharma: Dharma is given the foremost rank in the


scriptures. Today, it corresponds to religious, social and/or
moral righteousness
 Artha: material and/or financial means of living
 Kama : pleasure including sensual pleasures
 Moksha: Liberation; or renunciation as well as detachment
The whole of the Vedic literature seems to have been compiled in
this area in the land of the Kuru-Panchalas. The cult of
sacrifice was the corner-stone of this culture and was
accompanied by numerous rituals and formulae.

The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost their
former importance. On the other hand Prajapati, the creator,
came to occupy the supreme position in the later Vedic pantheon.
Some of the other minor gods of the Rig Vedic period also came to
the forefront. Rudra, the god of animals, became important in
later Vedic times and Vishnu came to be conceived as the
preserver and protector of the people who now led a settled life
instead of a semi-nomadic life as they did m Rig Vedic times. In
addition, some symbolic objects began to be worshipped, and
signs of idolatry are visible in later Vedic times. As society
became divided into social classes such as brahmanas, rajaayas,
vaisyas and sudras, some of the social orders came to have their
own deities. Pushan, who was supposed to look after cattle,
came to be regarded as the god of the sudras, although in the age
of the Rig Veda cattle rearing was the primary occupation of the
Aryans.

People worshipped gods for the same material reasons in this


period as they did in earlier times. However, the mode of
worship changed considerably Prayers continued to be recited,
but they ceased to be the dominant mode of placating the gods.

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Sacrifices became far more important, and they assumed both
public and domestic character. Public sacrifices involved the
king and the whole of the community, which was still in many
cases identical with the tribe. Private sacrifices were performed
by individuals in their houses because in this period the Vedic
people led a settled life and maintained well-established
households. Individuals offered oblations to Agni, and each
one of these took the form of a ritual or sacrifice.

Sacrifices' involved the killing of animals on a large scale and


especially the destruction of cattle wealth. The guest was known
as goghna or one who was fed on cattle. The priests who
officiated at sacrifices were rewarded generously and given
dakshinas or gifts. The sacrificer was known as the yajamana,
the performer of yajna, and much of his success depended on the
magical power of words uttered in the sacrifices. Some rituals
performed by the Vedic Aryans are common to the Indo-
European people, but many rituals seem to have, developed on
the Indian soil. Some of the common Rituals were

 Rajsuya: This sacrifice conferred supreme power to King.


 Asvamedha: Unquestioned control over an area
 Vajapeya: It was a chariot race in which the Royal Chariot
was to win race against the kinsmen. This elevated the Raja
to a Samrat.
 Garbhdharana: The conception ceremony.
 Pumsayam: Ritual to procure a male child.
 Sementonayam: Ritual to ensure safety of the child in
womb.
 Jatakarma: Birth ceremony performed prior to cutting the
umbilical chord of the newborn infant
 Culakarma: performed in 3rd year of the baby’s life
 Upnayana: performed in the eighth year to confer dvija
status.
Towards the end of the Vedic period there came a strong
reaction against priestly domination, against cults and rituals,
especially in the land of the Panchalas and Videha where, around
600 B.C., the Upanishads were compiled. These philosophical
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texts criticized the rituals and laid stress on the value of right
belief and knowledge. They emphasized that the knowledge of the
self or atma should be acquired and the relation of atma with
Brahma should be properly understood. Brahma emerged as the
supreme god, comparable to the powerful kings of the period,
Some of the kshatriya princes in Panchala and Videha also
cultivated this type of thinking and created the atmosphere for
the reform of the priest dominated religion. Their teachings also
promoted the cause of stability and integration. Emphasis on
the changelessness, indestructibility and immortality of atma or
soul served the cause of stability which was needed for the rising
state power. Stress on the relation of atma with Brahma served
the cause of loyalty to superior authority.

The later Vedic period saw certain important changes mainly the
beginning of territorial kingdom. Wars were fought not only for
the possession of cattle but also for that of territory. The
famous Mahabharata battle, fought between the Kauravas and
the Pandavas, is attributed to this period. The predominantly
pastoral society of early Vedic times became agricultural. The
tribal pastoralists came to be transformed into peasants who
could· maintain their chief with frequent tributes. Chiefs grew at
the expense of the tribal peasantry, and handsomely rewarded
the priests who supported their patrons against the common
people called the vaisyas. The sudras were still a small serving
order.

The tribal society broke up into a varna-divided society. But


varna distinctions could not be carried too far. In spite of the
support of the brahmanas the rajauyas or the kshatnyas could
not establish a state system. A state cannot be set up without a
regular system of taxes and a professional army, which again
depends on taxes. But the existing mode of agriculture did not
leave scope for taxes and tributes in sufficient measure.

Later Vedic Science and Technology


Vedas, Brahmanas and Upanishads give enough idea about
sciences during this period. Mathematics has been called by the

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general name ganita which includes Arithmetic (anka ganita),
Geometry (rekha ganita), Algebra (bija ganita) , Astronomy
and Astrology Uyotisa).

Vedic people knew the methods of making squares equal in area


to triangles, circles and calculate the sums and differences of
squares. The Zero was known in Rigvedic times itself and due
to this, large numbers could also be recorded. Also the positional
value of each number with its absolute value was known. Cubes,
cuberoots, squareroots and underroots were also known and
used.

In the Vedic period, astronomy was well developed. People


knew the movement of heavenly bodies and calculated about
their positions at different times. It helped in preparing accurate
calendars and predicting the time of solar and lunar eclipses.
Astronomers also knew that the earth moved on its own axis and
around the sun. The Moon moved around the earth. They also
tried to calculate the time period taken for revolution and
distances among heavenly bodies from the sun. The results of
these calculations are almost the same as the ones done by
modern methods.

Harappan and Vedic


 The sources of information of the Harappan civilization are
mainly archaeological, while the Vedic culture is mostly
known from the literary sources.
 Harappans are said to have been the original inhabitants of
India while the Aryans are believed to have come to India
from central Asia.
 The Harappan civilization was urban in nature, Vedic
culture was rural and pastoral. At best the Rig Vedic Aryans
lived in fortified places protected by mud walls; and these
cannot be regarded as towns in the Harappan sense.
 In the Indus civilization trade, internal and external, crafts
as well as industries were the main sources of economy,
Vedic Economy was initially pastoral and later became
based upon agriculture and cattle rearing.

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 The agricultural operations, including the ploughing of
fields, were better known to the later-Vedic people.
 Indus people did not know the use of iron. It was purely a
copper-bronze culture, while the Vedic culture in its later
phase is replete with references to iron.
 The horse, which played a decisive role in the Aryan system
of warfare, was not known to the Indus people. A few bones
of horse and terracotta figure of a horse-like animal have
been unearthed from surkotada.
 Indus people were basically peace loving. Their arms
(swords, daggers, arrow-heads, spears) were primitive in
nature. Aryans were warlike people and were conversant
with all kinds of traditional arms and armour and had
devised a full-fledged science of war.
 Aryans worshiped Varuna, Indra, aditi and a large number
of other deities which stood for the principal phenomena of
nature. They performed sacrifices and offered milk, ghee,
etc. to their gods. The Harappans worshipped Pashupati,
mother goddess, animals , snake and nature. The fire-altars
were discovered from only one Harappan site at Kalibangan.
 The Harappans practiced earth burials whereas the Aryans
practiced cremation.
 Harappan pottery called black or red pottery was wheel
made and very distinctive in nature. The distinctive Aryan
pottery is known as PGW (painted grey ware).
 The Harappans were short statured, black in complexion,
Aryans were tall, well-built and handsome.
 The Harappans ate all birds and animals including cow and
calf. They ate wheat, barley and bread. The Aryans preferred
Barley, milk and its products, specially ghee or butter and
enjoyed Soma drink.
 Cotton was the basic fabric of the Harappans while the
Aryans put on woollen garments too.
 Vedic Sanskrit is the mother of all non-Dravidian languages
, Indus script still remains un-deciphered.
 It was quite clear that Indus people were literate whereas
the Vedic people were illiterate (In terms of writing) because
there is not a single word for writing in any of the Vedic
texts

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Jainism and Buddhism

Emergence of heterodox sects:


The changing features of social and economic life, such as the
growth of towns, expansion of the artisan class, and the rapid
development of trade and commerce were closely linked with
changes in another sphere; that of religion and philosophical
speculation.

The intellectual and philosophical response to these social


changes was rich and varied marking a high point in
philosophical achievements which remained unsurpassed in later
centuries. All the major ideas of Indian philosophy can be seen,
at least in rudimentary form in the 6th century B.C.

The period was characterised by the parivrajakas or sramanas


who renounced their household status. They wandered about
from place to place with the object of meeting and having
discussions with others like them. It is through this ceaseless
movement that they propagated their ideas and built up their
following.

What united all the sramanas together was their opposition to


the established tradition of the Brahmins based on the cult of
sacrifice, central to the ideology of the latter. They were also
opposed to the claims of the brahmana’s pre-eminence in society
and for these reasons they have been described as nonconformist
sects or heterodox sects. The ideas themselves spanned an entire
range from annihilationism (Ucchedavada) to eternalism
(Sashvat-vada) and from the fatalism of the Ajivikas to
materialism of the Charavakas. There is reference of as many
as 62 religious sects which arose in the middle Gangetic plains in
the sixth century B.C. Of these sects, Jainism and Buddhism

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were the most important, and they emerged as the most potent
religious reform movements.

Causes for the rise and growth of heterodox sects:


The varna-divided society seems to have generated tensions
during the sixth century B.C. The Kshatriyas who functioned as
rulers, reacted strongly against the ritualistic domination of the
brahmanas and seem to have led a kind of protest movement
against the importance attached to the birth in the varna system.
The kshatriya reaction against the domination of the priestly
class called brahmanas, who claimed various privileges, was one
of the causes of the origin of new religions.

Buddha and Mahavira, both came from Kshatriya origin. The


agricultural economy based on the iron ploughshare required the
use of bullocks, and it could not flourish without animal
husbandry. But the Vedic practice of killing cattle
indiscriminately in sacrifices stood in the way of the progress of
new agriculture. The newly emerging peasant communities
who appear to have become dominant did not approve the
killing of cattle in the sacrifice, as cattle wealth was very
essential to supplement agricultural operations. The non-killing
or Ahimsa preached by the heterodox sects appears to have made
these social groups opt for the heterodox sects.

The increase in trade and commerce added to the importance of


the vaishyas. The vaishyas being ranked third in the brahmanical
society, looked for some religion which could improve their
position. The patronage extended to trade and commerce in
particular by Buddhism and Jainism made the merchants, rich
and poor agriculturists and artisans to favour Buddhism and
Jainism. The new forms of property created social
inequalities, and caused misery and suffering to the masses of
the people.

So the common people yearned to return to primitive life. They


wanted to get back to the ascetic ideal which dispensed with the
new forms of property and the new style of life. The complex

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rituals and sacrifices advocated in the Later Vedic period were
not acceptable to the common people. The sacrificial ceremonies
were also found to be too expensive. The superstitious beliefs and
mantras confused the people. The teachings of Upanishads, an
alternative to the system of sacrifices, were highly philosophical
in nature and therefore not easily understood by all. Therefore,
what was needed in the larger interests of the people was a
simple, short and intelligible way to salvation for all people. Such
religious teaching should also be in a language known to them.
This need was fulfilled by the teachings of Buddha and Mahavira.
The code of conduct prescribed for lay people by these new
religions appeared to be more practical than performing
protracted rites through the Brahmin priest.

Jainism
Jainism is one of the oldest religions in the world. Jains
traditionally trace their history through a succession of twenty-
four propagators of their faith known as tirthankaras with
Rishabh as the first and Mahavira as the last.

The names of two Jain tirthankaras Rishabha and Arishtanemi,


are found in the Rig Veda. The Vishnu Purana and the
Bhagavat Purana describe Rishabha as an incarnation of
Narayana. The mythology of the tirthankaras most of whom were
born in the middle Ganga basin and attained nirvana in Bihar,
seems to have been created to give antiquity to Jainism. Not
much is known about the first twenty-two tirthankaras except
Parsvanatha (twenty-third and the immediate predecessor of
Mahavira), who seems to have been a historical figure. He was
the son of king Asvasena of Banaras, and enjoined on his
disciples the four great vows of non-injury (ahimsa),
truthfullness (satya), non-stealing (asateya), and non-possession
(aparigraha).

To these, Mahavira added the vow of brahmacharya or


continence. The tirthankaras are known by their names and
symbols such as 1st Rishabha – bull

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22nd – Arishtanemi – Conchshell

23rd – Parsvanatha – hooded snake

24th – Mahavira – lion.

Vardhamana Mahavir
Vardhamana Mahavira was born in 540 B.C(some says in 599
BCE) in a village Kundagrama near Vaishali which is identical
with Basarh in the district of Vaishali, in north Bihar on the
thirteenth day of the rising moon of Chaitra.

His father Siddartha was the head of the Jnatrika clan and his
mother Trishala was the sister of the Lichchhavi chief Chetaka,
whose daughter Chellana was wedded to Bimbisara. Thus
Mahavira’s family was connected with the royal family of
Magadha. Mahavira was married to Yashoda, by whom he had a
daughter, Annoja. In the beginning, Mahavira led the life of a
householder, but in the search for truth he abandoned his family
at the age of 30 years and became an ascetic. For twelve long
years, he wandered from place to place doing penance. In the
13th year, at the age of 42 he attained omniscience (Kaivalya)
under a Sal tree near village Jrimbhikagrama, on the northern
bank of the river Rijupalika.

He was now a Kevalin (Omniscient), a Jina (conqueror) and


Mahavira (the great hero). Mahavira has many other titles and
epithets, including Vira, Sanmati and Nataputta. The ancient
texts refer to Mahavira as Nataputta (son of Natas). This referred
to his clan of origin, the Natta. He became the head of a sect
called Nigranthas (free from fetters), known in later times as
Jainas or followers of the Jina (conqueror). For thirty years he
wandered about as a religious teacher and died by self
starvation (Sallekana) at Pava in South Bihar at the age of
seventy-two.

Teachings of Mahavira:
Mahavira rejected the authority of the Vedas, the Vedic rituals
and the Brahmin supremacy. He advocated an austere and

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simple life with the ultimate aim to attain Kaivalya (nirvana or
moksha).

Mahavira recognised the


existence of the God but
placed them lower than the
jina. Mahavira did not
condemn the Varna system and
according to him, a person is
born in a high or in a low
Varna in consequence of the
sins or the virtues acquired by
him in the previous birth.
Though Parsvanatha, the predecessor of Mahavira asked his
followers to cover their body, Mahavira asked them to
discard clothes altogether. This implies that he asked his
followers to lead a more austere life.

“Mahavira regarded all objects, animate or inanimate, as endowed


with various degrees of consciousness.”

They possess life and feel pain on the infliction of injuries. He


believed in Karma and transmigration of soul (atma). The
attainment of freedom from worldly bonds can be obtained
through right knowledge, right faith and right action. These three
are considered to be the three jewels or triratna of Jainism.

Three jewels or triratna


The aim of Jain life is to achieve liberation of the soul.This is
done by following the Jain ethical code, or to put it simply, living
rightly by following the three jewels of Jain ethics. Three jewels or
triratna are a metaphor for describing conduct and knowledge:

(1) Right faith / perception (Samyak darshana)


This doesn’t mean believing what you’re told, but means seeing
(hearing, feeling, etc.) things properly, and avoiding
preconceptions and superstitions that get in the way of seeing
clearly.

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Belief in True Prophets (like Jain Tirthankars) True Scriptures
(like Jain Shastras) and True Preceptors (like Jain saints).

(2) Right knowledge (Samyak jnana):


This means having an accurate and sufficient knowledge of the
real universe – this requires a true knowledge of the five
substances and nine truths of the universe. If our character is
flawed and our conscience is not clear, knowledge alone will not
help us achieve composure and happiness. A person who has
right knowledge will naturally free themselves from attachment
and desire, and so achieve peace of mind.

Right Knowledge is broadly divided into five categories:

1. Sensory knowledge (Mati Gyan): knowledge derived through


the sense organs like eyes, ears etc. and the mind. It can be false
or right depending on the truth and rightness of the perception

2. Study Knowledge (Srut Gyan): verbal or scriptural knowledge

3. Remote Knowledge (Avadhi Gyan or Clairvoyance):


determinate knowledge of remote physical objects derived directly
without instrumentality of senses or mind.

4. Mind Reading knowledge (Telepathy or Man Prayaya Gyan):


All living beings with mind when engaged in thinking give
different shapes to the mind according to objects thought of. The
knowledge which can apprehend these shapes of other minds or
thoughts of others is telepathy.

5. Omniscience (Kewalya Gyan):This is unlimited knowledge of


the whole of reality which the individual soul acquires directly.
Once omniscience appears, the soul is all set for liberation.

(3) Right conduct (Samyak charitra):


This means living your life according to Jain ethical rules, to
avoid doing harm to living things and freeing yourself from
attachment and other impure attitudes and thoughts. Jains
believe that a person who has right faith and right knowledge will
be motivated and able to achieve right conduct.

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Five Main Vows:
Mahavira added the doctrine of brahmacharya or continence to
the four vows viz. ahimsa, satya, asateya and aparigraha
prescribed by Parsvanatha. Jainism encourages spiritual
development through cultivation of personal wisdom and through
reliance on self-control through vows. Jains accept different
levels of compliance for strict followers and laymen.

Followers of this religion undertake five major vows:

1. Ahimsa (nonviolence): The first major vow taken by followers


is to cause no harm to living beings. It involves minimizing
intentional and unintentional harm to other living creatures by
actions, speech or thoughts.

2. Satya (truth): This vow is to always speak the truth. Given


that non-violence has priority, in a situation where speaking
truth could lead to violence, silence may be observed.

3. Asteya (not stealing): Jains should not take anything that is


not willingly offered. Attempting to extort material wealth from
others or to exploit the weak is considered theft.

4. Brahmacharya (chastity for laymen and celibacy for Jain


monks and nuns): This requires the exercise of control over the
senses to control indulgence in sexual activity.

5. Aparigraha (non-possessiveness): This includes non-


materialism and nonattachment to objects, places and people.
Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social
relations.

Divisions in Jainism:
The cause of the spread of Jainism in South India is said to be
the great famine that took place in Magadha 200 years after the
death of Mahavira. The famine lasted for twelve years, and in
order to protect themselves many Jaina monks went to the
south under the leadership of Bhadrabahu (Chandragupta
Maurya also accompanied him), but the rest of them stayed back
in Magadha under the leadership of Sthulabahu. At the end of

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the famine they came back to Magadha, where they developed
differences with the local Jainas. The changes that took place in
the code of conduct of the followers of Sthulabahu led to the
division of the Jainas into Digambaras (sky-clad or naked,
southerns) and Svetambaras (white-clad, Magadhans). In the
later centuries, further splits took place in both Digambaras and
Svetambaras. Samaiyas broke away from the former and
Terapantis from the latter. Both these new groups renounced
idol worship and worshipped only the scriptures.

Jaina councils:
1. First Jaina council: The first Jaina council was held at
Pataliputra under the leadership of Sthulabahu in the beginning
of the third century B.C. and resulted in the compilation of 12
Angas (sections) to replace the lost 14 Purvas (old texts). The
Digambaras boycotted the council and refused to accept its
decisions.

2. Second Jaina council: The second council was held at


Valabhi in Gujarat in the Úfth century A.D. by the Svetambaras
under the leadership of Devardhi Kshamasramana, and resulted
in the final compilation of the 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

Jaina Church:
Mahavira himself founded the Jaina Church. He had eleven
ardent disciples called ganadharas (heads of schools), ten of
whom died in Mahavira’s life time. Only one of them, Arya
Sudharman, survived and became the first thera (pontiff) of
the Jaina Church after his death. His successor, Jambu held
the office for 44 years. During the reign of the last Nanda of
Magadha, the Jaina Church was presided by the fifth thera,
Sambhutavijaya and the sixth thera, Bhadrabahu.

The fourteen Purvas (the old scriptures) which Mahavira himself


had taught to his (ganadharas) were perfected by Sambhutavijaya
and Bhadrabahu. For the history of the Jaina Church, from its
inception to the fourth or third century B.C. we are indebted to
the Jaina Kalpasutra of Bhadrabahu, who was the sixth thera

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after Mahavira and was a contemporary of Chandragupta
Maurya.

Jaina Philosophy:
Jainism is a
philosophy based
on the teaching of
Mahavira. It takes
Reality to be a
multiple
comprising two
main kinds of
objects; Jivas
(souls) and the
Ajivas (non-souls). The Jivas are infinite in number, varying in
their capacity for knowledge, power and joy. The essence of Jiva
is consciousness, power and bliss. Potentially, every Jiva has
these qualities in infinite magnitude but actually it displays them
in varying degrees, being over-powered by the material particles
of karma-pudgala with which the souls are intermixed.

Under the category of Ajiva come matter, space, motion,


(dharma), rest (adharma) and time (kala). Both the Jivas and
Ajivas have been existing eternally. The world was never created.
It is eternal. Its existence is divided into an infinite number of
cycles, each consisting of a period of improvement (utsarpini),
and one of decline (avasarpini). We are now in the phase of
decline, which is divided into six periods.

Jainas do not, therefore, believe in the existence of a


Creator. Instead of believing in God, they believe in the existence
of perfected souls abiding in the highest region of the world with
fully developed consciousness, power and bliss. The reality has
an infinite number of aspects and attributes (ananta
dharmatrnakameva tattvam).

This primary doctrine of Jaina philosophy is called


Anekantavada. The Jaina doctrine of Syadvada asserts that

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statements must be made with caution, keeping in view that
they cannot be absolute and that opposite statements are
possible and seven modes of prediction (Saptabhangi) are
possible. The doctrine of Syadvada shows a close affinity with
Samkhya system of philosophy. Closely related to the Syadvada
is Nayavada (the doctrine of view points), which shows the seven
ways of approaching an object of knowledge. Jainism recognizes
five sources and kinds of knowledge: Mati, knowledge obtained
through sense-perception and inference; sruti, knowl edge
conveyed by others through intelligible symbols; Avadhi, acquired
by some supernormal means, Manahpryaya, gained by means of
telepathy; and Kevala Jnaria, knowledge of perfected souls who
have acquired omniscience. The Jainas lay great emphasis on
Ahimsa (non-violence), both in theory and practice. To attain
Nirvana, a man must abandon all trammels, including his
clothes. Only by a long course of fasting, self-mortification, study
and meditation, can he rid himself of Karma. Hence a monastic
life is essential for salvation.

Spread of Jainism:
Since Jainism did not very clearly mark itself out from the
brahmanical religion, it failed to attract the masses. Despite this,
Jainism gradually spread into south and west India. The early
Jainas discarded Sanskrit language mainly Patronized by the
brahmanas. They adopted Prakrit language of the common
people to preach their doctrines. Their religious literature was
written in Ardha-magadhi. Udayin, the successor of Ajatashatru
of Magadha, was a devout Jaina and so were the Nanda rulers.
Chandragupta Maurya became a Jaina, gave up his throne and
spent the last years of his life in Karnataka as a Jaina ascetic.
Jainism spread to Kalinga in Orissa in the fourth century B.C.
and in the first century B.C. it enjoyed the patronage of the
Kalinga king Kharavela. In the Kushana period, it flourished well
at Mathura and was dominant in eastern India in the time of
Harsha. During the early centuries of the Christian era, Mathura
in the north and Sravana-Belgola in the south were great centres
of Jaina activities. From the fifth century A.D. onwards many

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royal dynasties of South India, such as the Gangas, the
Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas patronised
Jainism. Jinasena and Gunabhadra composed their
Mahapurana at the time of King Amoghavarsha, whose great
Jaina work Ratnamalika became very popular. In later centuries
Jainism penetrated Malwa, Gujarat and Rajasthan. The
Chalukyan king of Solanki, Siddharaja (1094-1143), also known
as Jayasimha professed Jainism and his successor Kumarapala
were great patrons of Jainism.

Jaina Literature:
Jaina literature was written in Ardhamagadhi form of Prakrit,
and the texts were finally compiled in the sixth century A.D. in
Gujarat at a place called Valabhi, a great centre of education.
The adoption of Prakrit by the Jainas helped the growth of this
language and its literature. Many regional languages developed
out of Prakrit languages, particularly Shauraseni, out of which
grew the Marathi language. The Jainas composed the earliest
important works in Apabhramsha and prepared its first
grammar.

Jaina Canonical Texts


The sacred literature of the Svetambaras written in the Ardha-
Magadhi form of Prakrit, may be classified into twelve Angas
twelve Upangas, ten Prakirna, six Chhedasutras, four
Mulasutras. Of the 12 Angas, the Ayaramga-sutta (Acharanga
sutra) deals with the rules of conduct which a Jaina monk was to
follow; Sutrakritanga is mainly devoted to a refutation of the
heretic doctrines; the Bhagavati is one of the most important
Jaina canonical texts and it contains a comprehensive exposition
of the Jaina doctrine.

The 12 Upangas are mostly dogmatic and mythological in


character. The 10 Prakrinas deal with various doctrinal matters
and are written in verse. The six Chhedasutras deal with
disciplinary rules for monks and nuns. The best known work is
Kalpasutra, attributed to Bhadrabahu. The Kalpasutra forms a
part of the fourth Chhedasutra and consists of three sections, the

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first called the Jainacharita contains the biographies of the
twenty-three tirthankaras who preceded Mahavira; the second
section consists of the Theravali, a list of ganas and their
ganadharas (heads); the third section contains the Samachari or
the rules for the Jaina monks.

Non-canonical works:
It consists of commentaries, stories, historical works, semi-
historical works, romantic works and religious lyrics.
Commentaries to the canonical texts form the most significant
part of non-canonical literature. The oldest of these, called
Niryuktis may be traced as far back as the time of Bhadrabahu.
These were later developed into elaborate Bhasyas and Churnis
written in Prakrit, and Tikas and Vrittis written in Sanskrit.

The important Jaina commentators were Haribhadra (9th A.D.),


Santisuri, Devendragani and Abhayadeva who lived in 11th
century A. D. The Kathakosa is a rich mine of stories. It contains
the Jaina version of the Nala-Damayanti episode of the
Mahabharata. The Jainas further possess an extensive poetic
literature called Prabandhas and Charitras. The former give an
account of historical Jaina monks and laymen while the latter
narrates the stories of tirthankaras and mythical sages. One of
the most famous works is Trisastisalaka Purushacharita (lives
of 63 best men) by Hemachandra, which ranks as a Mahakavya
among the Jainas. The book is divided into ten Parvas of which
the last parva, Mahaviracharita deals with the life of
Mahavira. From the point of view of literary history, the appendix
to this book, Parisistaparvan or Sthaviravalicharita, the
biography of the earliest teachers of Jainism, is more valuable.
Semi-historical works like Prabandhachitamani of Merutunga
(1306 A.D.) and the Prabandhakosa of Rajasekhara (1349 A.D.)
are important.

The Digambaras styled the Charitras as Puranas, for instance


Padmacharita or Padmapurana by Vimalasuri. Jinasena wrote
Harivamsapurana which was completed in 783 A.D. The Jainas
possess many prose romances like the Samaraichchakaha of

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Haribhadra and Upamitibha-Vaprapanchakatha of Siddharshi
(906 A.D.).

Causes for decline of Jainism:

1. Lack of Royal Patronage:


Firstly, the initial tempo of royal patronage of Jainism by
Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Udayin and Kharavela was not kept up by
kings and princes of later times. Rather the zeal and
determination of Asoka, Kanishka and Harsha to spread
Buddhism came to eclipse Jainism. As such, lack of sincere and
determined royal patronage came to relegate Jainism.

2. Lack of Efforts:
There was also a decline in the missionary zeal and sincerity of
the Jaina mendicants. They were no more particular in
undertaking the strain of spreading Jainism in villages and
towns. The traders and businessmen still remained loyal to
Jainism. But they had no time to do anything for the spread of
Jainism.

3. Severity of Jainism:
The severity of Jainism boomeranged against it to bring about its
decline. Unlike the ‘middle path’ of Buddhism, Jainism stood for
severe penance, meditation, fasting and restraint etc. All these
were too severe to endure. People soon became disillusioned with
it. In course of time, Jainism, once adored, became alienated
from the people.

4. Unintelligible Philosophy:
Most of the Jaina philosophy was unintelligible for the masses.
The concepts of Jeeva, Ajeeva, Pudgala, Syadbada etc. could not
be understood properly by the people. Many could not accept the
view that stone, water, tree or earth had a soul of their own.
There was, thus, a gradual decline in popular faith for Jainism.
This paved the way for its decline.

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5. Factionalism in Jainism:
Factionalism among the Jainas after the death of Mahavira was
also cause of the decline of Jainism. Some now advocated to
literally follow the teachings of Mahavira, while others wanted to
tone down the severity of Jainism. As such, the rift led to a
division in Jain ranks. They were now divided into ‘Digamvara’
and ‘Swetamvara’ groups. The former, led by Bhadrabahu, gave
up dress, adopted severe penance for self-purification and
became indifferent to worldly life. The ‘Swetamvara’ group, led
by Sitalabahu, wore white dress. The division weakened Jainism
and as such, its spread came to be curtailed.

6. Spread of Buddhism:
Buddhism came as formidable obstacle in the path of the spread
of Jainism. Buddhist was simple and intelligible. There was no
severity in it. Even a householder could follow it.

7. Role of Hindu Preachers:


Hinduism posed threats to Jainism. Nimbarka, Ramanuja,
Sankaracharya etc. came to make the foundation of Hinduism
more solid and stronger. Rise of Vaisnavism, Saivism and
Saktism paled Jainism into comparative insignificance. Decline of
Jainism, thus, became inevitable and unavoidable. The Hindu
preachers put constant problem on the path of the spread of
Jainism. So, it declined

Contribution of Jainism:

1. Growth of Language and Literature:


Jainism influenced Indian language and literature. Vardhaman
Mahavir preached in ‘Ardha-Magadhi’ language, the language of
the common man. The people knowing ‘Magadhi’ and
‘Soruaseni’ could easily follow the preaching’s of Mahavir. In due
course of time the Jaina Canonical texts were written in Prakrit
language. Thus, the vernacular and regional languages were
enriched by Jainism. Further, the Jaina texts like ‘Anga’,
‘Upanga’, ‘Kalpasutra’, ‘Archarangasutra’, ‘Uttaradhyayanasutra’,

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were also written in Sanskrit. Thus, the literature also grew due
to the rise of Jainism.

2. Principle of Non-Violence:
Mahavira Jaina was the embodiment of peace. He was the
preacher of nonviolence. He rejected the Vedic rituals and taught
to be kind and humane to the animals. Further, he emphasized
that both living and non-living beings have life and they get pain.
His concept of non-violence largely influenced the course of
Indian history.

3. Influence on Politics
Jainism influenced the Indians politics too. It cast its influence
over many rulers. The great Chandragupta Maurya became the
famous Chadramuni coming under the spell of Jainism. The
mighty emperor Mahameghavahana Kharavela became an
ardent devotee of Mahavira Jaina. By following the principle of
non-violence the kings became kind hearted and tolerant. This
was a lasting impact of Jainism on Indian politics. The Jainas
also distinguished themselves in giving their unstinted support
for the improvement of political and economic life in the country.
The Jainas, especially in southern and western India, produced a
large number of eminent and efficient monarchs, ministers, and
generals and thereby contributed to maintain and improve the
political importance of the people. Not only the ordinary Jainas
but their acharyas, i.e., saints. also aided materially to create the
proper political environment based on ahimsa culture necessary
for the resuscitation of the life in the country. It is considered
that due to the keen interest taken by the Jaina Acharyas, i.e..
saints. in political affairs of the country, Jainism occupies an
important place in the history of India. The Jaina ascetics were
never indifferent towards the secular affairs in general. We know
from the account of Megasthenes that, in the 4th century B.C.,
the Sramanas of Jaina ascetics who lived in the woods were
frequently consulted by the kings through their messengers,
regarding the cause of things. So far as Karnataka is concerned
Jainism, throughout its course of more than one thousand years,
was an example of a religion which showed that religious tenets
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were practiced without sacrificing the political exigencies when
the question of rejuvenating life in the country was at stake. That
is why in Karnataka we find that the Jaina acharyas ceased to
be merely exponents of dogmas and turned themselves into
creators of kingdoms. It has already been noted that the Jaina
saints were virtually responsible for the founding of the Ganga
kingdom in the 2nd century A.D. and the Hoyasala kingdom in
the 11th century A.D.

4. Growth of Trading Community:


Jainism contributed a lot for the growth of trading community. At
first, Jainism became popular among the traders and merchants.
It fostered brotherhood among them which gave rise to guild
system in future. The merchants became rich and got a special
position in the society. Owing to their wealth and fame they came
closer to ruling class. The cooperation between them brought
stability in the society

5. Creation of Healthy Society:


Jainism went a long way in creating a healthy society. Mahavir
preached against the caste system. With the end of caste system
in society the grip of the higher caste over the lower cast became
less. This gave rise to a healthy society which influenced the
course of Indian history.

6. Growth of Charitable Institutions:


Jainism helped a lot in the growth of charitable institutions. Its
influenced on the kings and other people was abiding. The kings
created many caves for the dwelling of the sages of different
castes. They also distributed foods and clothes to the people.
With the gradual march of time other rich people followed this
practice. They created charitable institutions to serve the people.
Thus, social welfare was largely attained due to the growth of
charitable institutions

7. Growth of Art and Architecture:


Jainism helped a lot in the growth of Art and Architecture. The
kings patronized Jainism. So many Jaina unages and the images

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of Jaina Tirthankara were found in many parts of India. The
image of Bahuvalin in Shravanavelgola in Karnataka (known as
Gomateswara) is the highest Jaina image ever craved in India.
The Jaina images found in Mathura, Bundelkhand, Northem
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Benares are important Jaina Art
remains in India. The cave art of Udayagiri in Bhubaneswar,
Madhya Pradesh, Ellora and Maharashtra are unique examples
of Jaina art. The Dilwara Jaina temple at Mount Abu of
Rajasthan is a dream in marble. Nearly 90 percent of Jaina
temples are the gifts of single wealthy individuals and as such
the Jaina temples are distinguished for elaborate details and
exquisite finish. The Jain Tower in the fort of Chittor is another
specimen of architectural engineering. Innumerable manuscripts
in palm leaves were written down and some of them were painted
with gold dust. These have given rise to a new school of painting
known as the “Western Indian School”. Thus, Jainism helped in
the growth of art and architecture in India.

8. New Touch of Life:


Jainism gave a new touch to life. It criticized the Vedic religion
and the predominance of Brahmanism. Thus, the people turned
away their attention from the unnecessary ritualistic practices.
They led a very simple and normal life. This influences the society
a lot and moulded its character in future.

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Buddhism

Buddhism and Gautama Buddha:


Among the notable contemporaries of Mahavira was Gautam
Buddha, the founder of Buddhism. His name was Siddhartha
and he belonged to the Gautama gotra. He was born in 563 B.C.
in Lumbini (now in Nepal) in the Shakya Kshatriya clan of
Kapilvastu. The site of his nativity is marked by the celebrated
Rumnindei Pillar of Asoka Maurya. He was the son of
Suddhodana, who seems to have been the elected ruler of
Kapilvastu, and headed the republican clan of the Shakyas. His
mother, Maya was a princes of Devadaha, a small town in the
Shakya territory. Maya died in child-birth and the little
Siddhartha was brought up by his aunt and stepmother Prajapati
Gautami. At the age of sixteen the prince was married to a lady
known to tradition as Bhadda Kachchana, Yasodhara,
Subhadraka. Since his early childhood Gautama showed a
meditative bent of mind. The sight of an old man, a sick man, a
dead body and an ascetic (the Four Great signs) intensified
Gautama’s deep hatred for the world and made him realise the
holowness of worldly pleasure. At the birth of his son Rahula, he
left home at the age of twenty-nine in search of the Truth. This
departure is known as ‘The Great Renunciation’
(mahabhinshkramana). For six years he lived as a homeless
ascetic, seeking instruction under two religious teachers Alara
Kalama (at Vaishali) and Uddaka or Ramaputta (at Rajagriha)
and visiting many places. At Uruvela, he practised the most rigid
austerities only to find that they were of no help to him in
reaching his goal. He then took a bath in the stream of the river
Niranjana, modern Lilajan, and sat under a pipal tree at modern
Bodh Gaya. Here, at last at the age of 35 he attained unto
supreme knowledge and became known as the Buddha or the
enlightened one, ‘Tathagata’ (he who had attained the truth) and
Sakya-Muni or the sage of Sakya clan. He gave his first sermon
at Isipatana, the deer park at Sarnath. This sermon was called
the “Dharma Chakra Pravartana” or “turning of the wheel of

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law”. For forty-five years he roamed about as a wandering
teacher and proclaimed his gospel to the princes and people and
laid the foundation of the Buddhist Order of monks (Sangha).
Gautama Buddha passed away at the age of 80 in 483 B.C. at a
place called Kusinagar, identical with the village called Kasia in
the district of Deoria in eastern Uttar Pradesh. (Mahaparinirvana)

Doctrines of Buddhism:
Buddha proved to be a practical reformer who took note of the
realities of the day. He did not involve himself in fruitless
controversies regarding the soul (atman) and the Brahma
which raged strongly in his time; he addressed himself to the
worldly problems. Within Buddhism, samsara is defined as the
continual repetitive cycle of birth and death. Karma is the
force that drives saṃsara.

Buddha taught his followers the Four “Noble Truths” (Arya


Satya):
Dukkha or “Sorrow” : The world is full of sorrow and everything
from birth to death brings sorrows in life.

Dukkha Samudaya or Cause of Sorrow : The cause of sorrows is


desire. It is the un-fulfillment of human desires which leads him
to the vicious cycle of births and rebirths.

Dukkha Nirodha or Prevention of Sorrow: It is possible to


prevent sorrow. Man can get rid of sorrow by triumphing over the
desires.

Dukkha Nirodha Gamini Patipada Magga or The path of


Prevention of Sorrow: Man can avoid Dukkha by avoiding
extremes of life and following middle path or Madhyam
Patipada. The life of moderation and self control along with
pursuance of 8 fold path is essential to prevent the Dukkha.

Eight Fold Path or Astangika marg

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The eight fold path was recommended to eliminate the human
misery. It comprises of three basic divisions of Wisdom (Pragya
Skanda), Ethical Conduct (Sheel Skanda) And Concentration

(Samadhi Skanda). Following table represents the eight fold path:

According to Buddha’s teachings, anyone who follows this path,


considered as the ‘middle path’, (madhyama pratipad), would
attain salvation irrespective of his social position.( Middle Path:
The practice of non-extremism: a path of moderation away
from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification) The
striving for salvation requires in the first place the observance of
the Silas or moralities, the next
requisite is Samadhi or
concentration and finally Prajna or
MIDDLE PATH
insight. These ultimately lead to
The experiments with the life of ascetics
Sambodhi (enlight enment) and could not bring desired fruits for
Nirvana. (perfect enlightenment, a Gautama. He left the Udaka, and moved
on with 5 companions who were led by
state wherein it becomes clear that Kaundinya. They set out for more
all dualities apparent in the world austerity. They tried enlightment through
total deprivation of possessions including
are delusory;) food. This led him to starving near death
condition, and one day he collapsed into a
Another doctrine on which Buddha river and almost drowned. This led him to
reconsider the path. He started moving
laid great emphasis is the law of
away from ascetics and moving closer to
Karma, its working and the meditating and this is called the Middle
Path, the path of having oneself away
transmigration of soul. Like the
from extreme self-indulgence and
Jainas, he rejected the authority of extreme self-mortification. He accepted
milk and rice pudding from a village girl
the Vedas. The Buddha may be
called Sujata.
called an agnostic, because he
neither accepts nor rejects the
existence of God. According to
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Buddha, all things are composite, and as a corollary, all
things are transient, for the composition of all aggregates is
liable to change. The concept of liberation (nirvana)—the goal of
the Buddhist path—is closely related to overcoming ignorance, a
fundamental misunderstanding or misperception of the nature of
reality.

In awakening to the true nature of the self and all phenomena


one develops dispassion for the objects of clinging, and is
liberated from suffering (dukkha) and the cycle of incessant
rebirths (saṃsara). To this end, the Buddha recommended
viewing things as characterized by the three marks of existence :

anicca (transiency)

dukka (sorrow),

anatta (soullessness).

Whatever is transient is painful, and where change and sorrow


prevail, the question of a permanent immortal soul does not
arise. This three-fold characterisation of the nature of the world
and all that it contains – anicca (transiency), dukka (sorrow), and
anatta (soullessness).

There is nothing like an enduring self in a man, who is composed


of five groups (Skandha) of physical and mental factors called

 Rupa (form)
 Samjna (Name)
 Vedana (sentations)
 Vijnana (consciousness)
 Samskara (Disposition).
Thus the individual is made up of a combination of these five
components, which are never the same from one moment to the
next, and therefore his whole being is in a state of constant flux.
According to Buddha, every effect is caused and every cause has
an effect. The Buddha discovered the twelve-linked chain of
causation (PatichchhaSamuppada) which is Ignorance (Avidya),
Impressions of past actions (Samaskaras), Consciousness
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(Vijnana), Psychophysical organism (Namarapa), Sense-organs
with objects (Sparsa), Sensations (Vedana), Thirst for sense-
enjoyments (trisna), Clinging to the enjoyments (Upadana), Will
to be born (Bhava), Birth or Rebirth (Jatli) and Old age and
Death (Jara-marana).

The Buddhist Sangha or Church:


The Buddha had two kinds of disciples- monks (bhikshus or
shramanas) and lay worshippers (upasakas). The former were
organised into the Sangha or congregation. The membership of
the Sangha was open to all persons, male or female above fifteen
years of age and who were free from leprosy, consumption and
other infectious diseases. Persons who were in the service of the
king or an individual, or who were in debt, or had been branded
as robbers or criminals were refused admission into the Sangha.
There were no caste restrictions. Monasteries were constructed
for the accommodation of monks and nuns for carrying on their
studies and meditation, which gradually developed into academic
centers.

Every Buddhist monk has to be a Sramana before being ordained


as a full-fledged member of the Sangha. The higher ordination or
Bhikshus is called upasampada. Whenever a new person,
desired to join the Sangha, he or she had to shave his or her
head, put on a yellow robe and take the oaths of fidelity to the
triratna, viz. the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha. The
Sangha was governed on democratic lines and was empowered ‘to
enforce discipline among its member.

The monks of a monastery were to hold a fortnight assembly,


were to elect their president (Sanghaparinayaka), and to select
two speakers, one on dhamma and the other on Vinaya. In the
assembly meetings, there were the systems of formal moving of
resolution (Jnapati) and ballot voting by means of wooden sticks
(salaka). No assembly was valid unless at least ten monks were
present, novices and women were not entitled to vote or to
constitute the quorum.

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Buddhist Councils:

First Council: 400 BC


Shortly after the Buddha’s death (483 B.C.), it was held at
Sattapanni cave near Rajagriha under the auspices of king
Ajatasatru and was presided by Mahakassapa.

Its purpose was to compile the dhamma (religious doctrines)


and the Vinaya (monastic code). It resulted in the settlement of
the Sutta Pitaka (Buddhas sermons on matters of doctrine and
ethics) and the Vinaya Pitaka (monastic code or rules of the
order) by Ananda and Upali respectively.

Second Council: 383 BC


Held at Vaishali, one hundred years after the Buddha’s death in
the reign of Kalasoka of the Sisunaga dynasty, it was probably
presided over by Sabakami. Over small points of monastic
discipline, the Buddhist order broke into the orthodox
Sthaviravadins or “Believers in the Teachings of the Elders”, and
the unorthodox Mahasanghikas or “members of the Great
Community”. The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of
which was the Theravada school.

Third Council: 250 BC


The third council was held at Pataliputra in the reign of Asoka
(around 250 B.C.) and was presided over by Moggaliputta
Tissa. It resulted in the expulsion of many heretics and the
establishment of the Sthaviravada School as orthodox. The
council made a new classification of the Buddhist canonical texts
by the addition of a third Pitaka called the Abhidhamma Pitka
which contained the philosophical interpretations of the
doctrines of the two already existing Pitakas. As a result of this,
the sayings and discourses of the Buddha now came to be known
as the Tripitaka. The teaching approved and accepted by this
Council became known as Sthaviras or Theravada, “Teaching of
the Elders”. The Abhidhamma Pitaka was included at this
Council.

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After the Third Council, King Asoka sent missions to Sri Lanka,
Kanara, Karnataka, Kashmir, Himalaya region, Burma,
Afghanistan. Asoka’s son, Mahinda, brought the Tripitaka to Sri
Lanka, along with the commentaries that were recited at the
Third Council. These teachings later became known as the “Pali-
canon”.

Fourth Council:
The Fourth and the last Buddhist Council was held in Kashmir
under the leadership of Vasumitra who was helped by
Asvaghosha during the reign of Kanishka. Its purpose was to
settle the differences among all the 18 sects of Buddhism and to
compose the commentaries. The results of THIRD COUNCIL were:

1. Division of all the Buddhists into two major sects, with


Sarvastivadins (Popular in Kashmir and Mathura regions)
and Mahasanghikas together forming the Mahayanists
(followers of the Greater Vehicle), and the rest, including
Sthaviravadins forming the Hinayanists (followers of the
lesser Vehicle)
2. Codification of the Sarvastivadin doctrines as Mahavibhasa
3. Conduct of the deliberations of the Council is Sanskrit
instead of Pali.
Spread of Theravada:
Theravada tradition is based on the set of teachings decided by
the Third Council to contain the teachings of the Buddha. Sri
Lanka has played a central role in preserving the Theravada
scriptures and practices. After the Third Council, the Tripitaka
collection of sutras were taken to SriLanka. Most of these were
originally in the Pali language, but some were compiled in other
languages. Through the centuries however, all teachings were
translated into Pali (around 35 BCE). Initially, most ordained
Sangha were known as parivrajahas (wanderers). They would
assemble during the rainy season when travelling became
problematic.

Gradually, buildings were donated and the Sangha became more


static. Just a century after the Buddha passed away, monasteries

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became the main mechanism for preservation of the teachings.
Also extra monastic rules were introduced. Only during one short
period in history Buddhism was banned in Shri Lanka, but it was
later restored with teachings from Thailand which in turn had
originated in Shri Lanka.

The main countries where the Theravada tradition is


currently alive and well in Shri Lanka, Thailand, Burma,
Cambodia and Laos. The teachings on the Four Noble Truths
and meditation form the basis of Theravada practice. In India,
non-Mahayana or Hinayana sects developed independent from
the form of Buddhism existing in Sri Lanka. Today, there is no
Hinayana tradition in existence anywhere, although
Theravada could be called the tradition most like Hinayana.
The ultimate goal of the Theravadin and other non-Mahayana
practice is to attain the state of an Arhat, as Buddhahood is
considered practically unachievable for nearly everyone within
this aeon. Although helping other sentient beings is accepted as
an important Buddhist practice, the main motivation for
following the spiritual path is to achieve liberation for oneself –
Nirvana

Spread of Mahayana:
Nagarjuna developed the Mahayana philosophy of Sunyata
(emptiness) and proved that everything is ‘Void’ (not only the self)
in a small text called Madhyamika-karika. About the 4th
Century CE, the Masters Asanga and Vasubandhu wrote
enormous amount of works on Mahayana. The Mahayana
teachings were mainly written down in Sanskrit. The Mahayana
philosophy is based on the older tradition and fully accepts these
teachings, but not all traditional interpretations. One of the most
important aspects is for example the traditional interpretation
that Buddhahood can be achieved only by very few people. The
Mahayana teaches instead that every sentient being (being with a
mind) can become a Buddha, the only thing preventing our full
enlightenment is the failure to improve one’s own actions and
state of mind. This motivation is reflected in taking an
additional set of vows, known as Bodhisattva vows. The main
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vow is to free all sentient beings from suffering. These vows are
not taken for this life only, but for all future lives as well, until
this goal is achieved. The Mahayana tradition mainly developed
in North India, and spread further North into China and Tibet. In
China, Buddhist philosophy and practice was often mixed with
Taoist and Confucian aspects. Via China, Mahayana Buddhism
also spread to other countries like Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia,
Laos and Japan. Also, in China the Ch’an tradition evolved,
which was introduced into Japan. Around the 6th. century AD,
within the Mahayana tradition the tantras or tantric texts
emerged. Tantric practices are psychologically very profound
techniques to quickly achieve Buddhahood. This is considered
important, not for oneself, but because as a Buddha one has the
best achievable qualities to help others. The motivation is: ‘the
faster I can achieve Buddhahood, the sooner I can be of
maximum benefit to others’. Depending on the class of tantra,
extra vows may need to be taken on top of the Refuge and
Bodhisattva vows. Also, specific commitments may be required
like doing a specific retreat, daily recitation of mantras or a daily
meditation practice. In the 8th. century, the Mahayana and
Tantrayana (or Vajrayana) traditions of (North) Indian Buddhism
were introduced into Tibet.

In fact, only in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia a virtually complete


set of tantric teachings was preserved. The Tibetan tradition can
also be found in the Himalayan range of Ladakh (Northwest
India), Sikkhim (Northeast India) and Nepal, and in Mongolia
(which is virtually identical to the Tibetan tradition). In China
and countries like Korea and Japan, remnants of Vajrayana
can be found.

Comparison between Mahayana and Hinayana:


A Yana is a vehicle. A Hinayana is a lesser vehicle while a
Mahayan is a Great vehicle. Mahayana means “great vehicle” and
Hinayana means “lesser vehicle.” A great vehicle is like a large
ship that can carry many people over the ocean. A lesser vehicle
is like a little boat that can carry only a few people across a river.
The word vehicle is used to describe the Buddha’s teachings,
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since the ultimate purpose of the teachings is to carry people
from the shore of this impure world to the other shore of
enlightenment.

Hinayana:
Also called "Deficient Vehicle", the "Abandoned Vehicle", or the
"Defective Vehicle". It believes in the original teaching of
Buddha. Don't believe in Idol Worship and try to attain individual
salvation through self discipline and meditation. Stharvivada or
Thervada is a Hinayana sect, which follows the "doctrine of
elders". Asoka Patronized Hinayan and Pali the language of
masses was use by the Hinayan scholars.

Mahayana:
This sect believes in the heavenliness of Buddha and believes in
Idol Worship. It is also called Bodhisattva Vehicle. Mahāyāna
Buddhism spread from India to China, Japan, Vietnam, Korea,
Singapore, Taiwan, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia. Zen,
Pure Land, Tiantai, and Nichiren, Shingon and Tibetan
Buddhism are traditions of Mahayana. Fundamental principles of
Mahāyāna doctrine were based on the possibility of universal
liberation from suffering for all beings (hence the "Great Vehicle")
and the existence of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas embodying
Buddha Nature. It allows salvation to be alternatively obtained
through the grace of the Amitābha Buddha by having faith and
devoting oneself to mindfulness of the Buddha. Believes in
Mantras.

Bodhisattva
A Bodhisattva means one who has essence of enlightment.
Anyone who has a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for
the benefit of all is a Bodhisattva. It’s a very popular subject in
Buddhist art. A bodhisattva is bound to enlightment and refers to
all who are destined to become Buddhas in this life or another
life. There are celestial bodhisattvas which are manifestations of
Gautam Buddha. Important 8 Bodhisattvas are as follows:

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Avalokiteśvara
Avalokiteśvara encompasses all Buddhas. In China he is known
as Guānshìyīn Púsà , in tibetan as Chenrezig, in Thai as
Avalokitesuarn. He is said to incarnate in Dalai Lama. he is
depicted as holding a lotus flower. He is depicted as female also.
A cave wall painting of Avalokiteśvara is devoted in Ajanta Caves
as Padmapani.

Manjusri:

He is known as Wénshū in Chinse,


Jampelyang in Tibetan and is a
menifestation of great wisdom and
meditation. Mañjuśrī is depicted as
a male bodhisattva wielding a
flaming sword in his right hand.

Samantabhadra
Samantabhadra means Universal
Worthy and he is associated with meditation. Known as Fugen
Bosatsu in Japanese and very popular in Japan among the
Tendai and Shingon sects. His manifestation is Action and he is
key figure in Flower Garland Sutra

Ksitigarbha
Ksitigarbha is usually depicted as a Buddhist monk in the Orient
/ East Asia. Ksitigarbha means Earth Womb. he is regarded as
Bodhisattva of Earth or Hell beings or Mortals. He is regarded as
guardian of children and patron deity of deceased children and
aborted fetuses in Japanese culture. he carries a staff.
Ksitigarbha, Samantabhadra, Manjusri, and Avalokitesvara are
the principal Bodhisattvas of East Asian Mahayana Buddhism.

Maitreya
He is also known as Ajita Boddhisattva. He holds a "water phial"
in his left hand. Earliest mention of Metteyya is in the Digha
Nikaya 26 of the Pali Canon. It is said that he will arrive when
oceans will decrease in size (that is why keeps a Kumbha or
philial in his hand) and will rule the Ketumati Pure Land

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(Varanasi). Budai or Laughing Buddha is claimed to be an
incarnation of Maitreya. Budai was a Chinese Zen monk who
lived during the Later Liang Dynasty (907–923 CE) in China. In
Japanese, he is called Hotei and is one of the seven Lucky Gods
of Japan.

Vajrapani
Vajrapani is depicted as one of the 3 protective deities around
Buddha, other are Manjusri and Avlokiteshwara. Vajrapani
manifests Buddha's power, Manjusri manifests Buddha's wisdom
and Avlokiteshwara manifests Buddha's compassion. In Japan a
dharma protector called Nio is also Vajrapani.

Sadāparibhūta
Sadāparibhūta is a Bodhisattva which manifests “never
disparaging” spirit.

Akasagarbha
Akasagarbha is boundless as space. He is known as twin brother
of Ksitigarbha. He is manifestation of wisdom.

The Buddhist Scriptures


The sacred scriptures of the Buddhists are in Pali. The word Pali
means simply ‘text’ or ‘sacred text’. As a language, Pali is an
archaic Prakrit and in the days of Buddha was the spoken
language of the Magadha and adjoining territories. The Buddhist
scriptures in Pali are commonly referred to as Tripitaka, i.e.
Threefold Basket’, which consists of:

1. Vinay Pitaka
2. Sutta Pitaka
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka
I. The Vinaya Pitaka:
It contains pronouncements attributed to the Buddha, laying
down numer ous rules for the conduct of the Order.
Supplementing this, the Mahavagga, ‘Great Section’, lays down
rules for admission to the monastic order, regulations on dress,

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etc. The Chullavagga, ‘Smaller Section’, contains duties for
monks and nuns, edifying Buddhist stories, methods of settling
disputes among monks, etc.

II. The Sutta Pitaka:


The largest and most important of the ‘Three Baskets” is the
Sutta Pitaka which consists chiefly of discourses both small and
long as delivered by the Buddha himself. It is divided into five
groups called Nikaya. They are:

1. Digha (Long) Nikaya – a collection of long sermons ascribed


to the Buddha including the Buddha’s last speeches and an
account of his death and the funeral ceremonies.
2. Majjhima (Medium) Nikaya – a collection of medium sized
sermons
3. Samyutta (connected) Nikaya – discusses Buddhist
doctrines.
4. Anguttara (Graduated) Nikaya – a collection of over 2,000
brief statements, arranged artificially in eleven sections,
enumerating doctrines and principles;
5. Khuddaka (minor) Nikaya – miscellaneous works in prose
and verse added later to the canon than the four other
Nikayas. It comprises fifteen books of miscellanea which are
essential for an understanding of Buddhism.
The principal texts of the Khuddaka-Nikaya are often taken to
include a few of the most extensive of the Pali canonical writings.
The important ones are given:

a) The Khuddaka Patha – It is a book for youngsters when they


join the Sangha.
b) The Dhammapada (“Verses on Virtue”) – The best known of
the canonical texts, it is a collection of aphoristic verses
garnered from the sayings of Buddha. It is regarded as one
of the great religious texts of the world.
c) The Suttanipata – It preserves many fragments of the oldest
Buddhist poetry and gives valuable information on the
social and religious conditions of Buddha’s time.
d) The Jataka – It is a collection of over 500 poems, briey
outlining folk-tales and other stories.

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e) The Bhuddhavamsa – It records legends in verse about the
twenty-four Buddhas who preceded Gautama in earlier
times.
f) The Theragatha – Literally meaning “Hymns of the elder
Monks” it contains some of the India’s greatest religious
poetry.
g) The Therigatha – The Hymns of the Nuns.
III. The Abhidhamma Pitaka
It consists of a number of works on Buddhist psy chology and
metaphysics. Of its seven books, the Dhammasangani provides a
good expo sition of Buddhist philosophy, psychology and ethics;
and the Kathavatthu, ascribed to Moggaliputta Tissa, is valuable
for the light it throws on the evolution of Buddhist dogmas.

Non-Canonical Pali Texts:


These were composed during the Kushana periods. Prominent
works are “Milindapanho” (Questions of Menander) which gives
on account of the discussions of the Greek King, Menander and
the monk Nagasena;

‘Mahavastu, Great Subject, – it presents some Hinayana


doctrines along with addi tional metaphysics of the
Mahasanghika sects;

The Lalitavistara (30 B.C.) an anonymous biography of Buddha


written in the Gatha (Sanskritized Prakrit) form of language, it
contains some Hinayana material, but is largely Mahayanist and
the verse chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa which tell the
history of Buddhism in Ceylon;

Give valuable information on political and social history also. Of


these the earliest, Dipavamsa (the “Island Chronicle”) dates from
the 4th century A.D;

Has no literary merit, but the Mahavamsa (“Great Chronicle”) of


the following century, composed by the monk Mahanama
contains passages of beauty and vigour. It was continued as the
Culvamsa (“Lesser Chronicle”) by a succession of monks down to
the fall of the kingdom of Kandy to the British. The bulk of the

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Buddhist literature in Pali belongs to the Hinayana school and
hence the Pali canon are spoken as the Hinayana Canon.

Sanskrit Texts:
With the rise of Mahayanism, Sanskrit was adopted by the
Mahayanist School. There are a few Sanskrit texts belonging to
the Hinayana School. The bulk of Buddhist literature in Sanskrit
belongs to the Mahayana School. Among the Mahayana Sutras,
the following texts or dharmas, also called the Vaipulya Sutras
(“Expanded Sermons”) are regarded as the most important.

1. Prajna-Praramita:
It is the most important philosophical work of the Mahayana
school which deals especially with the notion of Sunya or
nothingness. According to it, beyond this impermanent and
illusory world is a new world of freedom, which one can attain
with the aid of Prajna or intuitive and transcendental wisdom.

2. Sadharma-Pundarika (250 A.D.):


The Lotus of the Good Law’, also called the Lotus Sutra, has been
described as the Bible of half-Asia. It is of unknown authorship
and is the most important of all the Sutras. It contains all the
characteristic features of Mahayana school and has the sermon
delivered by a transfigured and glorified Buddha on the
Gridharkuta mountain to an august assembly.

3. Avatamsaka:
Supposed to be the teaching given by Buddha three weeks after
his enlightenment, it contains the doctrine of ‘interpenetration’.
The twenty-fifth chapter expounds the doctrine of Parinamana,
the ‘transference’ of merit, whereby one’s merit can be turned
over for the Salvation of others

4. Gandha-Vyuha:
It is actually a part of the above Avatamsaka Sutra, but is often
called a Sutra in its own right.

5. Sukhavati-Vyuha:
Deals with the subject of salvation through faith in Amitabha.

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6. Vajrachhedika or the Diamond Sutra
It expounds the doctrine of Sunyata and clarifies several other
concepts central to Mahayana

7. Mahapari:
Nirvana

8. Lankavatara – (400 A.D.):


Supposedly wrtitten by Vasubandhu, it teaches ultimate reality
of mind alone.

9. Surangama:
lt outlines the means of attaining enlightenment by concentration
and meditation.

Expansion and Development of Buddhism:


The emergence of Asoka, The Great, (273-232 B.C.) was an
important turning point in the history of Buddhism, who
embraced Buddhism and made the Buddha dhamma the basis of
all his actions in the spiritual as well as temporal fields.
According to tradition, the Third Buddhist Council was held by
Asoka and missionaries were sent not only to South India but
also to Sri Lanka, Burma and other countries to propagate
Buddhism there. It is popularity further increased when the
Greeks and the Kushans, who established their hold over North-
West India in the second century B.C. and first century B.C.
respectively, embraced Buddhism and did their utmost to
popularize it. Of them, the names of the Greek king Menander
and the Kushana ruier, Kanishka are the most prominent.
Harsha (606-647 A.D.) was the last illustrious Buddhist ruler,
and after his death Buddhism declined rapidly. In the early
medieval period, Buddhism was practised by the Palas.

The period (200 B.C. to 700 A.D) saw the emergence of a number
of Buddhist saint-scholars who made an immense contribution to
the Buddhist phisosophy and religion. Asvaghosha, who was a
contemporary of Kanishka wrote Buddhacharita, a poetic
biography of Buddha, and probably was the author of the
Sraddhotpada. Nagarjuna, who was a friend and contemporary of

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the Satavahana King Yagnasri Gautampiputra (166 to 196 A.D.),
propounded the Madhyamika school of Buddhist philosophy
popularly known as Sunyavada.

Asanga was the most important teacher of the Yogacara or


Vijnanavada school founded by his guru, Maitreyanatha, in
the fourth century A.D. Vasubandhu, brother of Asanga wrote
the Abhidhammakosa, an important encyclopaedia of Buddhism.
Buddhaghosa (5th century A.D.) wrote Visuddhimanga which is
considered as key to the Tripitaka. Buddhapalita and
Bhavaviveka were important exponents of the Sunyavada
doctrine in the fifth century A.D. Dinnaga is well known as the
founder of the Buddhist logic and wrote about 100 treatises on
logic in the fifth century A.D.

The Sunyavada doctrine was further interpreted by


distinguished thinkers like Aryadeva, Santideva,
Santaraksita and Kamalasila. Dharmakirti, who lived in the
seventh century A.D. was another great Buddhist logician.
Acknowledging his unsurpassed genius some call him the Kant of
India.

Factors for the Rise of Buddhism:

1. Influence of Time:
6th Century B.C. was an ideal time for the spread of Buddhism.
It was a time when people were fed up with the superstitions,
complex rituals and rites and blind beliefs. The message of the
Buddha came as a welcome relief to people already groaning
under the oppressive weight of Brahmanism. They were easily
drawn to Buddhism by the simplicity of its faith and its religious
tolerance.

2. Simple Doctrines:
As compared with Jainism, Buddhism was essentially simple. It
did not confuse the people. Rather its ‘Arya Satya’ ‘Eight-fold
Path and ‘concept of non-violence’ were so simple that people
could easily understand and follow these. Buddhism also lacked
the severity of Jainism, as well as the complexity of Vedic rituals.

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The people, already fed up with Brahminical manipulations of
Vedic religion, came to accept Buddhism as a soothing and
refreshing change

3. Simple Language
The Buddha spread his message in the simple language of the
masses of people. The Prakrit language which Buddha used was
the spoken language of India. The Vedic religion was understood
only with the help of Sanskrit language which was the monopoly
of the Brahmins. Buddhism was easily understood and people
accepted it after being convinced about its simple philosophy and
pleasing message.

4. Personality of Buddha:
The personality of the Buddha endeared him and his religion to
the masses. The Buddha was kind and ego-less. His calm
composure, sweet words of simple philosophy and his life of
renunciation drew the masses to him. He had ready moral
solutions for problems of the people. His example of a prince
renouncing the world to save humanity from sins and rebirth and
wandering from place to place to convince the people with his
messages and sermons came to naturally evoke awe, admiration
and acceptance of the people for him and his religion. The spread
of Buddhism was thus rapid.

5. Inexpensive:
Buddhism was inexpensive, without the expensive rituals that
characterized the Vedic religion. Practical morality, not rites and
expensive rituals, came as its beacon feature and helped to set
up a healthy tradition in society. It advocated a spiritual path
without any material obligations of satisfying gods and Brahmins
through rituals and gifts. People competed to embrace Buddhism

6. No Caste Harried:
Buddhism did not believe in cast-distinctions. It opposed that
caste system and regarded people of all castes equally. Its
followers sat together, forgetting their caste and discussed ethics
and morality. The non-Brahmins in particular were drawn to its

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fold. Its popularity spread by leaps and bounds. Buddhism made
a special appeal to the people of the non-Vedic areas where it
found a virgin soul for conversion, especially the people of
Magadha responded readily to the Buddhism because they were
looked down upon by the orthodox brahmanas. Women were also
admitted to the Sangha and thus brought on par with men. In
comparison with Brahmanism, Buddhism was liberal and
democratic.

7. Royal Patronage:
Royal patronage of Buddhism also accounted for its rapid rise.
The Buddha himself was a Kshatriya prince. Kings like Prasenjit,
Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Asoka, Kanishka and Harshavardhan
patronised Buddhism and helped its spread throughout India
and outside, as well. Asoka deputed his children, Mahendra and
Sanghamitra, to Sri Lanka for the spread of Buddhism. Kanishka
and Harshavardhan worked untiringly for the spread of
Buddhism throughout India.

8. Role of the Universities:


Prominent was also the role of the Universities at Nalanda,
Taxila, Puspagiri and Vikramsila in the spread of Buddhism.
Students from various parts of India and from outside India,
reading in these universities, were attracted to Buddhism and
embraced it. They also dedicated themselves to the spread of
Buddhism. The famous Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang was a
student of the Nalanda University. Its teachers like Shilavadra,
Dharmapala, Chandrapala and Divakamitra were renowned
scholars. Others who followed it were Dignnaga, Dharmakirti,
Vasubandhu etc.

9. Buddhist Monks and Sangha:


The Buddhist monks and the Buddhist ‘Order’ (Sangha) did
incomparable service for the spread of Buddhism. Prominent
among Buddha’s disciples were Ananda, Sariputta,
Maudgalayana, Sudatta and Upali etc. They were singularly
determined and dedicated to spread Buddhism throughout India.
The Buddhist sanga came to establish its branches throughout

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India. Soon local people were drawn to these branches of the
Buddhist ‘Order’. They either became monks (bhikshu) or
Upasakas (lay-worshippers) and led lives of austere serenity.
Their example influenced more and more people to follow it. As a
result. Buddhism spread rapidly.

10. Buddhist Councils:


The Buddhist Councils played an important role for the teaching
and spread of Buddhism in India. Following the death
(Mahaparinirvana) of Lord Buddha, the First-Buddhist Council
was held in 486 B.C. in the Magadhan capital at Rajagriha,
under the leadership of Ajatasatru and the presidency of
Mahakashyap. Nearly 500 Buddhists attended this council. It
was in this council that the teachings of the Buddha were
compiled and codified into scriptures called ‘Tripitaka’.

The Tripitaka’ consisted of Sutra Pitaka, Vmaya Pitaka and


Abhidharma Pitaka. Sutra Pitaka consisted of the advices of the
Buddha, Vinaya Pitaka prescribed the norms and rules of the
sangha. Abhidharma Pitaka contained the Buddhist philosophy.
This council went a long way in making Buddhism popular.
Exactly hundred years later, in 386 B.C. the Second Buddhist
Council was convened at Vaisali under the supervision of
Kalasoka Kakavarni. This council relaxed some of the principles
of Buddhism like preserving salt, tacking lunch after mid-day,
receiving gold and silver and the like. Conflict of opinion split the
Buddhist order into two groups or factions. One was ‘Sthavira’
and the other, ‘Mahasanghika’. In 251 B.C. and during the
illustrious reign of Emperor Asoka, the Third Buddhist Council
came to be held in Pataliputra, the coital of Magadha The
renowned Buddhist monk Mogaliputta Tissa presided over this
council. An attempt was made in the council to discuss the
issues of conflicting ideas and arrive at a solution based on
consensus. Many reforms were also carried out in the Sangha.
The prime objective was to restore purity by cleansing the sangha
of all perversions. The Kushana Emperor Kaniska held the
Fourth Buddhist Council at Kundalabana Vihar in Kashmir
during 1st century A.D. Vasumitra was its president and
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Ashvaghosha, its vice-president. This council discussed
extensively about the many latent problems confronting
Buddhism. This council was unique because all discussions here
were carried out in Sanskrit and an analysis of Buddhism was
made into the form of an encyclopedia of Buddhism called
‘Mahabivasha’.

Kaniska ordered the gist of all discussions to be engraved on


copper-plates to be preserved in stone-chambers of a stupa. A
new branch under the leadership of Ashvaghosha came up. This
faction was known as ‘Mahayana’. Followers of this group came
to practise worship of the Buddha’s image. Thus, the Fourth
Buddhist Council split the Buddhists into two groups, namely,
‘Hinayana’ and ‘Mahayana’, The ‘Mahayana’ sect was declared as
the state-religion. These Buddhist councils were being held with
regular intervals. So the popular liking could be kept sustained
towards Buddhism. The people were closely following the
deliberations of these councils and were increasingly drawn into
its fold. This accounted for the continuous popularity of
Buddhism.

11. Absence of Strong Rivals:


Right from its beginning in the 6th Century B.C., Buddhism had
no rivals to reckon or contend with. Though Jainism became
popular, the severity of its laws made people far away from it. The
missionary zeal of Buddhism was conspicuously absent in
contemporary Hinduism. There was no reformer to cleanse the
Brahminical faith and spread it among the people in its pure
form. Islam and Christianity were yet to be born. As a result.
Buddhism came to hold an unrivalled sway throughout India

Causes for the Decline of Buddhism:

1. Corruptions in Buddhist Sanghas:


In course of time, the Buddhist ‘Sangha’ became corrupt. The
monks and followers came to be drawn towards luxury and
enjoyment. Receiving and saving valuable gifts like gold and
silver made them greedy and materialistic. They came to lead a

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life of indiscipline. Their example and perverted life-style could
not but bring popular hatred. No more the people were inclined
towards Buddhism.

2. Reform in Hinduism:
Buddhism had dealt a heavy blow to Brahminical faith.
Threatened with extinction, Hinduism started to re-organize
itself. Attempts were now made to give up the complex system of
rites and rituals and make Hinduism simple and attractive. The
Hindus even came to accept the Buddha as a Hindu
incarnation and accepted the principle of non-violence. This
helped revive Hinduism and made it popular again. This took
away the fragrance out of the flower of Buddhism. The decline of
Buddhism became inevitable

3. Division among the Buddhists


Buddhism faced divisions from time to time. Division into various
splinter groups like ‘Hinayana’, ‘Mahayana’, ‘Vajrayana’,
‘Tantrayana’ and ‘Sahajayana’ led Buddhism to lose its
originality. Also the influence of tantricism made people hate it.
The simplicity of Buddhism was lost and it was becoming
complex. This was enough for the people to keep away from it.
The decline of Buddhism became a matter of time.

4. Use of Sanskrit Language:


Pali and Prakrit, the spoken language of most people of India,
was the medium for the spread of the message of Buddhism. But
Sanskrit replaced these at the Fourth Buddhist Council
during the reign period of Kaniska. Sanskrit was a complex
language, hardly understood by common people. It was the
unintelligible Sanskrit language that had accounted for the
decline of Hinduism, earlier. Now, when Buddhism adopted that
language, few people were able to understand it. People rejected
what they could not understand.

5. Patronage of Brahmanism:
In course of time there was the rise of the Brahminical faith once
again. Pushyamitra Sunga, the Brahmin commander of the last

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Maurya ruler Vrihadratha, assassinated the king and founded
the Sunga dynasty replacing the Maurya dynasty. The
Asvamedha sacrifice was done by him. It gave an impetus to the
Brahminical faith. Non-violence, the basic principle of Buddhism,
was given up. He destroyed many stupas and monasteries. Many
Buddhist monks were put to sword. This stemmed the growth of
Buddhism. Again, patronage of the imperial Guptas for
Brahminical faith came to open the path of decline for
Buddhism.

6. Role of Hindu Preachers:


Harsavardhan drove away the Brahmins from the religious
council held at Kanauj. These Brahmins, under Kumarila Bhatta,
fled to the Deccan. Under Bhatta’s leadership, Brahmanism
staged a come-back. Adi Sankaracharya also revived and
strengthened Hinduism. He defeated Buddhist scholars in
religious discourses which were held in many places in course of
his tour of the whole of India. Thus, the superiority of Hinduism
over Buddhism was established. This trend continued through
the efforts of Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Ramananda etc. Hinduism
regained its lost glory, position and popularity. It came to be at
the expense of Buddhism.

7. Rifts in Buddhist Order:


The internal rifts and divisions in Buddhist order made the rise of
any new apostle impossible. The earlier examples of Ananda,
Sariputta and Maudgalayana became very rare. The spirit and
missionary zeal of Buddhism was lost for ever. Thus, the decline
of Buddhism came in the absence of dynamic preachers and
reformers

8. Buddha Worship:
Image worship was started in Buddhism by the Mahayana
Buddhists. They started worshipping the image of the Buddha.
This mode of worship was a violation of the Buddhist principles
of opposing complex rites and rituals of Brahminical worship.
This paradox led the people to believe that Buddhism is tending

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towards the fold of Hinduism. Buddhism’s importance decreased
thereby.

9. Lose of Royal Patronage:


In course of time Buddhism came to lose royal patronage. No
king, worthy of note, came forward to sponsor Buddhism after
Asoka, Kaniska and Harsavardhan. Royal patronage works
magically for the spread of any faith. Absence of any such
patronage for Buddhism came to pave the way for its decline in
the end.

10. Huna Invasion:


The ‘Huna’ invasion jolted Buddhism. Huna leaders like
Toamana and Mihirakula opposed non-violence completely.
They killed the Buddhists residing in the north-western part of
India. This frightened the Buddhists of the region either to give
up Buddhism or go into hiding. None dared to spread the
message of the Buddha during those times. As a result,
Buddhism became weak and depleted.

11. Emergence of Rajputs:


Emergence of the Rajputs became an important reason for the
decline of Buddhism. Kings of such dynasties as Bundela,
Chahamana, Chauhan, Rathore etc. loved warfare. They could
not tolerate the Buddhists for their message of non-violence. The
Buddhists feared persecution from these Rajput rulers and fled
from India. Buddhism became weaker and faced decline.

12. Muslim Invasion:


The Islamic invasion of India almost wiped out Buddhism. Their
invasions of India became regular and repeated from 712 A.D.
onwards. Such invasions forced the Buddhist monks to seek
asylum and shelter in Nepal and Tibet. In the end, Buddhism
perished in India, the land of its birth.

Thus, many causes were responsible for the gradual decline and
fall of Buddhism in the land of her birth although it continued to
flourish in countries beyond India for centuries. Even today, it
has a large number of followers all over the world.

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Contribution of Buddhism:
With its emphasis on non-violence and the sanctity of animal life,
Buddhism boosted the cattle wealth of the country. The earliest
Buddhist text, Suttanipata, declares the cattle to be givers of
food, beauty and happiness, and thus pleads for their protection.
The brahmanical insistence on the sacredness of the cow and
non-violence was apparently derived from Buddhist teachings.
Buddhism created and developed a new awareness in the field of
intellect and culture. The place of superstition was taken by logic
and it promoted rationalism among people.

Promotion of Pali and many local languages, such as Kannada,


Gujarati, etc. The Buddhist monasteries developed as great
centers of learning, and began to be called residential universities
like those of Nalanda and Vikramshila in Bihar, Valabhi in
Gujarat, Taxila, and Nagarjuna Konda.

In the field of architecture and art, Buddhism takes the credit for:
the first human statues to be worshipped; stone panels depicting
the life of the Buddha at Gaya in Bihar and at Sanchi and
Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh; cave architecture in the Barabar
hills at Gaya and in western India around Nasik; art pieces of
Amravati and Nagarjunakonda.

Buddhist Architecture:
With Buddhist architecture was particularly associated the
Stupa, a domical structure of brick or stone masonry. Shrines
known as Chaityas with the votive Chaityas installed for worship
and prayer, as also monasteries (Viharas, Sangharamas), were
essential features of Buddhist religious establishments.

The Stupa was a conventional representation of a funeral


tumulus, evolved out of earthen funerary mound in which the
relics of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monk are
preserved. The Stupa at Sanchi comprises of an almost
hemispherical dome (anda) flattened at the top, supported on a
low circular base (Medhi). Over the dome is a square pavilion
called harmika (box) enclosed by a balustrade surrounding the

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sacred parasol (chatra). Pradaksinapatha was the path for
clockwise circumbulation surrounded by a fence built encircling
the stupa. The whole structure is surrounded by a massive rail
with four imposing gateways on the four sides. The chaitya
shrine in its typical form was a long rectangular hall, apsidal at
the rear end and divided into three sections by two rows of pillars
along the length of the hall meeting at the back end.

Rock cut chitya shrines are at Bhaja near Poona (2nd century
B.C) Kondane Pitalkhora, Bedsa, Nasik, Kanheri, Ajanta, Karle
and other places in Western India. Fragmentary remains of many
monasteries (vihara) have been excavated in the north as well as
in the south. The monastery at Nalanda belongs to the fifth
century A.D. and one at Paharpur (Somapura Mahavihara) was
established towards the close of the 8th or the beginning of the
9th century

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Maha Janapadas to the Maurya

Mahajanapada
The Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya gives a list of sixteen
great kingdoms called ‘Sixteen Mahajanapadas’. They were Anga,
Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru,
Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka, Avanti, Gandhara and
Kambhoja. The Jain texts also contain references to the existence
of sixteen kingdoms. In course of time, the small and weak
kingdoms either submitted to the stronger rulers or gradually got
eliminated. Finally in the mid 6 th century B.C., only four
kingdoms – Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha survived.

In the later Vedic period itself we start hearing of many


Janapadas and Mahajanapadas. The names of at least nine
Janapadas have been given in Vedic literature beside such people
as the Andhras, Pulindas, Sabaras and Pundaras. However, by
the time of the sixth century B.C. Panini mentions as many as
22 different Janapadas of which three were considered very
important. These were Magadha, Kosala and Vatsa. A clearer
picture emerges from the early Buddhist and Jain literature.
They present a list of sixteen Mahajanapadas with minor
variation of names in different works. Though the number is the
same, the names in the lists differ. Perhaps they show the
political conditions at different times and the geographical
nearness or knowledge of the author. According to Anguttara
Nikaya there were following Mahajanapadas:

(i) Anga (including the modern districts of Monghyr and


Bhagalpur in Bihar) with its capital of Champa,
(ii) Magadha (covering the districts of Patna, Gaya and parts
of Shahabad) with its earlier capital at Rajgriha or
Girivraj
(iii) Vajji (a confederacy of eight republican clans, situated to
the north of the river Ganga in Bihar) with its capital,
VaisaJi
(iv) Malla (also a republican confederacy covering the modern
districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhpur and Siddharthnagar

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in eastern Uttar Pradesh) with two capitals at Kusinara
and Pawa,
(v) Kasi with its capital at Varanasi - Ayodhya was the
capital of Kosala. King Prasenajit was its famous
ruler. He was highly educated. His position was
further strengthened by the matrimonial alliance with
Magadha. His sister was married to Bimbisara and
Kasi was given to her as dowry. Subsequently there
was a dispute with Ajatasatru. After the end of the
conflict, Prasenajit married the daughter of
Bimbisara. After the death of this powerful king,
Kosala became part of the Magadha.
(vi) Kosala (covering the present districts ofFaizabad, Gonda,
Bahraich etc.), with its capital at Sravasti,
(vii) Vatsa (covering the modern districts Allahabad,
Mirzapur etc.), with its capital at Kausambi - The
Vatsa kingdom was situated on the banks of the river
Yamuna. Its capital was Kausambi near modern
Allahabad. Its most popular ruler was Udayana. He
strengthened his position by entering into
matrimonial alliances with Avanti, Anga and
Magadha. After his death, Vatsa was annexed to the
Avanti kingdom
(viii) Chedi, (covering the modern Bundelkhand area with its
capital at Shuktimati),
(ix) Kuru (covering the modern Haryana and Delhi area to the
west of river Yamuna) with its capital at Indraprastha
(modern Delhi),
(x) Panchala (covering the area of western Uttar Pradesh up
to the east of river Yamuna up to the Kosala Janapada)
with its capital at Ahichhatra,
(xi) Surasena, (covering Brij Mandal with its capital at
Mathura),
(xii) Matsya (covering the area of Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur
in Rajasthan)
(xiii) Avanti (modern Malawa) with its capital at Ujjayini
and Mahishmati - The capital of Avanti was Ujjain.
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The most important ruler of this kingdom was
Pradyota. He became powerful by marrying
Vasavadatta, the daughter of Udayana. He patronized
Buddhism. The successors of Pradyota were weak and
later this kingdom was taken over by the rulers of
Magadha.
(xiv) Ashmaka (between the rivers Narmada'and Godavari)
with its capital at Potana,
(xv) Gandhara (area covering the western part of Pakistan and
eastern Afghanistan) with its capitals at Taxila and
Pushkalavati,
(xvi) Kamboja (identified with modern district of Hazara
disricts of Pakistan).

This list of sixteen Mahajanapadas covers India only from


Bihar in the east to Afghanistan in the west, and Hindukush
in the north to river Godavari in the south. It leaves out vast
areas of Bengal and eastern India and practically the whole of
south India. But these very Buddhist texts show familiarity
with whole of India. Mahagovinda Sutta of Digha Nikaya
describes the shape of India as rectangular in the north and
triangular in the south, just like a bullock cart.

The Buddhist Nikayas mention the fivefold division of India


into

- Uttarapatha north -western)


- Madhyadesha (central)
- Prachi (eastern)
- Dakshinapath (south)
- Apranta (western)

which confirms that the geographical unity of India had been


visualised much before the sixth century B.C. based on the study
of the lists of Janapadas preserved in the Jain texts
Bhagvatisutra, and Sutrakntang, great Grammarian Panini's
Ashtadhyayi (sixth century B. C.), Baudhayandharmasutra
(seventh century B.C.), and the Janapada list available in the

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Mahabharata, the whole of India from Himalayas in the north to
Kanyakumari in the south, from Gandhara in the west to Bengal
and Assam in the east are covered by these Janapadas.

Kautilya (fourth century B.C.) clearly visualises the goal of


political unity of the whole land under a Chakravarti ruler, and
clearly defines the Chakravarti kshetra from the Himalayas in the
north to the ocean in the south. The distribution of punch-
marked coins, which were in circulation from sixth century B.C.
to second century B.C. shows that by the fourth century B.C.
there was only one currency for the whole of India. It shows
political and economic unification for the entire territory. The
Buddhist literature shows that some Janapadas followed the
monarchical system. Each Janapada has its own independent
dynasty of rulers. Megasthenese, the Greek ambassador in the
court of Chandragupta Maurya (fourth century B.C.) has left on
record that he saw a royal genealogy of 151 generations covering
a time period of about 6051 (or 6015) years. During this time,
Magadha experimented in the republican system thrice. This
extract from Megasthenese's Indica is in conformity with the post
-Mahabharata war royal genealogy preserved in the Puranas.

Along with the list of Mahajanapadas 'we also find the names of
many famous cities during the time of Buddha. Some of these
were Champa , Rajagriha, Srava sti, Saket, Kausambi and Kasi.
These were mostly the capital cities of Mahajanapadas. There
were also non-monarchical states which can be called republics
or ganasanghas. Buddhist texts reveal that during the time of the
Buddha there were many such republican states. Some of the
important ones were: (i) Mallas of Kusinara (ii) Mallas of Pava (iii)
Sakyas of Kapilavastu (iv) Koliyas of Ramagrama (v) Moriyas of
Pipphalivana (vi) Bulis of Alakappa (vii) Kalamas of Kesaputta
(viii) Bhaggas of Sumsumaragiri (ix) Lichchhavis of Vaisali.

The Buddhist texts also speak of nine ganas of the Mallas and
nine of Kasi. These helped the Vajjis against the aggression of
Magadha. The Mallas of Kusinagara and Pava were the
kshatriyas of the Ikshvaku dynasty. According to Divyavadana,

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perhaps at the time of Buddha, the Mallas were divided into
two branches, namely Kusinara (Kusinagara) and Pava in
eastern Uttar Pradesh. Perhaps they also formed a sangha of
nine republican states. The Sakyas of Kapilavastu, modern
Piparahwa in the Siddharthanagar district of Uttar Pradesh on
the Nepal border, were also Ikshvaku kshatriyas. Gautama
Buddha was born in the Sakya family and Suddhodana was the
'King' of the Sakyas. The Koliyas of Ramagrama were eastern
neighbours of the Sakyas.

The Moriyas of the Pipphalivana also claimed to be a ksha


triya. According to Mahavamsa, Chandragupta Maurya belonged
to this kshatriya clan. We do not have much information about
the Bulis of Allakappa, Kalamas of Kesaputta and Bhaggas of
Sumsumaragiri. The Vajjis were the most important
republican state during the period of Buddha. They were settled
on the northern side of the Ganga, while Magadha was on the
south. Vajji was a confederation of eight ganas among which
the Lichchhavis were most prominent. These were called
astakulika (eight families). Vajjis, Lichchhavis, Videhas and
Jnatrika were important families. Mahavira, the twenty-fourth
Jaina Tirthankara was born in the last mentioned family. During
the time of Buddha, the Lichchhavis, under the leadership of
Chetaka, were the most prominent gana in the Vaiii sangha. They
are also called kshatriyas. The Vajjis were defeated and
assimilated in the Magadha Empire by Ajatasatru.

The Rise of Magadha


The four important royal dynasties that stand out prominently in
the sixth century B.C. are the Haryankas of Magadha, the
Ikshvakus of Kosala, the Pauravas of Vatsa and the Pradyotas
of Avanti.

The Political Summary of Magadha Empire


Magadha was located near today’s Patna & Gaya. The first
notable thing about Magadha was its geographical location
which gave its rulers a locational advantage to acquire more and
more power. Magadha was located between Ganga River in

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North, Son River in West, Vindhya ranges in south and
Champa in East. The three sides protected the territory and it
was not easy for any invader to invade Magadha so easily. The
earliest capital of Magadha was Girivraja.

Brihadrath Dynasty
The earliest known king of Magadha is Brihadrath. Name of
Brihadrath appears in Rig-Veda. Magadha is mentioned in
Atharvaveda. The puranic sources say that Brihadrath was the
eldest son of Vasu.

According to Ramayana, Vasu founded Vasumati and Grivraja.


Brihadrath founded the Brihadrath dynasty. His son was
Jarasandha. Name of Jarasandha appears in Mahabharta and
Puranas many times. Jarasandha was inimical to Yadavas and
that is why he is mentioned as a villain in the Mahabharat.
Jarasandha was a powerful king and a devotee of Shiva who at
the time of his birth was in two pieces of human body born to two
wives of Brihadrath. These two pieces were thrown into the forest
on the order of Brihadrath. In the Forest, a Rakshashi known as
Jara found these two pieces. When she joined them, they became
one and thus the name Jarasandha (one who was joined by Jara
was given).

In the Mahabharta war, Jarasandha was killed by Bhima. The


time period assigned to Jarasandha is approximately 1760 BC.
Sahadev who also was killed in the epic war of Mahabharta
succeeded him. The Brihadrath Dynasty ended approximately
8th century BC.

Brihadrath dynasty was taken over by the Pradyota dynasty,


which ruled Magadha for 138 years. Pradyota dynasty kings used
to kill their fathers as a tradition to become kings. So patricide
was common in Magadha. People get annoyed by this bloody
tradition of patricide and civil revolt uprooted the Pradyota
dynasty. The Buddhacharita by Aśvaghosa mentions that it was
Bimbisara of the Haranyaka Dynasty, which succeeded the
Pradyota dynasty.

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It is interesting to note that the kingdom of Kuru-Panchala, Kasi
and Matsya, celebrated in the Mahabharata, continued in this
period, although they ranked as minor powers.

Bimbisara
Bimbisara was the first great king of the Haranyaka Dynasty.
Bimbisara was the most remarkable king of the pre Mauryan
dynasties of Magadha. He used the policy of marital alliances
to expand his kingdom, a tradition which was not yet seen in any
dynasty. He also used a policy of sending envoys to strengthen
the bilateral relationships. Bimbisara had 4 wives. These wives
were a result of Bimbisara’s Policy of dynastic alliances. His chief
queen was Khema. The 4 queen of Bimbisara were Kosaladevi,
sister of Pasendi or Prasenjit of Aiksvaka dynasty. Kashi was
given to Bimbisara as a dowry gift in his marriage with
Kosaladevi. Chellena the daughter of Cetaka or Chetaka, the
Licchhavi King of Vaishali who was brother of Trishla, mother of
Mahavira. Khema or Kshema was daughter of Madra King of
Punjab. Vaidehi was daughter of Videha King. This proves that
Bimbisara used matrimonial alliances to expand his kingdom.
For example Kosaladevi brought Kasi under his rule, however,
Kashi later became the cause of hostility between his son
Ajatshatru and his brother in law Pasendi. Bimbisara was great
in military skills as well. He defeated Brahamdatta of Anga and
annexed Anga in Magadha. Further territories were also were
annexed to Magadha by Bimbisara. Bimbisara, annexed Anga,
and his son Ajatasatru conquered the Lichchhavis of Vaisali. All
these kings - Pradyota, Udayana, Bimbisara and Prasenajit -
flourished in the second half of the sixth century B.C. At the
beginning of the fifth century B.C., the Pauravas and the
Pradyotas seem to have retired from the contest for supremacy,
which was thus left to be fought out between the Haryankas of
Magadha, and the Ikshvakus of Kosala.

Bimbisara was a contemporary of both Vardhamana Mahavira


and Gautama Buddha. However, both religions claim him as
their supporter and devotee. He seems to have made numerous
gifts to the Buddhist Sangha. The Jain texts mention that he was
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a disciple of Lord Mahavira. The Buddhist texts mention that he
met Buddha before enlightment. Buddha promised him to visit
his capital after he gets enlightment. He was a patron of Buddha
and as a mark of goodwill; he presented the Bamboo Grove
(karanda venu vana) to the Sangha. However, Bimbisara’s life
ended with a tragedy. He was imprisoned by his son Ajatshatru
who starved him to death. So, like many of predecessor kings he
was also a victim of patricide. In Bimbisara, we find a very
efficient politician who had a clear vision of the political situation
at his time. His success is attributed largely to the matrimonial
alliances he made. He was known as Shrenik as per the Jain
texts, which means that he had a large standing army. He is
supposed to be one of the first kings to have a large standing
army. After becoming a king at the age of 15 years, he not only
expanded the empire but also patronized both the rising religions
at that time. His success was also due to the efficient
administration machinery, in which the Rajbhats or
Mahamattas i.e. Royal officers were divided into many classes.

By introducing a highly efficient system of administration,


Bimbisara consolidated his conquests. His administration was
found to have been really well-organised and efficient. The high
officers were divided into three classes, viz. executive, military
and judicial. The ‘Sabarthakas’ were responsible for the
management of general administration.

“Senanayaka Mahamatras” were in charge of military affairs.


“Vyavaharika Mahamatra’s” were in charge of judicial-
administration. Provincial administration was also well-
organised. The head of provincial administration was “Uparaja”.
The villages enjoyed rural autonomy. “Gramika” was the head of
the village administration. The penal laws were severe. Bimbisara
also developed the means of communication by constructing good
roads. He is said to have established a new capital at Rajagriha
situated on the outskirts of the old capital Girivraja.

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Ajatashatru
The period assigned to Ajatshatru’s rule is 491 BC to 461 BC. He
was son of Bimbisara’s wife Vaidehi, the Buddhist texts mention
his name as Vaidehi Putra Ajatashatru. Ajatashatru was not the
only son of Bimbisara. There were many sons and daughters
from his all wives but Ajatshatru proved to be dominant. He
killed his father by starving him to death; this is what Buddhist
traditions say. However, Jaina texts say that he was not involved
in patricide. However, most scholars agree that he ended the life
of his father. The killing of Bimbisara brought enmity between
Ajatshatru and Pasendi, the king of Kosala. His sister Kosaladevi
died of shock of his husband’s tragic end. Pasendi immediately
confiscated Kashi, which was given as a gift to Kosaladevi in
marriage.

A fierce and protracted struggle ensued between Prasenajit and


Ajatasatru, and although the results were indecisive for a long
time. The dispute was later solved and result was in favour of
Ajatshatru, who not only absorbed Kasi to his kingdom Magadha
but also got daughter of Pasendi named Vajira. Ajatshatru
expanded his territories by fighting a war with Licchhavis also.
There were many reasons for his enmity towards the Licchhavis
such as his half bothers were sheltered by Licchhavis, trade on
the banks of river Ganga, a mine of gems near Ganga and most
important the rising power of Licchhavis, which Ajatshatru
wanted to destroy. The war / struggle continued for 16 years and
ended in favor of Ajatshatru who absorbed the Licchhavis in his
empire. Henceforth, Magadha stood out as the supreme power in
northern India, which finally culminated into one of the greatest
empires that had ever been seen. Ajatasatru, became the founder
of Magadhan supremacy.

Mahshilakantaka & Rathamusala were two war equipments


used (invented) by Ajatshatru against Licchhavis. The
Mahshilakantaka was an engine kind of equipment which ejected
big stones. The Rathamusala was a Chariot which a musala
(mace or blade) attached at both sides of chariot which when ran,

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caused a lot of casualties. It was also known as scythed chariot,
which was invented by Ajatshatru

During the times of Ajatshatru, both Buddha and Mahavira


attained Nirvana. Makkhali Gosala or Gosala Maskariputta, the
founder of Ajivikas path also attained Nirvana during the time of
Ajatshatru.

Ajatshatru shared the relics of Buddha and enshrined them in a


stupa. He also renovated 18 Buddhist Monasteries. Immediately
after the death of Buddha, Ajatshatru sponsored the First
Buddhist Council, which was organized in a hall erected by him
outside the Sattaparnaguha Cave or Sattapani caves in Rajgir.
This meeting was presided by Elder Mahakassapa. In this
council Ananda recited Sutta Pitaka and Upali recited Vinaya
Pitaka.

Ajatshatru built a fort at Pataliputra and so is known as founder


of Patna. Many texts mention that is son Udayin developed
Pataliputra as a city. It is said that Under Udayin Pataliputra
became prosperous city which later became world’s largest city
under Mauryas. Ajatshatru faced the same fate as his father. He
was killed by his son Udayin.

Ajatshatru died about- 475 B.C. and was succeeded by Udayin,


to whom tradition ascribes the foundation of Pataliputra, the new
capital of the Magadha kingdom. As described in epic literature,
Rajagriha, now represented by the ruins at Rajgir in the Patna
district, served as the capital of the Magadha kingdom. While
Ajatashatru was fighting against the Licchhavis, he built, as a
defensive measure, a fortress at Pataligrama, a village at the
junction of the Ganga and the Son. In course of time, the
strategic importance of the place must have attracted the
attention of the statesmen of Magadha, and Udayi evidently
thought it a more suitable capital for his kingdom, which had
extended its boundaries in all directions by then.

Udayin was succeeded by Anuruddha by Assassination, his son


Munda & his son Nagdasaka also shared the same fate. This

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dynastic feuding triggered a revolt and the people thrown these
Haranyaka Dynasty rule and imposed Shishunaga as ruler. This
was the foundation of Shishunaga Dynasty.

Shishunaga Dynasty
Shishunaga was the founder of this dynasty. He was an amatya
/ officer / governor of the last Haranyaka ruler Nagdasaka. After
this coup d’état, Shishunaga made Grivraja his residence and
deputed his son to Banaras. Shishunaga was succeeded by
Kalasoka. During Kalasoka, Pataliputra became the capital of
Magadha. In Purana, he is mentioned as Kakavarna and in Sri
Lankan texts he is mentioned as Kalasoka.

Kalasoka at Vaishali sponsored the second Buddhist Council in


383 BC. A Buddhist monk Yasa, who saw the local monks of
Vaishali following the teaching laxily, invited this council. The
dispute was on 10 Points such as storing salt in horn, eating
after midday, eating once and going to villages for alms, eating
sour milk after one's meal etc. It was not settled and Buddhism
sects appeared for the first time. President of this council was
Sabakami. The last rulers of Shishunaga Dynasty were 10 sons
of Kalasoka who ruled simultaneously. Out of them one son
Nandivardhana is mentioned in Puranas.

Nanda
Mahapadmananda was the first ruler of the Nanda Dynasty.
There are several theories about the birth of Mahapadmananda.
The Purana theory say that Mahapadmananda was son of
Nandivardhana & a Shudra Woman. Another theory says that
there was a good-looking barber, who won the heart of a queen
who subsequently killed the king. Thus, Mahapadmananda was a
son of this barber. Whatever may be correct but this was the line
which started the trend of lowborn (as of contemporary
conditions) rule started in Magadha.

The Nandas were the first Non Kshatriya rulers in the history of
India. They were also the first Empire Builders in the recorded
history of India. Estimates say that the army of Nandas was

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consisting of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 (or 80,000) cavalry, 2,000
(or 8,000) war chariots and 3,000 (or 6,000) war elephants.
Nanda ruled almost all parts of India for 100 years. The last ruler
was Dhanananda who was over thrown by Chandragupta Maurya
thus founding Mauryan Empire in 321 BC

• Mahapadmananda had a large army and that is why he is


called Ugrasena.

• His army might have been so large that it could be arranged in


a Lotus shape : Padmavyuh

• He might have been so wealthy that his wealth was in Padama,


a unit of counting equivalent to a million multiplied by a billion.

• Mahapadmananda subdued all the major powers such as


Ikasvakus, Kurus, Panchals, Kasis, Surasens, Maithilas,
kalingas, Asmakas etc. and that is why Puranas mention is name
: Sarvakhstrantaka. (destroyer of all Kshtras) equivalent to
Parshurama.

Mahapadma Nanda was a powerful ruler of the Nanda dynasty.


He uprooted the kshatriya dynasties in north India and assumed
the title ekarat. The Puranas speak of the extensive conquests
made by Mahapadma. The Hathigumpha inscription of
Kharavela of Kalinga refers to the conquest of Kalinga by the
Nandas. Many historians believe that a considerable portion of
the Deccan was also under the control of the Nandas. Therefore,
Mahapadma Nanda may be regarded as a great empire builder.
The fabulous wealth of the Nandas is also mentioned by several
sources. The enormous wealth of the Nandas is also referred to in
the Tamil Sangam work Ahananuru by the poet Mamulanar. The
flourishing state of agriculture in the Nanda dominions and the
general prosperity of the country must have brought to the royal
treasury enormous revenue. The oppressive way of tax collection
by Dhana Nanda was resented by the people. Taking advantage
of this, Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilya initiated a popular
movement against the Nanda rule. It was during this time that
Alexander invaded India.

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Persian and Greek invasions

Persian Invasions
Cyrus (558 – 530 B.C) Cyrus the Great was the greatest
conqueror of the Achaemenian Empire. He was the first
conqueror who led an expedition and entered into India. He
captured the Gandhara region. All Indian tribes to the west of the
Indus river submitted to him and paid tribute. His son Cambyses
had no time to pay attention towards India.

Darius I (522 – 486 B.C.) Darius I, the grandson of Cyrus,


conquered the Indus valley in 518 B.C. and annexed the Punjab
and Sindh. This region became the 20th Satrapy of his empire. It
was the most fertile and populous province of the Achaemenian
Empire. Darius sent a naval expedition under Skylas to explore
the Indus.

Xerxes (465-456 B.C.) Xerxes utilized his Indian province to


strengthen his position. He deployed Indian infantry and cavalry
to Greece to fight his opponents. But they retreated after Xerxes
faced a defeat in Greece. After this failure, the Achaemenians
could not follow a forward policy in India. However, the Indian
province was still under their control. Darius III enlisted Indian
soldiers to fight against Alexander in 330 B.C. It is evident that
the control of Persians slackened on the eve of Alexander’s
invasion of India.

Effects of the Persian Invasion


The Persian invasion provided an impetus to the growth of Indo-
Iranian commerce. Also, it prepared the ground for Alexander’s
invasion. The use of the Kharoshti script, a form of Iranian
writing became popular in north-western India and some of
Asoka’s edicts were written in that script. We are able to see the
influence of Persian art on the art of the Mauryas, particularly
the monolithic pillars of Asoka and the sculptures found on
them. The very idea of issuing edicts by Asoka and the wording
used in the edicts are traced to Iranian influence. In short, the

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Iranian connection with India proved more fruitful than the
short-lived Indo- Macedonian contact.

Alexander’s Invasion of India (327-325 B.C.)


Political Condition on the eve of Alexander’s Invasion After two
centuries of the Persian invasion, Alexander from Macedonia
invaded India. On the eve of his invasion, there were a number of
small kingdoms in northwestern India. The leading kings were
Ambhi of Taxila, the ruler of Abhisara and Porus who ruled the
region between the rivers of Jhelum and Chenab. There were
many republican states like Nysa. In short, the northwestern
India remained the most disunited part of India and the rulers
were fighting with one another. They never come together against
common enemy. Yet, it was not easy for Alexander to overcome so
many sources of opposition.

Causes of the Invasion


Alexander ascended the throne of Macedonia after the death of
his father Philip in 334 B.C. He conquered the whole of Persia by
defeating Darius III in the battle of Arbela in 330 B.C. He also
aimed at further conquest eastwards and wanted to recover the
lost Persian Satrapy of India. The writings of Greek authors like
Herodotus about the fabulous wealth of India attracted
Alexander. Moreover, his interest in geographical enquiry and
love of natural history urged him to undertake an invasion of
India. He believed that on the eastern side of India there was the
continuation of the sea, according the geographical knowledge of
his period. So, he thought that by conquering India, he would
also conquer the eastern boundary of the world.

Battle of Hydaspes
In 327 B.C. Alexander crossed the Hindukush Mountains and
spent nearly ten months in fighting with the tribes. He crossed
the Indus in February 326 B.C. with the help of the bridge of
boats. He was warmly received by Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila.
From there Alexander sent a message to Porus to submit. But
Porus refused and decided to fight against Alexander. Then

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Alexander marched from Taxila to the banks of the river
Hydaspes (Jhelum). On the other side of the river he saw the vast
army of Porus. As there were heavy floods in the river, Alexander
was not able to cross it. After a few days, he crossed the river and
the famous battle of Hydaspes was fought on the plains of Karri.
It was a well-contested battle. Although Porus had a strong army,
he lost the battle. Alexander was impressed by the courage and
heroism of this Indian prince, treated him generously and
reinstated him on his throne. Alexander continued his march as
far as the river Beas encountering opposition from the local
tribes. He wanted to proceed still further eastwards towards the
Gangetic valley. But he could not do so because his soldiers
refused to fight. Hardships of prolonged warfare made them tired
and they wanted to return home. Alexander could not persuade
them and therefore decided to return. He made arrangements to
look after his conquered territories in India. He divided the whole
territory from the Indus to the Beas into three provinces and put
them under his governors. His retreat began in October 326 B.C.
and the return journey was not free from ordeals. Many
republican tribes attacked his army. Anyhow he managed to
reach beyond the Indus. On his way he reached Babylon where
he fell seriously ill and died in 323 B.C.

Effects of Alexander’s invasion


The immediate effect of Alexander’s invasion was that it
encouraged political unification of north India under the
Mauryas. The system of small independent states came to an
end. Alexander’s invasion had also paved the way for direct
contact between India and Greece. The routes opened by him and
his naval explorations increased the existing facilities for trade
between India and West Asia. However, his aim of annexing the
north-western India to his empire was not fulfilled due his
premature death. His authority in the Indus valley was a short-
lived one because of the expansion of Mauryan Empire under
Chandragupta Maurya.

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Mauryan Empire

Maurya Dynasty
The Mauryan Empire was the
first and one of the greatest
empires that were established
on Indian soil. The vast
Mauryan Empire stretching
from the valley of the Oxus to
the delta of Kaveri was given
a well-knit, common
administration.

Chandragupta Maurya was the first ruler who unified entire India
under one political unit. About Mauryan rulers we have
epigraphical sources, literary sources, foreign accounts and
materials obtained from archaeological excavations.

The Arthashastra gives us detailed information about the


administrative system of the Mauryan
Empire. The work was written by
Kautilya who is also known as
Chanakya. Some scholars think that
Kautilya was the real architect of the
Mauryan empire and was also the
Prime Minister of Chandragupta
Maurya. Megasthenese, the Greek
ambassador from the court of
Seleucus to that of Chandragupta
Maurya, wrote accounts of India and
Indian people. His book Indica is lost but some fragments of it
are known to us in the form of quotations in the works of the
later Greek writers. Despite some discrepancies and inaccuracies
in the information provided by Megasthenese it is, nevertheless,
an useful source. However, the most important and authentic
source for the history of Mauryan period is provided by the
inscriptions of Ashoka.

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Chandragupta Maurya (324-300 B.C.)
The Purana account says that Chandragupta was a son of last
Nanda Monarch Dhanananda from his Shudra concubine Mura
and that is why is name is Maurya. This
account has been rejected as well as accepted
by many scholars and has been quite
controversial. As per the Mahaparinibbana
Sutta, Chandragupta was a scion of Moriya
Clan, which was branch of Sakyas
Khatriyas. These Kshatriyas had received a
share in the relics of Buddha. Some other traditions link his
ancestry to peacock tamers. So there is no single theory about
the ancestry of Chandragupta. One thing on which all scholars
agree is that he was from a “humble” background. He is
mentioned in the Greek texts as Sandrokyptos, Sandrokottos
and Androcottus. The Buddhist sources like Mahavamsa and
Dipavamsa also describe Chandragupta Maurya as a scion of the
Kshatriya clan of the Moriyas branch of Sakyas who lived in
Pipphalivana, in eastern Uttar Pradesh. The Mudrarakshasa, a
play written by Vishakha Datta, uses the terms like Vrishala and
Kulahina, for Chandragupta which mean a person of humble
origin. Justin, a Greek writer, also says that Chandragupta was
"born in humble life". According to Buddhist sources
Chandragupta's father was killed in a battle and he was brought
up by his maternal uncle. Chandragupta is said to have served
the Nanda Army as a General or Senapati in one of the theories.
He, instigated by Vishnugupta or Chanakya revolted against his
master but his revolt failed. Dhanananda insulted Vishnugupta,
a Brahmin by breaching a social etiquette. When the revolt failed,
both of them fled to safety. The Mahavamsa writes that
Chandragupta while concealed in a woman's hut overheard the
woman scolding her child, who in the act of eating had burnt his
fingers by beginning from the center of the bread. She scolded
the child and taught him that hot bread should not be touched
from the center and it should be broken in pieces from the
corners. Chandragupta learnt from this story and transferred
himself to the North West. Chanakya, finding the signs of royalty
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in the child Chandragupta, took him as his pupil, and educated
him at Taxila which was then a great centre of learning.
Chandragupta's early life and education at Taxila is indirectly
proved by the fact that the Greek sources tell us that he had seen
Alexander in course of the latter's campaign of Punjab. The
details of Chandragupta's conquests and empire building process
are not available to us. From the Greek and Jain sources it
seems that Chandragupta took advantage of the disturbances
caused by the invasion of Alexander and his sudden death in 323
B.C. in Babylon. He, with the help of Kautilya raised a large army
and launched campaigns.

Traditional accounts also mention a story,


that Vishnugupta was a teacher at the Taxila
University. He found one day that
Chandragupta was playing with children and
he delivered justice among the boys, one of
who was acting a criminal. Vishnugupta was
impressed by his sense of justice. He took the
boy to the king, who impressed by his
intelligence ordered to be trained at Taxila
University. Nevertheless, in the same event the
king insulted Chanakya by breaching the etiquette and forced
him out. To take revenge Chanakya groomed the young
Chandragupta at Taxila University.

First of all, Chandragupta liberated North east from the Greek


Governors and Satraps who were appointed by Alexander.
Alexander’s death provided Chandragupta an opportunity to give
a death blow to the Greek Rule in parts of India. After that he
focused his attention on Magadha. Chanakya through diplomacy
aligned Chandragupta with a neighbouring king Parvataka and
the combined army dethroned the Nandas and seized the
Magadha. Nandas were spared their life and let run with as much
treasure as much a chariot can carry.

He first overthrew the Greek kshatrapas ruling in the region of


north-western India. Justin writes, "India after the death of

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Alexander, had shaken, as it were, the yoke of servitude from its
neck and put his Governors to death. The architect of this
liberation was Sandrocottas. Sandrocottas of Greek writers has
been identified with Chandragupta Maurya.

After liberating north-western india from the Greek rule,


Chandragupta turned his attention to the conquest of Magadha
from the Nandas. The details of this conquest are not known to
us. The Jain text, Parisistha Parvam, describes that with the
help of Chanakya, Chandragupta
defeated the Nanda king and
captured him. After defeating
Nanda, Chandragupta became the
ruler of Magadha empire.
Chandragupta's western and
southern Indian conquests are
known to us through indirect
evidences. The Junagarh rock inscription of Rudradaman says
that a dam on the Sudarshana lake for irrigation was constructed
by Pushyagupta, a provincial governor of Chandragupta Maurya.
Later, Yavanaraja Tushapha excavated canals for irrigation
during Ashoka's reign. Similarly, the find of Ashokan inscriptions
at Girnar hills in Junagarh district (in Gujarat) and at Sopara
(Thane district, 'Maharashtra) shows that these areas formed
part of Mauryan empire. Ashoka's inscriptions have been found
at Maski, Yerragudi and Chitaldurga in Karnataka. Rock Edict
II and XIII of Ashoka mentions that his immediate neighbouring
states were those of Cholas, 'Pandyas, Satyaputras and
Keralaputras. Since Ashoka and his father Bindusara are not
known to have made conquest in south India, it can be said that
it was conquered by Chandragupta. This conclusion is further
strengthened by the Jain tradition which says that in his old age
Chandragupta abdicated the throne and retired to Sravanbelgola
in Karnataka with his teacher, the Jain ascetic Bhadrabahu.
Local inscriptions of later period refer to his giving up life as a
devout Jaina by fast unto death at that place. There is a hill
nearby called Chandragiri, which seems to be named after him.

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Chandragupta defeated the invading army of the Greek
Kshatrapa Seleucus who had succeeded Alexander in the eastern
part of his empire. After death of Alexander, Seleucus, one of the
generals of Alexander; became his successor. He launched a
campaign against India in 304 BC to recapture the territories
won by Alexander. He crossed Indus but his mission failed and
an alliance with Chandragupta ended the mission. By this treaty,
Seleucus returned the Arachosia (Kandahar), Paropanisade
(Kabul), Aria (Herat) and Gedrsoia (Baluchistan) to
Chandragupta. The alliance was cemented by Chandragupta.
Following were the acts that cemented the ties:

• Chandragupta gave 500 war elephants to Selucus.

• Seleucus sent Megasthenes to Chandragupta’s Court.

• Possibly, there was a marital alliance in which son/ daughter of


one was married to daughter / son of other.

This victory was achieved in about 305 B.C. The Greek writers do
not give details of the war but state that a treaty was concluded
in which Seleucus conceded the territories of Kandahar,
Kabul,Herat and Baluchistan and Chandragupta presented him
500 elephants. It is also stated that this also led to the
matrimonial alliance between the two - perhaps Seleucus married
his daughter to Chandragupta Maurya or to his son Bindusara.
Seleucus sent Megasthenese as his ambassador to the court of
Chandragupta. Plutarch writes, "Sandrocottas who had by that
time mounted the throne overran and subdued the whole of India
with an army of 6,00,000". Thus, Chandragupta established a
vast empire which with the
exception of Kalinga, extended
from Afghanistan in the west to
Assam in the east and from
Kashmir in north to Karnataka
in south. This is indirectly proved
by the find spots of the edicts of
his grandson, Ashoka. Ashoka is

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said to have added only Kalinga to the Mauryan empire, and
there is no definite evidence that his father Bindusara made any
conquests at all. Chandragupta Maurya is said to have ruled for
24 years i.e. from 324 B.C. to 300 B.C.

Bindusara
Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his son Bindusara. We
know little about this king. His other name is Amitraghata which
means destroyer of foes. The Greek scholars write him as
“Amitrachates” or “Allitrochates”. The Jain scholar Hemachandra
and Tibetan Monk Taranath say that Chanakya outlived
Chandragupta and continued as a minister of Bindusara. From
Divyavadana we came to know that Bindusara appointed his
eldest son Sumana (also named Susima) as his viceroy at Taxila
and Ashoka at Ujjain. It also tells us that a revolt broke out at
Taxila and when it could not be suppressed by Susima, Ashoka
was sent to restore peace. Some scholars give the credit of south
Indian conquest to Bindusara, but most scholars believe that this
was done by his father Chandragupta Maurya. Bindusara
continued the policy of friendly relations with Hellenic world.
Pliny mentions that Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt sent
Dionysius as his ambassador to his court. He was friendly with
the Greek King Antiochos-IIS and asked him to send sweet wine,
figs and a philosopher. The two things were sent but third "a
philosopher" was not sent as the land of the law at Greece did not
permit. Deimachos was a Syrian ambassador who came in the
court of Bindusara. Bindusara ruled for approximately 25-26
years and his succession was disputed which ultimately gave
India a great king called Asoka. Bindusara supported the
Ajivikas, a religious sect. Bindusara appointed his son Asoka as
the governor of Ujjain.

Ashoka
Ashokavardhana or Asoka was governor of Taxila and Ujjain
during the reign of his father Bindusara. The Sri Lankan texts
represent Asoka as “wading through a pool of Blood” quoting that
he terminated all 99 of his brothers except his uterine brother
Tisya. The Buddhist texts mention his mother’s name as
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Subhadrangi. His first wife was a princess of Ujjaini called Devi
or Vedisa. His two other wives were Karuvaki and Asandhimitra.
Asoka’s only son mentioned in inscriptions is Tivara, who was
born to Karuvaki. The name of Karuvaki and Tivara are
mentioned in Queen’s edict

Ashoka is the first king in the Indian history who has left his
records engraved on stones. The history of Ashoka and his reign
can be reconstructed with the help of these inscriptions and
some other literary sources. The inscriptions on rocks are called
Rock Edicts, and those on Pillars, Pillar Edicts. The Ashokan
inscriptions are found in India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan.

Asoka’s Names & Titles

• Only inscriptions in the Maski edicts refer his name as Asoka.

• Puranas refer his name as Ashokavardhana

• Girnar Inscription of Rudradaman mentions him as Asoka


Maurya.

• In Babhru Inscription he refers himself as Piyadassi laja


Magadhe (Piyadassi, King of Magadha).

• He assumes two titles Devanampiya and Piyadassi in his


inscriptions.

The inscriptions of Ashoka were written in


four different scripts. In Afghanistan area
they were written in Greek and Aramaic
languages and scripts, and in Pakistan
area, in Prakrit language and Kharosthi
script. Inscriptions from all other areas
are in Prakrit language, written in Brahmi
script.

Conquest of Kalinga is mentioned in Inscriptions. Kalinga was


modern Orissa. Asoka’s coronation took place in 269-68 BC and
eight years after his coronation he campaigned for Kalinga.
Conquest of Kalinga took place in 9th year of Asoka’s reign. Its

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worth note that the Mauryan Empire was probably in friendly
terms with the southern kings such as Cholas and Pandyas.
Kalinga was strategically located in the heart of his territory and
that is why his campaign to Kalinga was strategically important.
Once Kalinga was won, there was no much need to win over
further territories. The Kalinga war was a horrifying event. It
mentions that hundred and fifty thousand people were displaced,
hundred thousand people were killed and many hundred
thousand perished. The vivid description of Kalinga war is given
in 13th Rock Edict. After the war of Kalinga Asoka realized the
gravity of war and the event had a profound impact on his mind.
He vowed to never wage such war and also directed his sons and
grandsons. The 13th Rock edict mentions Asoka’s remorse after
the war and his changed attitude from Dig-vajay to
Dhammavijay. Asoka adopted Buddhism in 9th year of his reign
after winning Kalinga. Nigrodha/Upagupta, a boy monk, inspired
him. Later, he met Moggaliputta Tissa, who ultimately become
his mentor. Later his brother Tissa, queen Karuvaki also adopted
Buddhism.

He abandoned the policy of aggression and tried to conquer the


hearts of the people. The 'drums declaring wars were replaced by
the drums announcing ethical and moral principles with
dhammaghosa. He took steps for the welfare of people and
animals. He sent ambassadors of peace to the Greek kingdoms in
west Asia and several other countries.

Asoka was true to his ideals. He was not a dreamer but a man of
practical genius. His Dhamma is so universal that it appeals to
humanity even today. He was an example in history for his
benevolent administration and also for following the policy of
non-aggression even after his victory in the war. His central ideal
was to promote the welfare of humanity. Asoka sponsored the
third Buddhist Council in 250 BC. This council was held at
Pataliputra. It was presided by Moggaliputta Tissa. Abhidhamma
Pitaka was established in this council.

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Rock Edicts
Major Rock Edict I: Prohibits animal slaughter. Bans festive
gatherings and killings of animals. Only two peacocks and one
deer were killed in Ashoka’s kitchen. He wished to discontinue
this practice of killing two peacocks and one deer as well.

Major Rock Edict II : Provides for care for man and animals,
describes about Chola, Pandyas , Satyapura and Keralputra
Kingdoms of South India

Major Rock Edict III: Generosity to Brahmans. Issued after 12


years of Ashoka’s coronation. It says that the Yuktas
(subordinate officers and Pradesikas (district Heads) along with
Rajukas (Rural officers ) shall go to the all areas of kingdom every
five years and spread the Dhamma Policy of Asoka.

Major Rock Edict IV: Dhammaghosa is ideal to the mankind and


not the Bherighosa. Impact of Dhamma on society.

Major Rock Edict V: Concerns about the policy towards slaves.


He mentions in this rock edict “Every Human is my
child…”Appointment of Dhammamahamatras is mentioned in
this edict.

Major Rock Edict VI: Describes King’s desire to get informed


about the conditions of the people constantly. Talks about
welfare measures.

Major Rock Edict VII: Requests tolerance for all religions

Major Rock Edict VIII: Describes Asoka’s first Dhamma Yatra to


Bodhgaya & Bodhi Tree.

Major Rock Edict IX: Condemns popular ceremonies. Stress in


ceremonies of Dhamma.

Major Rock Edict X: Condemns the desire for fame and glory.
Stresses on popularity of Dhamma.

Major Rock Edict XI: Elaborates Dhamma

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Major Rock Edict XII: Directed and determined request for
tolerance among different religious sects.

Major Rock Edict XIII: Asoka’s victory over Kalinga . Victory of


Asoka’s Dhamma over Greek Kings, Antiochus, Ptolemy,
Antigonus, Magas, Alexander and Cholas, Pandyas etc. This is
the Largest Edict. It mentions Kamboj, nabhaks, Bhoja, Andhra
etc

Ashoka Dhamma
There is no doubt that Ashoka's
personal religion was Buddhism. In
his Bhabru edict he says he had full
faith in Buddha, Dhamma and
Sangha. He showed respect to all
sects and faiths and believed in
unity among ethical and moral
values of all sects.

After the Kalinga war, the greatest ideal and objective before
Ashoka was the propagation of Dhamma. The Dhamma, as
explained in Ashoka's edicts is not a religion or a religious system
but a 'Moral Law', a 'Common Code of Conduct' or an 'Ethical
Order'. In Pillar Edict II Ashoka himself puts the question: "What
is Dhamma?" Then he enumerates the two basic attributes or
constituents of Dhamma : less evil and many good deeds. He
says such evils as rage, cruelty, anger, pride and envy are to be
avoided. and many good deeds like kindness, liberality,
truthfulness, gentleness, self control, purity of heart, attachment
to morality, inner and outer purity etc. - are to be pursued
vigorously.

Ashoka tried to instil moral law (Dhamma) as the governing


principle and forced in every sphere of life. Dhamma of Ashoka,
thus, is a code for moral and virtuous life. He never discussed
god or soul or religion as such. He asked people to have control
over their passion, to cultivate purity of life and character in
innermost thoughts, to be tolerant to other religions, to abstain

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from killing or injuring animals and to have regard for them, to
be charitable to all, to be respectful to parents, teachers,
relatives, friends, and ascetics, to treat slaves and servant kindly
and above all to tell the truth.

Ashoka not only preached but also practiced these principles. He


gave up hunting and killing of animals. He established hospitals
for humans and animals and made liberal donations to the
brahmans and ascetics of different religious sects. He erected
rest-houses, caused wells to be dug and trees to be planted along
the roads.

Ashoka took for the propagation of Buddhism. He conducted


Dharmayatras and instructed his officials to do the same. He
appointed special class of officials called Dharmamahamatras
whose sole responsibility was to propagate Dhamma among the
people.

Ashoka sent missions to foreign countries also to propagate


dhamma. His missionaries went to western Asia, Egypt and
Eastern Europe. Of the foreign kings, whose kingdoms thus
received the message of Buddhism; five are mentioned in the
inscriptions of Ashoka, namely, Antiochus Theos, of Syria and
western Asia, Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt, Antigonus Gonatas
of Macedonia, Megas of Cyrene and Alexander of Epirus. The king
even sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to
propagate Buddhism in Sri Lanka.

Decline of Mauryans
Asoka died in 232 BC after a reign of 40 years. His policy of
ahimsa partially contributed to the decline of Maurya Empire.
None of the successors of Asoka rose to his status. His only son
who was named in edicts was Tivara and there is a possibility
that he died before his father's death as not much is heard about
him later. Jaluka was one of his sons who is mentioned in
Rajtarangini of Kalhana and became independent ruler of
Kashmir. Kunala is said to have reigned for 8 years but in
southern traditions he is mentioned as a blinded person.

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Ashokvadana says that Asoka was compelled to abdicate his
throne in favour of his Grandson Samprati who was son of blind
Kunala. Samprati was a great patron of Jainism with his seat
was at Ujjain. Another grandson Dasaratha is mentioned in
Vayupurana & Matsya purana, who has been testified by
scholars. It is possible that the empire was partitioned into
eastern and western parts, with Dasaratha getting eastern and
Samprati getting western parts.

Due to the Bactrian invasions, the western part of the empire


collapsed. The eastern part was intact under Samprati successor
of Dasaratha. The last Mauryan king was Brihatratha, who was
assassinated by Pushyamitra Sunga.

Reasons for Mauryan Decline


There are several reasons of declining of the Mauryan Dynasty.
Some of them are as follows:

Immediately after the death of Asoka, the Mauryan dynasty was


partitioned into two parts viz. east and west. This partition
disturbed the unity of the empire.

The successors of Asoka were weak rulers and they appeared to


not been able to handle the highly centralized tradition of
domestic policy of the early Mauryas.

Some scholars say that pious policy of Asoka was responsible to


the decline of the empire as it undermined the strength of the
empire. Some scholars contradict this theory because Asoka only
left policy of annexation but never dissolved or weakened his
army.

Some scholars say that a Brahminical revolution was a reason of


decline; however it is not accepted because Asoka, though
patronized Buddhism, but never forced his religion on others.

Some scholars say that there was a pressure on Mauryan


economy, which is evident from the low quality punch marked
coins in the later Maurya period. However, this idea is not

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adopted because foreign accounts give details of a flourished
economy.

Some scholars such as Romila Thapar say that Mauryan


administration was highly centralized and only a prudent ruler
could handle this machinery.

Some scholars hold the oppressive policy of the later Mauryan for
decline of the empire.

Whatever may be the reason, one thing is clear that Maurya


Administration was Highly centralized administration.

Mauryan Administration

King was the supreme source of all powers and was center of all
authorities, judiciary and administration. The Mauryan
Administration was highly centralized and King used to select
ministers, high official. A well-planned system of supervision and
inspection was there in the Mauryan Administration

The King was assisted by the council of Ministers or


Mantriparishahda. The mantriparishadadhyakshya was head of
the Council of Ministers akin to our Chief Ministers and Prime
Minister. Composition of Mantriparishada was as follows:

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The second book of Kautilya Arthashastra (The Duties of
Government Superintendents) or Adyakshaprachara
contemplates a ubiquitous bureaucracy, which keeps in touch
with all sections of the society. These superintendents were called
Adhyakshas. Adhyakshas composed a highly skilled secretariat,
divided into several departments.

Sannidhata (Royal Treasury)

Koshthagara (Treasury Superitendent) )

Akaraadhyaksha (Mines Superitendent) )

Suvarnaadhyaksha (Gold Superitendent)

Sitaadhyaksha (Agriculture)

Suradhyaksha (Excise)

Navadhyasksha (Shipping and maritime)

Mudradhyaksha (Government documents)

There was a well knitted espionage system in the Mauryan


administration. The detectives were known as Gudhapurushas.
As per the Arthashastra, there were two kinds of spies viz.
Sansthana (stationary) and Sanchari (wandering). These spies
were ears and eyes of the King, who kept the king informed about
all the details of the bureaucracy. The agents included
householders, merchants, disciples, ascetics, poisioners,
Poisonous girls which were called “Vishkanyas”. The
ambassadors who were appointed in the foreign countries were
also sort of spies.

The overall in charge of the Mauryan army was Commander in


chief, who was immediately junior to the King. He was appointed
by the king. The army included 6 Lakh infantry, 30,000 cavalry,
9000 war elephants, 1000 chariots and other things such as
transport equipments. There was a War Council, which was
further divided into 6 sub-councils each with 5 members which
formulated policy for infantry, cavalry, elephant forces, chariots,

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navy and commiserate. Navy, Transport in forces and
commiserate were Mauryan innovations.

Society
There was a separate department of road. The width of the cattle
tracks, pedestrians, chariots and other traffic were different.
There were trunk roads which were managed by the department
of Roads. Trees were planted on both sides of the roads. Inns
were constructed at places on the road. Nurseries and drinking
water facilities such as wells, canals were provided.

Sitadhyaksha was the chief of the Agriculture department. There


was full-fledged irrigation department as well. There was a
network of canals which provided the water for irrigation as per
the measurements of the land i.e. requirements. Pushyagupta,
who was a provincial governor of Chandragupta Maurya,
constructed “Sudarshan Lake” at Girnar in Gujarat. Rice of
different verities was grown, Kondrava was a kind of coarse
grain. Wheat, Pulses, Saffron, Mustard, Linseed, Sesamum etc.
were grown.

There was a well-developed “caste” system as per the accounts of


Megasthenes. Megasthenes writes that there were 7 castes viz.
philosophers (he indicated Brahmins), farmers, soldiers,
herdsmen, craftsmen, magistrates and soldiers. So based upon
the account we can figure out that the caste system was based
upon “occupation” rather than birth. The marriage and
polygamy both were present. Polygamy was confined to Royal
classes. Normal people could marry to other women if there was
no “son”. The women had their property in the form of Stridhana,
which included bridal gift. Women enjoyed high status. The
women were appointed as assistances and bodyguards of King.
Offenses against women were punishable. There was no slavery
in the sense that people used to work as dasa, out of their own
compulsions. No Arya including a Shudra could be made dasa
forcibly. The 14th book of Arthashastra titled Secret Means
(Aupanisadika) deals with a number of rites and practices.

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There was a proper system of census, which registered all the
details of the deaths and births. Nagarika was the census officer
who was responsible to keep a ready reference data of the
farmers, cattle, traders, cowherds etc. This was to ensure that
proper tax is levied.

There were proper hospitals and Bheshajas (Doctors) appointed


along with a team of midwifes, nurses etc. Treatment was free
universally. Food adulteration was a punishable offense which
invited a death sentence.

Suppression of crimes, maintenance of peace and protection of


the subjects were the chief duties of the King. The antisocial
elements were called “Kantakas”. There were two kinds of courts
“civils” and criminals. The civils courts were Dharmastheya and
the Criminal Courts were “Kantakashodhna”. The idea of
Kantakashodhna was to weed out the antisocial elements. The
king was the source of Supreme Justice. Death Sentences were
common and Asoka’s edicts detail that he gave additional time to
the persons under the Capital punishment to offer donations and
repent so that they get a better life in next birth.

There was an advanced concept of "responsibility accounting'


which envisaged a preparation of budget and activity planning,
reporting on the revenue and expenditure, responsibility for both
the revenues and expenditures. The “full treasury” was guarantee
to the prosperity of state says Arthashastra. Treasury received
revenues from farms, mines, forests, pasture lands etc. Tributes
were received when a prince was born. Chief source for revenue
was “land tax”. It was 1/6 to 1/4 of the total produce and it was
collected by the revenue officers. The more productive lands and
irrigated lands invited more tax. All craftsmen (except royal) and
traders paid taxes. Taxes were of two kinds viz. Bali & Bhaga.
The Bali was religious tribute. Bhaga was the part of the produce.
Asoka edict says that Lumbini was exempted from Bali and
Bhaga was reduced to 1/8 parts of the reduce. Bhaga, which was
1/6th of the produce, was called shadbhaga (6th part) or
Rajbhaga (state part). Maintenance of the Royal palaces,

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members, ministers and public welfare were the main avenues to
use the revenue.

Foreign Trade by means of the land and sea was prevalent, and it
was regulated by passports kinds of documents. Indigo, cotton
and silk was most traded property. Antiochus I with his joint
rule with Selucus issued coins of Indian standard rather than the
Attic Standard. This shows that the Mauryan Economy was
world’s largest economy and the currency of Mauryas was
accepted Worldwide and was main currency of those time. The
trade routes were called Vanikpatha.

Provincial Administration
The Maurya empire was divided into 5 provinces (probably). They
were as follows:

• The Northern Province Uttarpatha was having its capital at


Taxila and some mandals were Shakal, Kandhar and Saurastra.

• The Southern province Dakshinpatha’s capital was Suvarngiri.

• The eastern Prachyapatha was having its capital at Toshali


near Kalinga.

• Magadha was the Central province & Capital of the entire


kingdom.

The provinces were administered by either a prince or a member


of the royal family which was the viceroy of the king.

• Each district was administered by three officers’ viz.


Pradeshika, Rajuka, & Yukta.

• Pradesika was senior and Rajuka was subordinate. Yukta was


subordinate to both of them. The rajjuka was responsible for
surveying and assessing the land, fixing its rent and record
keeping beside judicial functions enumerated above. The duties
of Yukta largely comprised secretarial work, collection and
accounting of revenue etc.

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• It was duty of the Pradesika to tour the kingdom every five year
and collect details of the administration.

Village was the smallest unit of polity and it was called Grama.
The head of the grama was a Gramika. The Gramika was not a
paid employee of the government but was elected by the village
people. The 10 villages were collectively headed by a Gopa and
100 villages were collectively headed by a Sthanaka. Gramika in
Open Panchayats solved most disputes.

The Arlhashastra mentions a wide range of scales in salary, the


highest being 48,000 panas and the lowest 60 panas.

Numismatic Sources are least significant because the coins were


punch marked and not beard much details. The coins became a
major source of historic information only much later after
Mauryas.

City Administration
A number of cities such as Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali,
Suvarnagiri, Samapa, Isila, and Kausambi are mentioned in the
edicts of Ashoka. The Arthashashtra has a full chapter on the
administration of cities. Megasthenese has described in detail the
administration of Pataliputra and it can be safely presumed that
similar administrative system was followed in most of the
Mauryan cities.

The city of Pataliputra was administered by a city council


comprising 30 members. These thirty members were divided into
a board of five members each. Each of these boards had specific
responsibilities towards the administration of city. For example,
first board was concerned with the industrial and artistic
produce. Its duties included fixing of wages, check the
adulteration etc. The second board dealt with the affairs of the
visitors, especially foreigners who came to Pataliputra. The third
board was concerned with the registration of birth and death.
The fourth board regulated trade and commerce, kept a vigil on
the manufactured goods and sales of commodities. The fifth
board was responsible for the supervision of manufacture of

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goods. The sixth board collected taxes as per the value of sold
goods. The tax was normally one-tenth of the sold goods. The city
council appointed officers who looked after the public welfare
such as maintenance and repairs of roads, markets, hospitals,
temples, educational institutions, sanitation, water supplies,
harbors etc. The officer incharge of the city was known as
Nagaraka.

The administrative machinery of the Mauryan state was fairly


developed and well organised. Numerous departments regulated
and controlled the activities of the state. Several important
departments that Kautilya mentions are accounts, revenue,
mines and minerals, chariots, customs and taxation. The state
was conceived as a complex of activities of its various
departments which covered almost every sphere of the state's
affairs.

Industry was organised in various guilds. The chief industries


were textile, mining and metallurgy, ship building, jewellery
making, metal working, pot making etc. Some other industries
were, manufacturing dyes, gums, drugs, perfumes, etc. The
trade was regulated by the state. India supplied the western
countries with indigo, various medicinal substances, cotton
and silk. Foreign trade was carried on by land as well as by sea.
Special arrangements were made for the protection of trade-
routes. Provisions of warehouses, godowns and transport
arrangements were also made. The trader had to get a license
to trade. The state controlled and regulated the weights and
measures. The artisans and craftsmen were specially protected
by the state and offences against them were severely punished.

The guilds were powerful institutions. It gave craftsmen great


economic, political and judicial powers and protection. The chief
of a guild was called Jesthaka. The guilds settled the disputes of
their members. A few guilds issued their own coins. The guilds
also made donations to educational institutions, learned
brahmans and to the destitute. This can be understood by later
inscriptional evidences. The Sanchi stupa inscription mentions

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that one of the carved gateways was donated by the guilds of
ivory workers. Similarly, the Nasik cave inscription mentions
that two weaver's guilds gave permanent endowments for the
maintenance of a temple.

Kautilya says, "A full treasury is a guarantee of the prosperity of


the state" and it is the most important duty of the king to keep
the treasury full at all the times for all works. During the
Mauryan period, taxes were levied both in cash and in kind and
were collected by local officers. The chief source of revenue was
land tax and the tax levied on trade etc. The land tax was one-
fourth to one-sixth of the produce. Toll tax was levied on all
items which were brought for sale in the market. Tax was also
levied on all manufactured goods. Those who could not pay the
tax in cash or kind were to contribute their dues in the form of
labour. Strabo mentions those craftsmen, herdsmen, traders,
farmers, all paid taxes. The Arthashashtra describes revenue at
great length. This was further augmented by income from mines,
forests, pasture lands, trade, forts etc. The income from the
king's own land or estate was known as sita. Samharta, the chief
of the Revenue Department, was in charge of the collection of all
revenues of the empire.

Brahmans, children, and handicapped people were exempted


from paying taxes. Also no tax was levied in areas where new
trade routes or new irrigation projects or new agricultural land
were being developed. Tax evasion was considered a very serious
crime and offenders were severely punished

Later Mauryas
Magadha Empire under Asoka was extended from the foot of the
Hindu Kush to the borders of the Tamil country. After the
Kalinga war, Asoka became a monk and expansion of Buddhism
in other countries took place during his time. None of the later
Mauryas was efficient to keep such a vast empire intact. The
sources of history after Mauryas are scant. There was no account
left by Kautilya and Megasthenes about the later Mauryas.
Knowledge about the later Mauryas is based upon Puranas, Jain

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and Buddhism texts. Different Puranas give different accounts of
Asoka’s successors. The account given by Vayu Purana says that
Kunala succeeded Asoka while the Matsya Purana says that
Suyasas succeeded Asoka. Nevertheless, all Purana accounts as
well as Harchacharita of Banabhatta says- that the last
Mauryan ruler was Brihadratha. Brihadratha was a weak ruler
and his Senapati Pushymitra Shunga while a parading the entire
Mauryan army before Brihadratha to show him the strength of
the army assassinated him and this was the end of the Mauryas.

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Post Maurya Kingdoms

The lndo -Greeks


A series of invasions took place from about 200 B.C. The first to
cross the Hindukush were the Greeks, who ruled Bactria, lying
south of the Oxus river m the area covered by north.
Afghanistan. The invaders came one after another, but some of
them ruled at one and the same time on parallel lines. One
important cause of invasions was the weakness of the Selucid
empire, which. had been established in Bactria and the adjoining
areas of Iran called Parthia on account of growing pressure from
the Scythian tribes, the later Greek rulers were unable to hold
their power in this area. With the construction of the Chinese
Wall the Scythians were now not in a position to push forward
into China. So they turned their attention towards the
neighbouring Greeks and Parthians, Pushed by the Scythian
tribes the Bactrian Greeks were forced to invade India. The
successors of Asoka were too weak to stem the tide of foreign
invasions which started during the period.

The first to invade India were the


Greeks, who are called the Indo-
Greeks or Bactrian Greeks. In the
beginning of the second century
B.C., the Indo-Greeks occupied a
large part of north-western India,
much larger than that conquered by
Alexander. It is said that they
pushed forward as far as Ayodhya
and Pataliputra But the Greeks
failed to establish united rule i11
India. Two Greek dynasties ruled
north-western India on parallel lines at one and the same time.
The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (165-145 B.C.)
He is also known by the name Milinda, He had his capital at
Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Punjab , and he invaded the Ganga-
Yamuna doab He was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena, who
is also known as Nagarjuna. Menander asked Nagasena many
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questions relating to Buddhism These questions and Nagasena's
answers were recorded in the form of a book known as Mllinda
Panho or The Questions of Milinda.

The Indo-Bactrian rule is important in the history of India


because of the large number of coins which the Greeks issued
The Indo-Greeks were the first rulers in India to issue corns
which can be definitely attributed to the kings This is not
possible in the case of the early punchmarked coins, which
cannot be assigned with certainty to any dynasty The Indo-
Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India, which increased
in number under the Kushans The , Greek rule is also
memorable on account of the introduction of Hellenistic art
features m the north-west frontier of India, giving rise to the
Gandhara art.
Some of the kings of indo-Greek dynasties are :
Antiochus II: Approximately, in 250 BC, Diodotus, a governor of
Bacteria, proclaimed his independence. He was one of the first
such independent rulers. Antiochus II, who was a king of the
Hellenistic Seleucid kingdom, marched towards India and
defeated the India king Subhagsena of Kabul in around 206 BC.

Demetrius I of the Bactria (200-180 BC): Demetrius I of Bactria


was son of Euthydemus and conquered the extensive areas in
Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan. He is credited with real indo-
Greek expansion in India and has been referred in Greek Sources
as “King of Indians”. His coins bear legends in Greek and Prakrit
written in Greek and Kharoshthi script. The coins were issued
in silver and one of the coins was known as “Heracles”. His
capital was Sakala (Sialkot Pakistan) which he named
Euthydemia in memory of his father. His coins have been found
in several parts of modern Pakistan, Afghanistan and central
asia.

Apollodotus I : Apollodotus I was the Indo Greek ruler who ruled


around 174-165 BC in the western and southern parts of the
Indo-Greek Kingdoms covering the area from Taxila in Punjab to
Sindh. Apollodotus I was the first king who ruled in India only
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and this is said to be real founder of the indo-Greek kingdom of
India and known as first “Real Indo Greek”. He was one of the
generals of the Demetrius I of Bactria. We come to know about
Apollodotus I through the bilingual Indian standard square coins
by him. The animals such as elephant and bull are depicted in
his coins.

Apollodotus II : Apollodotus II ruled in Punjab 80-65 BC and


was an important ruler. He is said to have re-conquered the
Taxila. He seems to be of same dynasty of which meander
belonged to.

Menander II : Menander II reigned around 90-85 BC in


Gandhara, north of modern Pakistan and parts of Afghanistan.
He has been mentioned as the mighty
Yavana King of Sakala. His capital
Sakala was located in modern Punjab
and refers to Sialkot, Pakistan. In the
‘’Milindapanho’’ dialogues between the
Meander II and Nagasena have been
recorded. He was Buddhist Indo-Greek
ruler and is the only indo-Greek ruler
who is greatly respected in India. The
coins of Meander have been engraved
with “Dhammachakka” of Buddhism.
He issued Gold Coins also and one of the coins are known as
“Athene Promachus”.

Shakas
The Greeks were followed by the Sakas, who controlled a much
larger part of India than the Greeks did, There were five branches
of the Sakas with their seats of power in different parts of India
and Afghanistan One branch of the Sakas settled in Afghanistan.
Another branch of the Sakas settled in Punjab with Taxila as
their capital. A third branch settled in Mathura, where they ruled
for about two centuries. A fourth branch established us hold over
western India, where they continued to rule till the fourth
century A D. A fifth branch of the Sakas established its power m

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the upper Deccan. Although the Sakas ruled in different parts of
the country, only those who ruled in central and western India
rose to prominence. The Sakas did not meet much effective
resistance from the rulers and people of India. In about 58 B.C,
we hear of a king of Ujjain who effectively fought against the
Sakas and succeeded in driving them out in his time. He called
himself Vikramaditya, and an era called the Vikrama Samvat is
reckoned from the event of his victory over the Sakas in 58 B.C.
From this time onwards Vikramaditya became a coveted title
Whoever achieved anything great adopted this title just as the
Roman emperors adopted the title of Caesar in order to -
emphasize their great power. As a 'result of this practice we have
as many as 14 Vikramadityas in Indian history, and the title
continued to be fashionable with the Indian kings till the twelfth
century A.D , and it was especially prevalent in western India and
the western Deccan.

The earliest Shaka Ruler of India Maues (80-65 BC) or Moga was
the earliest Shaka ruler. He
established Shaka power in
Gandhara. His capital was ‘’Sirkap’’
and he issued a large number of
copper coins and few silver coins.
Some sources indicate that he
assumed the title of ‘’ maharaja
mahatma ‘’ and his coins are bearing
the images of Indian deities’ viz.
Shiva, and Buddha. He used Greek
and Kharoshthi in coin legends. The
famous Taxila Copper Plate is
ascribed to him as Moga Inscription.
It was found in area of Taxila in modern Pakistan. Taxila copper
plate bears a precise data and it is written in Kharoshthi. Taxila
Copper Plate mentioned about the dedication of a relic of the
Buddha Shakyamuni to a Buddhist monastery by the Shaka
ruler Patika Kusulaka. Patika Kusulaka is also mentioned in
Mathura lion capital.

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The most prominent ruler of western India was Nahapana whose
reference is found in various inscriptions found in Maharashtra
and in the records of the Satavahanas. The most famous Central
Indian Saka ruler in India was Rudradaman I ( A D 130-150).He
ruled not only over Sindh, Kutch and Gujarat, but had also
recovered from the Satavahanas Konkan, the Narmada valley,
Malwa and Kathiawar. He is famous in history because of' the
repairs he undertook to improve the Sudarsana lake in the semi-
arid zone of Kathiawar. This lake had been in use for irrigation
for a long time, and was as old as the time of the Mauryas
Rudradaman was a great lover of Sanskrit. Although a foreigner
settled in India, he issued the first-ever long inscription in chaste
Sanskrit.

Rudradaman’s exploits are described in the Junagarh Rock


inscription dated Shaka Year 72, which means 72+78 = 150 AD.
(Christian era +78 = Shaka Era). He represents himself as a
Mahasatrapa. The Junagarh rock inscription says that he was
chosen as a protector by all castes and thus adopted the
‘’Mahasatrapa’’ title. He defeated Satvahana king “Saatkarni” for
two times and thus is considered to be the greatest of the Shaka
rulers. The long rivalry between Rudradaman and Saatkarni was
tried to be done away with the family relations (probably
Rudraman’s daughter was given in marriage to the Satavahanas),
but this could not stop the enmity between them. In one of the
wars, Saatkarni’s life was spared because of the family relations.
Rudradaman conquered Malwa, Saurastra, Gujarat, Konkan end
Yudehas of Rajputana. Rudradamana is known to be good in
knowledge of Grammar. The successors of Rudradaman ruled till
the end of the 4th century AD and finally lost their power to the
Arab Chieftains. Yavanesvara was a Greek writer who
translated the Yavanajataka from Greek to Sanskrit. It had
influenced astrology in India. This work was done in the times of
Rudradaman.

Ujjayini, the capital of Rudradaman became a centre of culture


and education. The dynasty came to an end with the defeat of the

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last king in the hands of Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty,
in about A.D. 390.

Parthians
The Saka domination
in north-western India
was followed by that of
the Parthians, and in
many ancient Indian
Sanskrit texts the two
peoples are together
mentioned as Saka-
Pahlavas. In fact they
ruled over this country
on parallel lines for
some time Originally
the Parthians lived in
Iran, from where they moved to India. In comparison with the
Greeks and the Sakas they occupied only a small portion of'
north-western India in the first century. The most famous
Parthian king was Gondophernes, in whose reign St. Thomas is
said to have come to India for the propagation of Christianity. In
course of time the Parthians, like the Sakas before them, became
an integral part of Indian polity and society.

Kushanas
The Parthians were followed by the Kushanas, - who are also
called Yuechis or Tocharin, The Kushanas were one of the five
clans into which the Yuechi tribe was divided. A nomadic people
from the steppes of north Central Asia having in the
neighbourhood of China, the Kushanas first occupied Bactria or
north Afghanistan where they displaced the Sakas, Gradually
they moved to the Kabul valley and , seized Gandhara by crossing
the Hindukush, replacing the rule of the Greeks and Parthians in
these areas. Finally they set up their authority over the lower
Indus basin and the greater part of the Gangetic basin, Their
Empire extended, from the Oxus to the Ganga, from Khorasan m
Central Asia to Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. A good part of Central
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Asia now included in the USSR, a portion of Iran, a portion of
Afghanistan, almost the whole of Pakistan, and almost the whole
of northern India were brought under one rule by the Kushana
This treated a unique opportunity for peoples and cultures, and
the process gave rise to a new type of culture which embraced
five modern countries. In the year 165 B.C., Yue Chis came in
conflict with a neighbouring tribe known as Hiung-nu. The Yueh-
chi were defeated and forced to move out of their land. They
could not move towards the east, since the China Wall had
become a barrier. On their move westwards the Yue-chi came in
conflict with another tribe called Wu-sun whom they defeated
easily. At about this time the Yueh-chi were divided into two
groups - Little Yueh-chi which migrated to Tibet and great Yueh-

chi which finally came to India.

We come' across two successive dynasties of the Kushans, The


first dynasty was founded by a house of chiefs who were called
Kadphises and who ruled for 28 years from about A.D. 50 It had
two kings The first was Kadphises I, who issued coins south of
the Hindukush, He minted coppers in imitation of Roman coms,
The second king was Kadphises II, who issued a large number of
gold money and spread his kingdom east of the Indus.

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Kujula Kadphises (AD 30-AD 80)
Kujula Kadphises was the first Yueh Chi chief who crossed the
Hindukush Mountains and laid down the foundation of the
Kushana Empire. He established himself in Kabul and Kashmir
and is credited for defeat of Last Greek Kings. He adopted the
epithet of Dharma-thida. Another epithet adopted by Kujala
Kadphises was Sachdharmathida, which is coterminous with
SatyaDharma Sthitha. Both of the above epithets show that he
was interested in both Buddhism as well as Shivaite.

Vima Taktu or Sadashkana (AD 80 -AD 95)


Vima Taktu or Sadashkana was / were son/ sons of Kujula
Kadphises and it is not sure who among them ruled after Kujula
Kadphises or whether this referred to a single person. He is
considered to be the predecessor of Vima Kadphises as well as
Kanishka-I. He is credited for expansion of Kushana Power into
the North West of India.

Vima Kadphises: (AD 95-AD 127)


The Rabatak inscription
mentions that Vima Kadphises
was son of Vima Takto and the
father of Kanishka. He was one of
the most important kings of the
Kushana Empire who is best
known for issuing large number of Gold Coins. Vima Kadphises
was probably the first to introduce the Gold Coins in India in
addition to the Copper and Silver coins. This testifies the
prosperity of the Kushana Empire. Vima is also known to have
maintained the Silk Route and trade with all sides including the
China, Alexandria, and Roman Empire.

Kanishka I
Kanishka-I was the most power ruler of the Kushana Empire and
is known for his military prowess. His main capital was
Purushpura (Peshawar) and regional capitals were Taxila
(Pakistan) , Begram (Afghanistan) and Mathura (India). His
date of accession is disputed. However, most sources agree that

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Kanishka was the founder of the Shaka Era of AD 78. This has
been mentioned as Saka kala or Saka Nripa kala, probably
because he was thought to be a Shaka. Kanishka extended his
whole-hearted patronage to Buddhism. He held a Buddhist
council in Kashmir, where the doctrines of the Mahayana form of
Buddhism were finalized. Kanishka was also a great patron of art
and Sanskrit literature.

Under Kanishka, Kushana Empire reached its climax and it


extended from Uzbekistan, Tajikistan to Mathura and Kashmir.
As per the Tibetan Sources, Kanishka is considered to have
conflicted with the Pataliputra and
Saket and had taken Aśvaghosa, the
Buddhist Monk to Purushpura. A city
kanishkpur in Kashmir is also
connected to Kanishka. Kanishka
conflicted with Chinese general of
King Han Ho-ti, the emperor of Han
Dynasty and defeated him in second
attempt. He is also known to have
subjugated the rulers of Khotan,
Yarkand etc. and is considered to
have established a great kingdom
only after the Mauryas in India. It is
believed that Abhidhama
Mahavishasa was prepared in the fourth Buddhist council. Some
of the scholars in the Court of Kanishka were Parsva, Vasumitra,
Asvaghosa, Nagarjuna, Charaka and Mathara.

Charaka has been called the Court Physician of Kanishka,


though it is disputed. Sushruta who wrote Sushruta Samhita
has also been connected to Kanishka. We know Sushruta, who
had written Sushruta Samhita and Charak who had written
Charak Samhita. However, both of them were from the Kushan
period, earlier than the Guptas. During Kanishka’s time,
Buddhism got divided between the Hinayana and Mahayana.

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The successors of Kanishka continued to rule in north-western
India till about A.D 230, and some of them bore typical Indian
names such as Vasudeva. Kanishka-I was succeeded by
Vāsishka, who had a short reign who is identified with the
Vaskushana, Vajheska, Jushka in different sources.
Jushkapura near modern Zukar was a city founded by him.
Kanishka II was a successor of Vāsishka and is known to have
assumed the title of Kaisar.

The Kushan empire in Afghanistan and in the areas west of the


Indus was supplanted in the mid-third century A. D. by the
Sassaman power, which arose in Iran. But Kushan principalities
continued to exist in India for about a century, The Kushan
authority seems to have lingered in the Kabul valley, Kapisa,
Bactria, Khorezm and Sogdiana (identical with Bokhara and
Samarkand) in the third-fourth centuries. Many Kushan cions,
inscriptions and terracottas have been found m these areas.
Especially at a place called Toprak-Kala in Khorezm a huge
Kushan palace of the third-fourth centuries has been unearthed
It housed an administrative archives containing inscriptions and
documents written in Aramaic script and Khorezrman language.

Impact of Central Asian Contacts


The Saka-Kushan phase registered a distinct advance in building
activities. Excavations have revealed several layers of structures,
sometimes more than half a dozen at various sites in north India
In them we find the use of burnt bricks for flooring and that of
tiles for both flooring and roofing. But the use of surkhi and tiles
may not have been adopted from outside. The period is also
marked by the construction of brick-wells. Its typical pottery is
red ware, both plain and polished with medium to fine fabric

The distinctive pots are sprinklers and spouted channels. They


remind us of red pottery with thin fabric found in the same
period in Kushan layers in Soviet Central Asia. Red pottery
techniques were widely known in Central Asia, and they are
found even in regions like Farghana which were on the
peripheries of the Kushan cultural zone.

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Trade and Technology
The Sakas and Kushana added new ingredients to Indian culture
and enriched it immensely. They settled in India for good and
completely identified themselves with its culture. Since they did
not have their script, language or religion, they adopted these
elements of culture from India. They became an integral part of
Indian society to which they contributed considerably. They
introduced better cavalry and the use of the riding horse on a
large scale. They made common the use of reins and saddles,
which appear in the Buddhist sculptures of the second and third
centuries A D. The Sakas and the Kushans were excellent
horsemen. Their passionate love for horseman-ship is attested by
numerous equestrian terracotta figures of Kushan times
discovered from Begram in Afghanistan Some of these foreign
horsemen were heavily armoured, and fought with spears and
lances. Possibly they also used some kind of a toe stirrup made
of rope which facilitated their movements. The Sakas and
Kushans introduced turban, tumc, trousers, and heavy long
coat. Even now the Afghans and Punjabis wear turbans, and the
sherwani is a successor of the long coat. The Central Asians also
brought in cap, helmet and boots which were used by warriors.
Because of these advantages they made a clean sweep of their
opponents in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. Later, when
this military technology spread in the country, the dependent
princes turned them to good use against their former conquerors.

The coming of the foreigners established intimate contacts


between Central Asia and India. As a result India received a good
deal of gold from the Altas Mountains in Central Asia. Gold also
may have been received in India through trade with the Roman
empire. The Kushans controlled the Silk Route, which started
from China and passed through their empire in Central Asia and
Afghanistan to Iran, and Western Asia which formed part of the
Roman empire in the eastern Mediterranean zone. This route was
a source of great income to the Kushans, and they built a large
prosperous empire because of the tolls levied from the traders. It

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is significant that the Kushans were the first rulers in India to
issue gold coins on a wide scale.

Polity
The Central Asian conquerors imposed their rule on numerous
petty native princes. This led to the development of a feudatory
organization The Kushans adopted the pompous title of king of
kings, which indicates their supremacy over numerous small
princes. The Sakas and the Kushans strengthened the idea of the
divine origin of kingship. The Kushan kings were called sons of
god. This title was adopted by the Kushans from the Chmese,
who called their king the son of heaven. It was used in India
naturally to stress the royal authority. The Hindu lawgiver Manu
asks the people to respect the king even if he is a child, because
he is a great god ruling in, the form of a human being. They also
introduced the satrap system of government. The empire was
divided into numerous satrapies, and each satrapy was placed
under the rule of a satrap. Some curious practices such as
hereditary dual rule, two kings ruling in the same kingdom at
one and the same time, were introduced. We find that father and
son ruled jointly at one and the same time. Thus it appears that
there was less of centralization under these rulers.

The foreigners also introduced the practice of military


governorship. This was done by the Greeks, who appointed their
governors called strategos. Military governors were necessary to
maintain the power of foreign rulers over the conquered people.

New Elements of the Society


The Greeks, the Sakas, the Parthians and the Kushans
ultimately lost then identity in India They became completely
Indianized in course of time. Since most of them came as
conquerors they were absorbed in Indian society as a warrior
class, that is as the Kshatriyas. Their placement in the
brahmanical society was explained in a curious way. The lawgiver
Manu stated that the Sakas and the Parthians were the
kshatriyas who had fallen from their duties. In other words, they
came to be considered as second-class kshatrlyas. In no other

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period of ancient Indian history were foreigners assimilated into
Indian society on such a large scale as they were ID post-Maurya
times

Religion
Some of the foreign rulers were converted to Vaishnavism, which
means the worship of Vishnu, the god of protection and
preservation. The Greek ambassador called Heliodorus set up a
pillar in honour of Vishnu near Vidisa (headquarters of Vidisa
district) m Madhya Pradesh. A few other rulers adopted
Buddhism. The famous Greek ruler Menander was converted to
Buddhism. The questions and the answers that he exchanged
with the Buddhist teacher Nagasena, also called Nagarjuna,
constitute a· good source for the cultural history of the post
Maurya period. The Kushan rulers worshipped both Siva and the
Buddha, and the images of these two gods appeared on the
Kushan coins several Kushan rulers were worshippers of Vishnu.
This was certainly the case with' the Kushan ruler Vasudeva,
whose very name is a synonym for Krishna, who was worshipped
as an incarnation of Vishnu.

Mahayana Buddhism
The contact with foreigners brought about changes in Indian
religions. This especially happened to Buddhism. Buddhism in its
original form was too puritanical and too abstract for
foreigners, who wanted something concrete and intelligible. They
did not appreciate the philosophical doctrines of Buddhism,
emphasized by the existing Buddhist schools. They wanted
something which they could easily understand and which could
satisfy their religious cravings. So there developed a new form of
Buddhism called the Mahayana or the Great Wheel, in which the
image of the Buddha began to be worshipped. The doors of this
sect were opened to all sections of the people. Those who did not
subscribe to the newly-founded sect came to be known as the
followers of the Hinayana or the Small Wheel. Fortunately for
Mahayana, Kanishka became its great patron He convened a
council m Kashmir, where the Buddhist teachings were engraved
on sheets of copper and deposited under a stupa. We do not
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know the contents of these inscriptions because this stupa has
not been discovered so far Kanishka set up many stupas in
memory of the Buddha.

Sunga to Satavahana

Sunga

Pushyamitra Shunga
Pushyamitra Shunga founded the Shunga dynasty in around
185-183 BC. Capital of Shunga Dynasty was Pataliputra and its
major centers were Ujjain, Mathura, Saket, Sanchi, and
Kapilvastu. Vidisha was capital of later Shunga rulers. West
Bengal and parts of Bangladesh, some parts of northern Orissa,
Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh. In South India, the
contemporary of Mauryas & Shungas were Saatvahanas,
Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas.The extent of Saatvahana was
modern Andhra Pradesh, Pandyas was Tamil Nadu and
Karnataka and Cheras was Kerala (Cheras derived from
Keralaputra).

The most important challenge to the Sunga rule was to protect


north India against the invasions of the Bactrian Greeks from the
northwest. The Greeks advanced up to Pataliputra and occupied

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it for some time. However, Pushyamitra succeeded in regaining
the lost territory. He also fought a campaign against Kharavela of
Kalinga who invaded north India .

Pushyamitra Shunga was viceroy of the Mauryas at Ujjain and


was a real war hero. He was not happy with his king
Brihadratha, who failed in containing the Yavanas and attacks
from the western sides. He is credited to repulse the two attacks
of Greeks and also conquest over Vidarbha. The first of these
attacks from Greeks, which were repulsed by Pushyamitra
Shunga, was under Demetrius and another was under Meander.
Some evidences say that Pushyamitra Shunga destroyed many
stupas of Asoka. Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of
Brahmanism. He performed two asvamedha sacrifices. Buddhist
sources refer him as a persecutor of Buddhism. But there is
enough evidence to show that Pushyamitra patronised Buddhist
art. During his reign the Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and
Sanchi were renovated and further improved. His son Agnimitra
succeeded Pushyamitra.

Agnimitra
Agnimitra was the second king of Shunga
dynasty, who succeeded his father
Pushyamitra Shunga. He had a short
reign of 8 years.He is the hero of
Malvikagnimitram of Kalidasa in which
he has been referred to as Raja. By the
times of Agnimitra, Vidarbha had become
independent of the Maurays. Agnimitra
was succeeded by Vasumitra around 131 BC. Not much details
are available of the successors of Agni Mitra. Different accounts
mention the name of different kings such as Andhraka,
Pulindaka, Ghosha or Vajramitra. The last rulers of Shunga
dynasty were Bhagabhadra and Devabhuti, about whom we have
some details.

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Bhagabhadra
Information about the king Bhagabhadra is derived from the
Heliodorus pillar, which was found in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh
near modern Besnagar. Heliodorus was a Greek ambassador and
he dedicated this pillar to God Vasudeva (Vishnu).The Heliodorus
pillar has a surmounted figure of a Garuda.

Devabhuti
Devabhuti was the last Shunga Ruler who was killed by his own
minister Vasudeva Kanva in around 73 BC. Vasudeva Kanva
thus assassinated the last ruler of Shunga Dynasty and founded
the Kanva Dynasty.

Kanva Dynasty

Vasudeva Kanva
Vasudeva Kanva killed the last ruler of the Shunga Dynasty. The
Kanvas were Brahmins and considered themselves as
descendents from Rishi Kanva. At the time of Vasudeva Kanva’s
accession, the Shunga kingdom was already finished as the
Punjab region was under the Greeks and most parts of the
Gangetic planes was under different rulers. One of the Shunga
rulers named Sumitra; who rules around 133 BC, was killed by
Muladeva. Muladeva founded the independent Kosala Kingdom.
Bhumimitra succeeded Vasudeva. Bhumimitra after reigning for
14 years was succeeded by his son Narayana, who was
succeeded by Susharman. Much detail about these kings has
been ascertained only based on Numismatics. Only these four
kings of the Kanva dynasty are known. This dynasty is said to
have been overthrown by the Satavahana dynasty.

Mahameghavahans of Kalinga
After the decline of Mauryas, Kalinga rose to power around 1st
century BC in the area of modern Odisha. We best know about
the Third ruler of this dynasty, named ‘’ Kharvela’’. Kharvela is
known to have revived the past glory of Kalinga. Kharvela (209-
170 BC) King Kharvela belged to the epic time Chedi dynasty.
His capital was Kalinganagara. We know about Kharvela from

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Hathigumpha inscription, found in a cave in Udayagiri near
Bhubaneswar. Kharvela reinstated the army and military of
Kalinga. Kharvela led successful campaigns against the
kingdoms of Magadha, Anga, and Satavahana. The Kalinga
Kingdom was expanded till Ganga to Kaveri from north to south
by Kharvela. Kharvela was a Jain follower, but despite being a
Jain follower he never hesitated in warfare.He patronized the
Jaina ascetics by making provision for their maintenance,
constructing the house/dwellings. Hathigumpha inscription
Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela is a 17 lines inscription in
Brahmi found at Udayagiri hills, Bhubneshwar, Orissa, 6 miles
away from the place where Dhauli edit of Asoka was located. The
inscription says that it is dated 165th year of Maurya kings and
13th year Kharvela reign, and gives a biographical sketch of the
king. It says.

o In the first year the king rebuilt the capital of Kalinga.

o In the second year, he destroyed the capital of Musikas, a tribe


of Hindus of Indus river area.

o In 4th year he subdued the Rastrakas and Bhijakas, the tribes


near modern berar area.

o In the 5th year he extended a canal built by the Mauryas.

o In the 8th year, he advanced till Barabar hills and defeated the
king of Rajgriha.

o In the 9th year he built the ‘’Mahavijayaprasad’’ place of great


on both the banks of the river Pranchi.

o In the 12th year he subdued the Brihaspatimitra of Magadha.

o He built magnificent temple at Bhubneshwar.

Satavahana
The most important of the native successors of the Mauryas in
the Deccan and in central India were the Satavahanas. The
Satavahanas are considered to be identical with the Andhras who
are mentioned in the Puranas The Puranas speak only of the

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Andhra rule and not of the Satavahana rule. On the other hand
the name Andhra does not occur in Satavahana inscriptions.
According to some Puranas altogether the Andhras ruled for 300
years and this period is assigned to the rule of the Satavahana
dynasty. The Andhras are an ancient people and are mentioned
in the Aitareya Brahmana also. The Greek writer Pliny mentions
that the Andhras were powerful people who possessed a large
number of villages and thirty towns, an army of one lakh
infantry, two thousand cavalry and one thousand elephants.
During the Mauryan age they were part of the Mauryan Empire
but it appears that immediately after the fall of the dynasty, the
Andhras declared themselves free. The earliest inscriptions of
the Satavahanas belong to the first century B.C, when they
defeated the Kanvas and established their power in parts of
central India. The early Satavahana kings appeared not in
Andhra, but in Maharashtra where most of their early
inscriptions have been found. They set up their power in the
upper Godavari valley, which at present produces rich and
diverse crops in Maharashtra. Gradually the Satavahana
extended their power over Karnataka and Andhra their greatest
competitors wore the Sakes, who
had established their power in the
upper Deccan and western India.
At one stage the Satavahanas were
dispossessed of their dominions by
the Sakas in Maharashtra and
western India. Before the
emergence of the Satavahanas in
Maharashtra and Cholas, Cheras
and Pandyas in southern India the
region was settled by megalithic
people.

They have been mentioned as


Sātavāhanas, Sātakarnīs,
Andhras and Andhrabhrityas in the Puranas and Coins. Most of
the information about the Satavahana kings is interwoven with

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myths and the information has been collected by a large number
of coins minted in Lead, Silver and an alloy of copper. The
origin of Satavahanas is a mystery but they are considered
Brahmins and most kings use the names of their mothers with
their names. The coins issued by Satavahanas had Bilingual
legends. The name of the Kings was mentioned in Prakrit as well
as some south Indian Language. Satavahana Kings promoted
Buddhism. Nagarjunkonda and Amaravati became important
Buddhist centers during the Satavahana Era.

The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka. He was


succeeded by Krishna, who extended the kingdom up to Nasik in
the west. The third king was Sri Satakarni. He conquered
western Malwa and Berar. He also performed asvamedha
sacrifices. The seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty was
Hala. He reigned for a period of five years. Hala became famous
for his book Gathasaptasati, also called Sattasai. It contains
700 verses in Prakrit language.

Satkarni-I
Satkarni-I or Sri Satkarni was son of Simuka and was a great
ruler among the Early Satavahanas. Naganika was the name of
his queen and he has been described as the Lord of
Dakshinpatha. He extended the empire to further south, Malwa
and Narmada valley. He performed Ashvamedha Yajna and
Rajsuya Yajna.

Satkarni II
Satkarni II was the longest ruling king of the Satavahana
Dynasty and date of his accession is considered to be 166 BC. He
has been mentioned in the Hathigumpha inscription of the
kharvela, in which he is depicted as enemy of Kharvela. In this
inscription, it is mentioned that Kharvela disregarded Satkarni
and dispatched to the western regions an army of strong cavalry.
Satkarni II was succeeded by Lamobodara followed by Apilaka
and some other rulers like Hala.

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Hala
Hala was one greater king of the Satavahanas who was 17th King
of the Satavahana line. He had compiled the "Gatha saptasati"
or Gaha Sattasai which mainly a text on love theme. Gatha
saptasati is in Prakrit. He is also mentioned in another text
Lilavati. These rulers were small rulers only and are considered
to be under the suzerainty of Kanvas. The expansion of the
Satavahanas was checked just after Satkarni II. The Shakas
pushed them southwards and the western Deccan was occupied
by the Shaka King Nahapana.

Gautamiputra Satakarni
The fortunes of the family were restored by Gautamiputra
Satakarni. He called himself the only brahmana, who was the
Destroyer of the
Shaka, Pahalava
and Yavana
Power revived the
lost power of
Satavahana.
Gautamiputra
Satkarni is
known to have
made a total and sharp recovery of the Satvahans. His mother
Gautami has mentioned his achievements in the Nasik
Inscription. Nasik Prasasti describes Gautamiputra as the ruler
of the Aparanta, Anupa, Saurashtra, Kukura, Akara, and
Avanti. In south his reign was up to Kanchi in South. He
assumed the title of raja-raja and Maharaja. He claims to have
destroyed The Kshaharata lineage to which his adversary
Nahapana belonged. This claim is true, because more than 8,000
silver coins of Nahapana, found near Nasik, bear marks of being
restruck by the Satavahana king He also occupied Malwa and
Kathiawar which lay under the control of the Sakas. It seems
that the empire of Gautamiputra Satakarrn extended from Malwa
in the north to Karnataka m the south possibly he also enjoyed
general authority over Andhra. Gautamiputra Satakarni is the

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first king bearing matronym and this practice was followed by
nearly all his successors. He patronized Brahmanism. Yet, he
also gave donations to Buddhists.

Vasisthiputra Sri Pulmavi


Gautamiputra was succeeded by his son Vasisthiputra Sri
Pulmavi in about A.D. 130 and ruled for about twenty four
years. The coins and inscription of Pulmavi have been found in
Andhra Pradesh. This shows that Andhra had become a part of
Satavahana empire in the second century A.D. He set up his
capital at Paithan or Pratisthaa on the Godavari in Aurangabad
district. The Sakas resumed their conflict with the Saravahanas
for the possession of the Konkan coast and Malwa Rudradaman
I (A.D. 130-150), the Saka ruler of Saurashtra (Kathiawar),
defeated the Satavahanas twice, but did not destroy them on
account of matrimonial relations. Pulmavi married the daughter
of Saka ruler Rudradaman. The Girnar Inscription of
Rudradaman mentions that Rudradaman defeated the
Dakshinapathpati Satkarni twice, but did not kill him because
of the close family relationship.

Yajna Sri Satakarni, one of the later kings, recovered north


Konkan and Malwa from the Saka rulers. He was a lover of trade
and navigation. His coins have been found not only in Andhra
but also in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat. His love
for navigation and overseas trade is shown by the representation
of a ship on his coins. The last great ruler of Satavahanas was
Yajna Sri Satakarni. The last Satavahana Ruler was Pulumayi-
IV. Not many details have been found about him except that he
built a tank in Vepura. The Satavahana empire collapsed when
Abhiras seized Maharashtra and Ikshvakus and Pallavas
appropriated the eastern provinces.

Economic Condition
There was a remarkable progress in the fields of trade and
industry during the Satavahana rule. Merchants organized guilds
to increase their activities. The craft guilds organized by different
craftsmen such as potters, weavers and oil pressers also came

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into existence. Silver coins called Karshapanas were used for
trade. The Satavahana period also witnessed overseas
commercial activity. Ptolemy mentions many ports in the Deccan.
The greatest port of the Satavahanas was Kalyani on the west
Deccan, Gandakasela and Ganjam on the east coast were the
other important seaports.

The material culture of the Deccan under the Satavahanas was a.


fusion of local elements and northern ingredients. The
megalith builders of the Deccan were fairly acquainted with the
use of iron and agriculture. Although before circa 200 B. C. we
find some hoes made of iron, the number of such tools
increased substantially in the first two or three centuries of the
Christian era. We do not notice much change in the form of the
hoes from megalithic to the Satavahana phase. Only hoes were
now fully and properly socketed. Besides socketed hoes, sickles,
spades, ploughshares, axes, adzes, razors, etc., belong to the
Satavahana layers. Tanged and socketed arrowheads as well as
daggers have also been discovered.

At a site in Karimnagar district even a blacksmith's shop has


been discovered. The Satavahanas may have exploited the iron
ores of Karimnagar and Warangal, for in these districts
indications of iron workings have been found. Evidence of ancient
gold workings has been found in the Kolar fields in the early
Christian centuries. The Satavahanas may have used gold as
bullion, for they did not issue gold coins as the Kushana did.
They issued mostly coins of lead, which is found in the Deccan.
They also issued potin, copper and bronze money. The
lkshvakus also issued their coins. Both the Satavahanas and
lkshvakus seem to have exploited the mineral resources of the
Deccan. The people of the Deccan knew the art of paddy
transplantation and in the first two centuries the area between
the Krishna and the Godavari, especially at the mouths of the
two rivers, formed a great rice bowl. The people of the Deccan
also produced cotton. In the foreign accounts Andhra is
considered to be famous for its cotton products. Thus a good
portion of the Deccan developed a very advanced rural economy.
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According to Pliny, the Andhra kingdom maintained an army of
100,000 infantry, 2000 cavalry and 1000 elephants. Apparently
the peasants produced enough to support this military strength.

Through contacts with the north the people of the Deccan learnt
the use of coins, burnt bricks, ringwells, etc These elements of
material life had become quite important in north India by 300
B.C., but they acquired importance in the Deccan a couple of
centuries later, In Peddabankur in Karimnagar district we find
regular use of fire-baked bricks, and use of flat, perforated roof
tiles. All this must have contributed to lasting structures. What
is further remarkable is the fact 'that as many as 22 brickwells
belonging to the second century have been discovered at that
site. Naturally these facilitated thick habitations, and we find
there covered drains underground to lead waste water into
soakage pits. Towns appeared in Maharashtra by the first
century B C., when we find several crafts. They emerged in the
eastern Deccan a century later. Pliny informs us that the Andhra
country in the eastern Deccan included 30 walled towns, besides
numerous villages. Several towns of the second and third
centuries in this area are known from inscriptions and
excavations. Increasing trade is indicated by numerous Roman
and Satavahana coins. They appeared about a century later in
the eastern Deccan, in the Godavari-Krishna area.

Social Organisation
The Satavahanas originally seem to have been a tribe of the
Deccan. But they were brahmanized, and their most famous king
Gautamiputra Satakarni claims to have established the fourfold
varna system which had fallen into disorder. He boasts that he
put an end to the intermixture between the people of different
social orders. Such confusion was obviously caused by the Saka
infiltration and by the thin and superficial brahmanization of the
tribes living in the Deccan.

The absorption of the Sakas in Hindu society as kshatriyas was


facilitated by intermarriage between the Sakas and the
Satavahanas Similarly the indigenous tribal people were more

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and more acculturated by the Buddhist monks, who were
induced by land grants to settle in the western Deccan. It is
suggested that traders also supported the Buddhist monks, for
the earliest caves seem to have been located on the trade routes.
The Satavahanas were also the first rulers to make land grants
to the brahmanas, although we have more instances of grants
being made to Buddhist monks. According to the Dharmasastras
it was the function of the Kshatriyas to rule, but the Satavahana
rulers called themselves brahmanas. Gautamiputra boasts that
he was the true brahmanas siree the Andhras are identified with
the early Satavahanas, probably they were a local tribe who were
converted to Brahmanism, The orthodox brahmanas of the north
looked upon the Andhras as a mixed caste. This shows that the
Andhras were a tribal people who were brought within the fold of
Hindu society as a mixed caste.

Increasing craft and commerce in this period brought many


merchants and artisans to the forefront. Merchants took pride m
naming themselves after the towns to which they belonged, Both
artisans and merchants made generous donations to the
Buddhist cause. They set up small memorial tablets. Among the
artisans the gandhikas or the perfumers are repeatedly
mentioned as donors. At a later stage the term gandhika became
so general as to denote all kinds of shopkeepers. The modern title
Gandhi is derived from this ancient term.

The most interesting detail about the Satavahanas relates to their


family structure. In Aryan society in north India father enjoyed
greater importance than mother, and the princes whom we have
considered so far seem to have belonged to a patriarchal society.
But the Satavahanas show traces of a matrilineal social
structure, it was customary for their king to be named after his
mothe. Such names as Gautamiputra and Vasisthiputra indicate
that in their society mother enjoyed a great deal of importance.

At present in peninsular India the son's name includes a part of


the father's name, but in it there is no place for mother. Queens
made important religious gifts in their own right, and some of

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them acted as regents. But basically the Satavahana ruling
family was patriarchal because succession to the throne passed
to the male member.

Administration
The Satavahana rulers strove for the royal ideal set forth in the
Dharmasastras, The king was represented as the upholder of
dhama to him was assigned a few divine attributes. The
Satavahana king is represented as possessing the qualities of
ancient gods such as Rama, Bhima, Kesava, Arjuna, etc. He is
compared in prowess and lustre to these legendary figures and to
supernatural forces. This was evidently meant to attribute
divinity to the Satavahana king.

The Satavahanas kept some of the administrative units found in


Asokan times. Their district was called ahara, as it was known in
the time of Asoka. Their officials were known as amatyas and
mahamatras, as they were known in Maurya times.

But we notice certain military and feudal elements in the


administration of Satavahanas. It is significant that the senapati
was appointed provincial governor. Since the tribal people m
the Deccan were not thoroughly hinduized and reconciled to the
new rule, it was necessary to keep them under strong military
control. The administration in the rural areas was placed in the
hands of gaulmika, who was the head of a military regiment
consisting of nine chariots, nine elephants, 25 horses and 45
foot-soldiers.

The head of the army platoon was therefore posted in the


countryside to maintain peace and order. The military character
of the Satavahana rule is also evident from the common use of
such terms as kataka and skandhavaras in their inscriptions.
These were military camps and settlements which served as
administrative centres so long as the king was there. Thus
coercion played an important part in the Satavahana
administration. The Satavahanas started the practice of
granting tax-free villages to brahmanas and Buddhist monks.

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The cultivated fields and villages granted to them were declared
free from molestation by royal policemen and soldiers, and all
kinds of royal officers. These areas therefore became small
independent islands within the Satavahana kingdom. Possibly
the Buddhist monks also preached peace and rules of good
conduct among the people they lived with, and taught them to
respect political authority and social order The brahmanas, of
course, helped enforce the rules of the varna system which made
society stable. The Satavahana kingdom had three grades of
feudatories. The highest grade was formed by the king who as
called raja and who had the right to strike corns. The second
grade was formed by the mahabhoja, and the third grade by the
senapati It seems that these feudatories and' landed
beneficiaries enjoyed some authority in their respective localities.

Religion
The Satavahana rulers claim to have been brahmanas, and they
represented the march of triumphant Brahmanism. From the
very beginning kings and queens performed the Vedic, sacrifices
such as the asvamedha, vajapeya, etc. . They also worshipped a
large number of Vaishnava gods such as Krishna, Vasudeva,
and others; They paid liberal sacrificial fees to the brahmanas.

However, the Satavahana rulers promoted Buddhism by granting


land to the monks. In their kingdom the Mahayana form of
Buddhism commanded considerable following, especially in the
artisan class. Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati in Andhra
Pradesh became important seats of Buddhist culture under the
Satavahanas and more so under their successors, the Ikshvakus
Similarly, Buddhism flourished in the Nasik and Junar areas in
the western Deccan in Maharashtra, where it seems to have been
supported by the traders

Language
The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit. All
inscriptions were composed in this language and written in the
Brahmi, script, as was the case in Asokan times, Some
Satavahana kings may have composed Prakrit books. One Prakrit

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text called Gathasaptasati is attributed to a Satavahana king
called Hala. It consisted of 700 verses, all written in Prakrit, but
it seems to have been finally re-touched much later, possibly
after the sixth century A D

Architecture
In the Satavahana phase many temples and monasteries were
cut out of the solid rock in the north-western Deccan or
Maharashtra with great skill and patience. In fact the process
had started about a century earlier from 200 B C. the two
common structures were the temple which was called chaitya
and the monastery which was called vihara. The chaitya was a
large hall with a number of columns, and the vihara consisted of
a central hall entered by a doorway from a verandah in front. The
most famous chaitya is that of Karle in the western Deccan, It-
is about 40 metres long, 15 metres wide and 15 metres high, it is
a most impressive specimen of massive rock architecture.

The viharas or monasteries were excavated near the chaityas for


the residence of monks in the rainy season. At Nasik we have
three viharas. Since they carry the inscriptions of Nahapana and
Gautamiputra, it seems that they belong to the first-second
centuries A.D. Rock-cut architecture is also to be found in
Andhra in the Krishna-Godavari region, but the region is really
famous for independent Buddhist structures. The most important
of these monuments are the stupas distributed over an area of
125 km all around Ellora. The most famous of them are
Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda. The stupa was a large round
structure erected over some relic of the Buddha. The
Amaravati stupa began in about 200 B C but was completely
reconstructed in the second half of the second century A D. Its
dome measured 53 metres across the base, and it seems to have
peen 31 metres m height. The Amaravati stupa is full of
sculptures which depict the various scenes from the 'life of the
Buddha. Nagarjunakonda prospered most under the Ikshvakus,
the successors of the Satavahanas, It contains not only
Buddhist monuments but also the earliest brahmanical brick
temples.
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Satavahana Empire: Observations
Satavahanas are considered the flag bearers of Aryanism to
Deccan. They were the first Native Indians who had issued the
coins with portraits of their kings. All the coins of Satavahanas
used Prakrit dialect and also on backside the southern language
(Telugu or Kannada). Prakrit seems to be the official language of
Satavahanas.

The Satavahanas worshipped the Hindu Deities such as Rama,


Krishna, Vasudeva etc. but they also patronized the Buddhism.
The Nagarjunkonda and Amaravati in Maharastra became the
important centers of Buddhism during the reign of Satavahanas
and their successors.

Satavahana built many Chaitya and Viharas. Most of them


were rock cut from the solid rock in North Western Deccan and
Maharashtra. The Karle Chaitya of 1st century BC is one of the
most important Chaitya. The Viharas of the 1 century AD at
Nasik bear the inscription of the Gautamiputra Satkarni and
Nahapana. The Amaravati Stupa was built in the reign of
Satavahanas.

Satavahanas administration was simple and inspired by the


Mauryas. The King was the protector of the religion and had
divine attributes. He possessed the qualities of ancient Gods.

The Kingdom was divided into the Janpadas and subdivided into
Aharas. The ruler of each Ahara was an Amatya. Ahara was
divided into Grama which was under the headmen called
Gramika. Two feudatories viz. Mahasenapati and
Mahataravalara were created in the Satavahana Dynasty.

King was called Rajan or Raja and he had the right to mint the
coins. A Senapati was appointed as the provincial governor.

The most important features of the state formation under


Satavahanas were:

- It was a result of a continuous process.

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- It was influenced by Mauryan Administration

- It was influenced by North India

Gautamiputra Satkarni is claimed to have re-established the four


fold Varna System. .

Satavahanas ruled in Modern Andhra Pradesh, but most of the


inscriptions of Satavahanas have been found in Maharashtra.

Nanaghat Inscription of Naganika (wife of Satkarni-I) has been


found near Pune (District). The Two cave inscriptions found at
Nasik are of Gautamiputra Satkarni.

At Nasik, Inscription of Pulumayi II has been found. The Karle


cave inscription is of Vashishtiputra Pulumayi II.

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Gupta Empire
Gupta empire came to be established in A.D. 319AD, at a period when India
had many different kingdoms. Although the Gupta Empire was not as large
as the Maurya Empire, it kept north India politically united for more than
a century. When the Gupta dynasty ascended the throne around 320 CE,
continuing until 550 CE, they consolidated northern India by subjugating
the local and provincial powers that had become independent after the
downfall of the Kushans.

The empire covered most


of Northern India and
Eastern Pakistan, parts
of Gujarat and Rajasthan
and what is now eastern
India and Bangladesh.

The capital of the


Guptas was Pataliputra
present day Patna.

The period during the


Gupta Empire is referred
to as the Golden Age of
India, embracing
extensive inventions and
discoveries in science,
technology, engineering,
art, dialectic, literature,
logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that crystallized the
elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture. The high points of
this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculptures and
paintings. The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa,
Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma and Vatsyayana who made
great advancements in many academic fields. Science and political
administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade
ties also made the region an important cultural center and set the region
up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma,
Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia. The earliest available Indian epics are also
thought to have been written around this period.

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Origin of Guptas
As per Poona Copper Plate inscription, the history of the Gupta
dynasty begins with its founding by Sri-Gupta around 240 CE and
Ghatotkacha was the next to follow him with the title Maharaja. This title
was often borne by feudatory chiefs. The Poona copper plate inscription of
Prabhavati Gupta describes Sri Gupta as the Adhiraja of the Gupta
dynasty.

Gupta Empire records and Chinese records provided by the later Chinese
traveler I-Tsing, furnished the names of the first three rulers of the
Gupta Dynasty, Maharaja Sri Gupta, Maharaja Sri Ghatotkacha and
Ghatotokacha’s son, Maharajadhiraja Sri Chandragupta, considered the
first Gupta emperor.

Origins and Caste


According to many historians, the Gupta dynasty was a Vaishya dynasty.
Many asserts that the Vaishya Guptas “appeared as a reaction against
oppressive rulers”. Some regarded the caste of the Guptas as Vaishya on
the basis of the ancient Indian texts on law, which prescribe the name-
ending with Gupta for a member of the Vaishya caste. The rise of the Gupta
Empire was one of the most prominent violations of the caste system in
ancient India.

In the Panchobh Copper Plate, some kings bearing the title Guptas and
related to the imperial Gupta Dynasty, claimed themselves as Vaisyas. In
the Riddhapura copper plate inscription, it is stated that Sri Gupta
belonged to the Dharan Gotra.

The Kings

Chandragupta (319 – 335 AD)


Chandragupta I (not to be confused with Chandragupta Maurya (322–298
BCE), founder of the Mauryan Empire), son of Ghatotkacha and the
grandson of Sri Gupta, is generally considered as the founder of the Gupta
dynasty. By marrying a Lichchhavi (of Vaishali) Princes Kumaradevi he
sought to gain in prestige, though Vaishali does not appear to have been a
part of his kingdom. As the ruler of the Gupta Empire, he is known for
forging alliances with many powerful families in the Ganges region. His rule
remained confined to Magadha and parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh (Saketa
and Prayaga).

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He took the title of Maharajadhiraja, and his accession in about A.D. 319-
20 marked the beginning of Gupta era.

Samudragupta ( 335 – 380AD )


Chandragupta I was succeeded by his son Samudragupta.
Samudragupta became the ruler after subduing his rival Kacha, an obscure
prince of the dynasty. He was perhaps the greatest king of Gupta
dynasty. He was a benevolent ruler, a great warrior and a patron of arts.
His name appears in the Javanese text `Tantrikamandaka’. His name is
taken to be a title acquired by his conquests (samudra referring to the
‘oceans’). Harisena, a prince of Vakataka Kingdom and the court poet of
Samudragupta rightly describes him as the hero of a hundred battles, and
Vincent Smith calls him the ‘Napoleon of India’.

His conquests are known from a lengthy eulogy


Queen Kumaradev and Chandragupta composed by his court-poet Harisena and
I
inscribed on an Asokan pillar at Allahabad. This
account contains a long list of states, kings and
tribes which were conquered and brought under
various degrees of subjugation.

The Asokan pillar at Allahabad, one of the Pillars


of Ashoka, an emperor of the Maurya dynasty. At
some point of time, the pillar was moved from its
original location and installed within Akbar’s
Allahabad Fort in Allahabad. While it is one of the few extant pillars that
carry his edicts, it is particularly notable for containing later inscriptions
attributed to the Samudragupta. Also engraved on the stone are
inscriptions by the Mughal emperor, Jahangir ( records an earlier visit in
1575 of Akbar’s courtier, Birbal, on a pilgrimage to the Sangam).
Ashokan inscription is in Brahmi and is dated to 232 BCE.
Samudragupta’s euology is in excellent Sanskrit, written in the more
refined Gupta script (a later version of Brahmi) by the poet and minister,
Harishena.

Eran Stone Inscription of Samudragupta - Written in Sanskrit – undated –


This stone inscription was found by Alexander Cunningham near the
Varaha temple – The inscription mentions the Gupta king Samudragupta
who is compared with Dhanada (Kubera) and Antaka (Yama) in joy and

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wrath respectively. A mention of setting up a temple of Janardana at
Airikina to augment his own glories. Eran
is the site of first reported monument of
Sati dated 510AD in India, mentioned in
Eran inscription

Details of Samudragupta are known


through coins issued by him and
inscriptions. There were of eight
different types of coins and all made of
pure gold. His conquests brought him the
gold and also the coin-making expertise
from his acquaintance with the Kushan.

Samudragupta is the father of Gupta monetary system. He started minting


different types of coins. They are known as the

 Standard Type
 the Archer Type
 the Battle Axe Type
 the Ashvamedha Type
 the Tiger Slayer Type
 the King and Queen Type
 the Lyre Player Type.
Coins of Samudragupta exhibit a fine quality of technical and sculptural
finesse. At least three types of coins — Archer Type, Battle-Axe and
Tiger type — represent Samudragupta in martial armour. The
coins bearing the epithets like parakramah (valour), kritanta-parashu
(deadly battle-axe), vyaghra parakramah (valourous tiger), prove his being
Samudragupta, with Garuda pillar a skilful warrior. Samudragupta’s
Asvamedha type of coins commeorate
the Ashvamedha sacrifices he performed and signify his many victories
and supremacy

Conquests of Samudragupta
Samuragupta conquered a majority of North India in phases.

1. The first category includes the twelve states of Dakshinapatha with the
names of their kings who were captured and then liberated and reinstated.
They were Kosala, Mahakantara, Kaurata, Pishtapura, Kottura, Erandapalli,
Kanchi, Avamukta, Vengi, Palakka, Devrashtra and Kushthalpura.

2. The second category includes the names of the eight kings of Aryavarta,
who were violently exterminated; prominent of them were

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Rudradwa, Ganapatinaga, Nagasena, etc. Eran was annexed into Gupta
empire by Samudragupta when he annexed many kingdoms of Aryavarta
into Gupta dominion.

3. The third category consists of the rulers of the forest states


(atavirarajyas) who were reduced to servitude and the chief of the five
Border States (pratyantas) and nine tribal republics that were forced to pay
all kinds of taxes, obey his orders and came to perform obeisance. The five
Border States were

 Samtata (South-east Bengal)


 Kamarupa (Assam)
 Nepala (Nepal)
 Davaka (Assam)
 Kartipura (Kashmir).
The nine tribal republics were the Malavas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas, Abhiras,
Prarjunas, Arjunayanas, Sarakinakas, Kavas and Kharaparikas.

4. The fourth category consists of the Daivaputra Shahi Shahanushahi


(Kushanas), the Shaka, Murundas, the dwellers of Sinhala (Ceylon) and all
the other islands who paid tribute to the King.

Culture and Religion


Inspite of his preoccupation with political and military affairs, he cultivated
music and poetry. Some of his gold coins represent him as playing on the
lyre (Veena).

Samudragupta was a man of


exceptional abilities and unusual
varied gifts – warrior, statesman,
general, poet and musician,
philanthropist, he was all in one.
Coins and inscription of Gupta
period bear testimony to his
‘versatile talents and
Indefatigable energy’.

According to Allahabad Prasasti’s


inscription, “Samudragupta was
man of many sided genius, who
put to shame the preceptor of the
Lord Gods and Tumburu and

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Narada and others by his sharp and polished intellect and musical
accomplishment.” His title of Kaviraj (King of poets) is justified by
various poetical compositions. Unfortunately, none of these compositions
have survived.

The important scholars present in his court were Harishena, Vasubandhu


and Asanga. He was a poet and musician himself.

Samudragupta was the up-holder of Brahmanical order. Because of his


services to the cause of religion the Allahabad inscription mentions
the qualifying title of ‘Dharma- prachir bandhu’ for him. But he was
tolerant towards other religions

His patronage to Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu and the acceptance of the


request of Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka (Ceylon) to build a
Buddhist monastery at Bodh Gaya (That monastery was called by
Chinese Traveller Xuanzang as the Mahabodhi Sangharama) abundantly
prove that he respected other religions. His Ashvamedha types of coins
together with other coins bearing the figures of Lakshmi and Ganga together
with her ‘vahana'(transport) makara (crocodile) testify his faith in
Brahmanical religions Samudragupta had imbibed the true spirit of religion
and for that reason, he has been described as ‘Anukampavan’ (full of
compassion) in the Allahabad inscription. He has been described ‘as the
giver of many hundreds of thousands of cows.

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Ramagupta
Initially, he was known from the traditional narratives (like a Sanskrit play,
named Devichandragupta by Vishakhadatta) only and not supported by
any contemporary epigraphical evidence. But later, three Durjanpur
inscriptions on Jaina tirthankara images were discovered from Durjanpur
near Vidisha, which mention him as the Maharajadhiraja

A large number of his copper coins also have been found from the Eran-
Vidisha region and classified in five distinct types, which include the
Garuda, Garudadhvaja, lion and border legend types. The Brahmi legends
on these coins are written in the early Gupta style.

Ramagupta may be the elder son and immediate successor of


Samudragupta and succeeded by his younger brother Chandragupta II.

In the play Devichandragupta by Vishakhadatta, Ramagupta is portrayed


as a weak and impotent king, afraid and incapable of warfare. He married
the woman, Dhruvaswamini (Dhruvadevi) who was engaged with his
brother Chandragupta II by force. He also became the King of the
Gupta empire, though his brother was declared as the future King of the
Gupta empire after Samudragupta’s death.

According to traditional accounts, Ramagupta decided to expand his


kingdom by attacking the Sakas in Gujarat. The campaign soon took a turn
for the worse and the Gupta army was trapped. The Saka king,
Rudrasimha III, demanded that Ramagupta hand over his wife
Dhruvswamini in exchange for peace.

The weak king was inclined to accept these terms. This infuriated his
younger brother Chandragupta, who went himself in the disguise of the
queen to the Saka chief and killed him. Then he murdered his royal brother
Ramagupta and married the queen, Dhruvswamini.

Historians still don’t know what liberties the author Vishakadatta took with
the incidents, but Dhruvadevi was indeed Chandragupta II’s Chief Queen as
seen in the Vaisali Terracotta Seal that calls her “Mahadevi”
Dhruvasvamini. The Bilsad Pillar Inscription of their son Kumaragupta I
(414–455 CE) also refers to her as “Mahadevi Dhruvadevi”.

The official records of the Guptas, however do not refer to Ramagupta and
trace the succession directly from Samudragupta to Chandragupta II.

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Chandragupta II ( Vikramaditya )
Samudragupta was succeeded by his younger son Chandragupta II.
But, according to some scholars, Samudragupta who died shortly before A.
D. 380 was succeeded by his eider son Ramagupta (as mentioned earlier).

During his rule, the Gupta Empire achieved its zenith. Art, architecture, and
sculpture flourished, and the cultural development of ancient India reached
its climax. The period of prominence of the Gupta dynasty is very often
referred to as the “Golden Age of India”.

The reign of Chandragupta II saw the high watermark of the Gupta


Empire. He extended the limits of the empire by marriage alliance and
conquests. According to Allahabad Pillar inscription and
Devichandraguptam, Chandragupta II married Kuberanaga of the Naga
family. The Nagas were a powerful ruling clan and this matrimonial
alliance helped the Gupta ruler in expanding his empire.

The marriage of his daughter Prabhavati by his wife Kubernaga with the
Vakataka king Rudrasena II helped him to establish his political influence in
the Deccan. His son-in-law died accidentally in 385 CE after a very short
reign, following which Queen Prabhavatigupta (385-405) ruled the
Vakataka kingdom as a regent on behalf of her two sons. During this
twenty-year period, the Vakataka realm was practically a part of the Gupta
empire. His greatest victory was his victory over the Shaka-Kshatrapa
dynasty and annexation of their kingdom in western Malwa and Gujarat, by
defeating their last ruler Rudrasimha III. The geographical location of the
Vakataka kingdom allowed Chandragupta II to take the opportunity to
defeat the Western Kshatrapas once for all.

Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya (Sun of Power) which


had been first used by an Ujjain ruler King Vikramaditya (who founded a
lunar calendar the Vikram Samvat or Bikram Samwat following his victory
over the Sakas in 56 BCE,) in 56/57 B.C. as a mark of victory over the Saka
Kshatrapas of western India. The title ‘Vikramaditya’ was later used by
16th-century Hindu king Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya as well.

The conquest gave Chandragupta the Western sea coast, famous for trade
and commerce. This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa, and its chief
city Ujjain. Ujjain seems to have been made the second capital of
Chandragupta II though Pataliputra continued to be the capital.

‘King Chandra’ whose exploits has been mentioned in the Mehrauli Iron
Pillar Inscription, which is located in the Qutub-Minar complex in Delhi is
identified by many scholars with Chandragupta II. According to this
inscription, Chandra crossed the Sindhu region of seven rivers and

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defeated Valhikas (identified with Bacteria). It also mentions
Chandragupta’s victory over enemies from Vanga (Bengal).

The pillar bears an inscription which states that it was erected as a flagstaff
in honour of the Hindu god Vishnu, and in the memory of Chandragupta II
(A derivation of “Natya-darpana“by Vishakadata states that the pillar
had been put up by Chandragupta II himself after defeating Vahilakas. And
after this great feat, he put up this pillar as a memory of the victory).

The pillar also highlights ancient India’s achievements in metallurgy. The


pillar is made of 98% wrought iron and has stood more than 1,600 years
without rusting or decomposing. Chandragupta II controlled a vast empire,
from the mouth of the Ganges to the mouth of the Indus River and from
what is now North Pakistan down to the mouth of the Narmada.

The large number of beautiful gold coins issued by the Gupta dynasty are a
testament to the imperial grandeur of that age. Chandragupta II also
started producing silver coins in the Saka tradition.

Coinage
Chandragupta continued issuing most of the gold coin types introduced by
his father Samudragupta, such as the Sceptre type (rare for Chandragupta
II), Archer type, and the Tiger-Slayer type. However, Chandragupta II
also introduced several new types, such as the Horseman type and Lion-
slayer type, both of which were used by his son Kumaragupta I. In addition,
Chandragupta II was the first Gupta king to issue silver coins. These coins
were intended to replace the silver coinage of the Western Kshatrapas after
Chandragupta II defeated them, and were modeled on the Kshatrapa
coinage. The main difference was to replace the dynastic symbol of the
Kshatrapas (the three-arched hill) by the dynastic symbol of the Guptas (the
mythic eagle Garuda).

From Chandragupta II kings of Gupta dynasty are known as Parama


Bhagavatas or Bhagavata Vaishnavas. The Bhagavata Purana entails the
fully developed tenets and philosophy of the Bhagavata tradition wherein
Krishna gets fused with Vasudeva and transcends Vedic Vishnu and
cosmic Hari to be turned into the ultimate object of bhakti.

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Navratnas
Indian tradition claims that Dhanwanthari, Kshapanaka, Amarasimha,
Shankhu, Khatakarpara, Kalidasa, Vetalbhatt (or Vetalabhatta), Vararuchi,
and Varahamihira were a part of Vikramaditya’s court. The king
commissioned nine men of letters, called the “nava-ratna”, to work in his
court.

1. Kalidasa: Author of the great epic, ‘Shakuntala’, great poet, dramatist


and the most prominent scholar of Sanskrit language.
2. Amarnatha: Author of ‘Sanskrit Amarkosh’
3. Shapanaka: Prominent Astrologist who had achieved mastery in
Astrology.
4. Dhanvantri: A Doctor who had achieved mastery in the science of
medicine; one who was an expert in diagnosis and one who could
prescribe different treatments for a single disease.
5. Varruchi: Expert Linguist and an expert in Grammar
6. Varahamihira: Author of World-famous epic, ‘Brhatsamhita’ and
mastery in
Astrology. Varahamihira predicted the death of Vikram Aditya’s son.
7. Ghatakpara: Expert in sculpture and architecture.
8. Shanku: Expert in Geography (This name is even well known today in
the field of geography)
9. Vetalabhadra : Expert in black magic & tantric sciences. Vetalbhatt
had been a Maga Brahmin known for writing work of the sixteen
stanza “Nīti-pradīpa” (literally, the lamp of conduct) in tribute to
Vikramaditya.

Fa Hien, a Chinese Buddhist, was the of the pilgrims who visited India in
search of original Buddhist texts. during the reign of Gupta emperor
Chandragupta II (though he does not mention name of any king in his
account).

He started his journey from China in 399


CE and reached India in 405 CE. He is said
to have walked all the way from China
across icy desert and rugged mountain
passes. He entered India from the north-
west and reached Pataliputra. He took
back with him Buddhist texts and
images sacred to Buddhism. During his
stay in India up to 411 CE, he went on a
pilgrimage to Mathura, Kanauj,

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Kapilavastu, Lumbini, Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi and Rajgriha
and made careful observations about the empire’s conditions.

From his accounts, the Gupta Empire was a prosperous period, until the
Rome-China trade axis was broken with the fall of the Han dynasty,
the Guptas’ did indeed prosper. His writings form one of the most
important sources for the history of this period.

Kumaragupta I (412-454 A.D.)


Chandragupta II died about 413 AD and was succeeded by his son
Kumaragupta, born of Mahadevi Dhruvasvamini. Kumaragupta is also
known as Shakraditya and Mahendraditya. He erected an iron pillar,
today visible at the Qutb complex in Mehraulli.

The Bilsad inscription is the oldest record of his reign and it dates to Gupta
year 96, which corresponds to 415 CE. An inscription on a figure of a
yaksha from Mathura in the reign of Kumaragupta has been dated to 432
CE, and a pedestal (with no king’s name on it, but presumably from
Kumaragupta’s reign) has been dated to 442 CE. He maintained intact the
vast empire built up by his two predecessors. The last days of his reign
were not good. The Gupta Empire was threatened by the rebellion of
Pushyamitras (a tribe who were settled in central India but then rebelled) of
central India and invasion of the White Huns. But, Kumaragupta was
successful in defeating both threats and performed the Ashvamedha
(horse sacrifice) to celebrate his victory.

Skandagupta (454-467 A.D.):


Skandagupta, who succeeded
Kumaragupta I, was perhaps the last
powerful Gupta monarch. To
consolidate his position, he had
to fight the Pushyamitras. He
defeated the Pushyamitra threat, but
then was faced with invading
Hephthalites or “White Huns” from
access the frontiers in the north- west.
However, Skandagupta crushed the
Huna invasion in 455, and managed to
keep them at bay. This heroic feat
entitled him, like Chandragupta II, to assume the title of Vikramaditya. He
also assumed the titles of Kramaditya.

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It appears that these wars adversely affected the economy of the empire, and
the debased gold coinage of Skandagupta bears testimony to these.
Moreover, he appears to have been the last Gupta ruler to mint silver coins
in western India. Skandagupta’s name appear in the Javanese text
Tantrikamandaka. The Junagarh inscription of his reign tells us
about the public works undertaken during his times. The Sudarsana lake
(originally built during the Maurya times) burst due to excessive rains and
in the early part of his rule his governor Parnadatta and his son
Chakrapalita got it repaired.

Huna Invasion

The Hunas were Iranian-speaking Xionite tribes and a nomadic


confederation in Central Asia who, via Khyber Pass, entered India at the end
of the 5th or early 6th century and were defeated by the Indian Gupta
Empire and the Indian king Yasodharman. In its farthest geographical
extent in India, the Huna empire covered the region up to Malwa in central
India.

The Central Asian Xionites consisted of four hordes in four cardinal


directions. Northern Huna were the Black Huns, Southern Huna were the
Red Huns, Eastern Huna were the Celestial Huns, and Western Huna were
the White Huns or Hephthalites.

Skandagupta is stated to have repelled a White Huna invasion in 455, but


they continued to pressure South Asia’s northwest frontier (present day
Pakistan), and broke through into northern India by the end of the 5th
century, hastening the disintegration of the Gupta Empire.

The initial Huna or Alxon raids on Gandhara took place in the late 5th and
early 6th century AD, upon the death of the Gupta ruler, Skandagupta
(455–470).Based on Chinese and Persian histories believes that the
Hunas conquered Gandhara from the Ki-to-lo (Kidarites) in 475 AD.

Decline of the Gupta Empire:

Skandagupta died about A.D. 467 and the line of succession after him is
very uncertain. Skandagupta was followed by weak rulers Purugupta (467–
473), Kumaragupta II (473–476), Budhagupta (476–495?), Narasimhagupta
Baladitya, Kumaragupta III, Vishnugupta, Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta,

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whose kingdom in the plains of Northern India was continuously attacked
by the Hunas.

In the 480’s the Hephthalites broke through the Gupta defenses in the
northwest, and much of the empire in northwest was overrun by the Hun by
500. The empire disintegrated under the attacks of Toramana and his
successor Mihirakula. It appears from inscriptions that the Guptas,
although their power was much diminished, continued to resist the Huns.
The Hun invader Toramana was defeated by Bhanugupta in 510 CE.

The Huns were defeated and driven out of India in 528 AD by a coalition
consisting of Gupta emperor Narasimhagupta and the king Yashodharman
from Malwa.

The Guptas continued to rule till about 550 A.D., but by then their power
had already become very insignificant.

Causes of Decline of Guptas:

1. Huna invasions were the main cause for the decline of the Gupta
power.
2. In addition to the Hun invasion, the factors, which contribute to the
decline of the empire include competition from the Vakatakas and the
rise of Yashodharman in Malwa. Yasodharman set up, in 532 A.D.,
pillars of victory commemorating his conquest of almost the whole of
northern India. Yashodharman’s rule was short- lived, but it meant a
severe blow to the Gupta Empire.
3. Further, the internal attacks of the Pushyamitras, who are identified
with the Patumitras and Durmitras of the Puranas, also caused
notable destabilization to the state power of the Guptas.
4. Another cause for the disintegration was the succession of weak rulers
after Skandagupta.
5. Yet another factor behind the disintegration of the Gupta state power
was the administrative weakness. Guptas made no efforts to impose
an effective control over their regions. Their control was effective as
long as powerful rulers occupied the Gupta throne and exercised their
authority effectively.
6. Crisis of succession or weak monarchs led local chiefs to declare
independence. This naturally resulted in constant military
preparedness that led to the crippling of the financial resources of the
Gupta Empire. Though Skandagupta thwarted the early attacks of
the Hunas, the struggle disrupted the international trade of
north-western India and eroded one of the most important financial
bases of the Guptas.

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7. By the end of the 5th century AD and beginning of the 6th century AD,
taking advantage of the chaotic condition of the Gupta Empire,
many regional powers asserted themselves by declaring independence.
Further, for some historians, another cause for the disintegration of
the Gupta Empire was the beginning of feudalization of the
polity, economy and society. They argue that this process of
feudalization with the issue of land grants first to religious and later to
secular beneficiaries resulted in loss of revenue and diminished
administrative control over the kingdom. Further, the growing
importance of Samantas weakened the central authority.
8. Another cause for the decline and disintegration of the Guptas is said
to be their tilt towards the asceticism of Buddhism during the reign of
Kumaragupta and Buddhagupta. It is suggested that the founding of
Nalanda University by Kumaragupta and of Buddhist learning and the
patronage extended by Buddhagupta are index of their tilt towards
Buddhism that advocates non-violence.

It is true that they patronized Buddhist educational institutions but this


does not mean that they renounced violence even for protection of their
territories from external and internal disorders, nor is there any conclusive
evidence to prove that they disowned their royal duties and spent their lives
as ascetics, embracing Buddhist philosophy.

Divisions within the imperial family, concentration of power in the hands


of local chiefs or governors, loose administrative structure of the empire,
decline of foreign trade, growing practice of land grants for religious and
other purposes, etc contributed towards the disintegration of the Gupta
Empire.

GUPTA ADMINISTRATION

Unlike the Mauryas, the Guptas adopted such pompous titles as


Parameshvara Maharajadhiraja, Paramabhattaraka, etc., which imply the
existence of lesser kings with considerable authority within the empire.

Besides, the Guptas added other epithets claiming for themselves super-
human qualities which raised them almost to the level of gods. In fact, in the
Allahabad Pillar Inscription, Samudragupta is referred to as a god dwelling
on earth.

Kingship was hereditary, but royal power was limited by the absence of a
firm practice of primogeniture.

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The Guptas continued the traditional machinery of bureaucratic
administration but it was not as elaborate as that of the Mauryas. The
Mantri (chief-minister) stood at the head of civil administration. Among
other high imperial officers were included the Mahabaladikarta
(commander-in-chief), the Mahadandanayaka (general) and the
Mahapratihara (chief of the palace guards).

The Mahabaladhikarta, probably corresponding to the Mahasenapati of


the Satavahana kings, controlled a staff or subordinate officers such as the
Mahashvapati (chief of cavalry), Mahapilupati (officer in charge of
elephants), Senapati and Baladhikarta.

A high ranking official, heard for the first time in the Gupta records was
the Sandhivigrahika (the foreign minister).

A link between the central and the provincial administration under the
Guptas is furnished by the class of officers called Kumaramatyas and
Ayuktas.

The Kumaramatyas were the high officers and the personal staff of the
emperor and were appointed by the king in the home provinces and possibly
paid in cash. Recruitment was not confined to the upper varnas only and
several offices came to be combined in the hands of the same person, and
posts became hereditary. This naturally weakened the royal control.

The Ayuktas were entrusted with the task of restoring the wealth of kings
conquered by the emperor and sometimes placed in charge of districts or
metropolitan towns.

The empire was called by various names such as

 Rajya
 Rashtra
 Desha
 Mandala
 Prithvi
 Avani.
It was divided into 26 provinces, which were styled as

 Bhukti

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 Pradesha
 Bhoga.

The provinces or divisions called bhuktis were governed by


Uparikas directly appointed by the kings. The province was often divided
into districts known as Vishayas which were ruled by Kumaramatyas,
Ayuktas or Vishayapatis. His appointment was made by the provincial
governors.

Gupta inscriptions from Bengal shows that the Municipal board –


Adhisthanadhikarana associated with itself representation from major local
communities:

a) the Nagarasresthi (guild president)


b) the chief merchant Sarthavaha
c) the chief artisan – Prathama Kulika
d) (d)the chief scribe – Prathama Kayastha.
Besides them, for town administration were the Pustapalas – officials
whose work was to manage and keep records (mayor of the city called
Purapala).

The lowest unit of administration was the village. In eastern India, the
vishayas were divided into vithis, which again was divided into villages.
The Gramapati or Gramadhyaksha was the village head- man. The
Gupta inscriptions from north Bengal show that there were other units
higher than the villages such as the Rural Board

– Asthakuladhikarana which comprised of the village elders – Mahattaras


and also included the village headman – Gramika and the householders
Kutumbins.

With the absence of any close supervision of the state, village affairs were
now managed by the leading local elements. No land transactions could be
affected without their consent. The village disputes were also settled by
these bodies with the help of Grama- vriddhas or Mahattaras (village
elders).

Revenue Administration

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Land revenue was the main source of the state’s income besides the fines.
In Samudragupta’s time there is instance of an officer Gopasramin
working as Akshapataladhikrita whose duty was to enter numerous
matters in the account’s registers, recover royal dues, to check
embezzlement and recover fines. Another prominent high official was
Pustapala (record-keeper). The Gupta kings maintained a regular
department for the proper survey and measurement of land as well as for
the collection of land revenue.

Gupta Economy
The agricultural crops constituted the main resources which the society
produced and the major part of the revenue of the state came from the
agriculture. It is argued by many scholars that the state was the exclusive
owner of the land. The most decisive argument in favor of the exclusive
state ownership of land is in the Paharpur copper plate inscription of
Buddhagupta. It appears that though the land was to all intents and
purposes that of the peasants, the king claimed its theoretical ownership.

Various types of land are mentioned in the inscriptions;

1. Kshetra was the land under cultivation


2. Khila was the uncultivable land
3. Aprahata was the forest land
4. Gopata Sarah was the pasture land
5. Vasti was the habitable land

Different land measures were known in different regions such as Nivartana,


Kulyavapa and Dronavapa.

The importance of irrigation to help agriculture was recognized in India from


the earliest times. According to Narada smriti, there are two kinds of dykes

1. Bardhya which protected the field from floods


2. Khaya which served the purpose of irrigation.

The canals which were meant to prevent inundation were also mentioned by
Amarasimha as jalanirgamah. The tanks were variously called, according
to their sizes, as Vapi, tadaga and dirghula. Another method for irrigation
was the use of ghati-yantra or araghatta.

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The sources of the Gupta period suggest that certain important changes
were taking place in the agrarian society. Feudal development surfaced
under the Guptas with the grant of fiscal and administrative concessions to
priests and administrators. Started in the Deccan by the Satavahanas, the
practice became a regular affair in Gupta times.

Religious functionaries were granted land, free of tax, forever, and they were
authorized to collect from the peasants all the taxes which could have
otherwise gone to the emperor. Religious grants were of two types:

1. Agrahara/Brahmadeya grants were meant for the Brahmanas which


meant to be perpetual, hereditary and tax-free, accompanied with
the assignment of all land revenue.
2. Devagrahara/Devadaya grants were made to secular parties such as
writers and merchants, for the purpose of repair and worship of
temples. The secular grants were made to secular parties and are
evident from a grant made by the Uccakalpa dynasty. According to it,
two villages were bestowed as a mark of favour, in perpetuity with
fiscal and administrative rights upon a person called Pulindabhatta.

Epigraphic evidence of land grants made to officers for the administrative


and military services is lacking, though such grants cannot be ruled out.

In fact, certain designations of administrative officers such as bhagika


and bhogapalika suggest that some of the state officials may have been
remunerated by land grants.

Social Developments
Land grants to the brahmanas on a large scale suggest that the brahmana
supremacy continued in Gupta times. The term dvija was now beginning to
be used increasingly for the brahmanas. The greater the emphasis on
brahmana purity the greater was the stress laid on the impurity of the
outcaste.

The Varna system seems to have been considerably modified owing to the
proliferation of castes.

The khastriya caste swelled up with the influx of the Hunas and
subsequently of the Gurjars who joined their ranks as Rajputs.

CSB
Ranganathan SVN Kondala
iLearn IAS - Kerala
The increase in the number of shudra castes and untouchables was largely
due to the absorption of backward forest tribes into the settled Varna
society. Often guilds of craftsmen were transformed into castes.

It has been suggested that transfers of lands or land revenues gave rise to a
new caste, that of the kayasthas (scribes) who undermined the monopoly of
the brahmanas as scribes.

The position of the shudras improved in this period and they were now
permitted to listen to the epics and the Puranas. They were also allowed to
perform certain domestic rites which naturally brought fee to the priests. All
this can be attributed to a change in the economic status of the shudras.

The practice of untouchability became more intense than in the earlier


period. Penance was provided to remove the sin arising out of touching a
chandala. Fa-Hien highlights that the chandala, entering the gate of a city
or market place, would strike a piece of wood to give prior notice of his
arrival so that men could avoid him.

The Varna system did not always function smoothly. The Shanti Parva of
the Mahabharata, which may be assigned to the Gupta period, contains at
least nine verses which stress the need of combination of the brahmanas
and the kshatriyas; these may indicate some kind of concerted opposition
from the vaishyas and shudras. The Anushashana Parva of the
Mahabharata represents the shudras as destroyer of the king.

Most of the legal texts of the period took the Dharmashastra of Manu as
their basis and elaborated upon it. A number of such works were written
during this period, the best knows being those of Yajnavalkya, Narada,
Brihaspati and Katyayana.

The joint family system, which became an essential feature of Hindu caste-
society, was prevalent at the time.

Status of Women
The status of women continued to decline. In a patriarchal set-up the
men began to treat women as items of property, so much so that a woman
was expected to follow her husband to the next world. The practice of sati
(self- immolation at the funeral pyre of the husband) gained approval of the
jurists. But it seems to have been confined to the upper classes. The first
memorial of a sati dated A.D. 510 is found at Eran Inscription in
Madhya Pradesh.

CSB
Ranganathan SVN Kondala
iLearn IAS - Kerala
Lawgivers of the period, almost unanimously advocated early marriage;
some of them preferred even pre-puberty marriage. Celibacy was to be
strictly observed by widows.

Women were denied any right to property except for stridhana in the form of
jewellery, garments, and similar other presents made to the bride on the
occasion of her marriage. They were not entitled to formal education.

In the Gupta period, like shudras, women were also allowed to listen to
epics and the Puranas, and advised to worship Krishna. But women of
higher orders did not have access to independent sources of livelihood in
pre-Gupta and Gupta times. The fact that women of the two lower varnas
were free to earn their livelihood gave them considerable freedom, which was
denied to women of the upper varnas.

CSB
Ranganathan SVN Kondala
iLearn IAS - Kerala
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