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ANCIENT
INDIAN
HISTORY
The Story from INDUS TO
Satavahana
UPSC / PSC 2020
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The author of the book is
an senior faculty at IAS
Coaching institutes in
Hyderabad, Delhi and
Kerala .The Book is an
abstract compilation of
Ancient Indian History. The
book is best suitable for
UPSC and all State PSC
competitive exam.
Ancient
Indian
History
COMPREHENSIVE BOOK
FOR UPSC/ STATE PSC
PRELIMS AND MAINS
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Contents
Indus Valley Civilisation ................................................................................................................. 8
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 8
Town Planning ............................................................................................................................... 9
Crafts and Traditions ................................................................................................................. 15
Agriculture..................................................................................................................................... 18
Art .................................................................................................................................................... 21
Political Organisation................................................................................................................. 22
Script ............................................................................................................................................... 25
Social Stratification .................................................................................................................... 26
Late Harappa and End .............................................................................................................. 27
Vedic Civilisation ............................................................................................................................. 31
Polity and Administration......................................................................................................... 35
Tribe and Family ......................................................................................................................... 38
Vedic Economy............................................................................................................................. 41
Religion ........................................................................................................................................... 42
Later Vedic Era ................................................................................................................................ 47
Later Vedic Polity and Administration ................................................................................. 47
Later Vedic Economy ................................................................................................................. 50
Later Vedic Society ..................................................................................................................... 52
Later Vedic Science and Technology ..................................................................................... 57
Harappan and Vedic .................................................................................................................. 58
Jainism and Buddhism ................................................................................................................. 60
Emergence of heterodox sects: ................................................................................................... 60
Causes for the rise and growth of heterodox sects: ......................................................... 61
Jainism ....................................................................................................................................... 62
Vardhamana Mahavir ............................................................................................................ 63
Teachings of Mahavira: ............................................................................................................. 63
Three jewels or triratna ............................................................................................................. 64
(1) Right faith / perception (Samyak darshana) ........................................................... 64
(2) Right knowledge (Samyak jnana): ............................................................................... 65
(3) Right conduct (Samyak charitra):................................................................................ 65
Five Main Vows: ........................................................................................................................... 66
Divisions in Jainism: ................................................................................................................. 66
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Jaina councils: ............................................................................................................................. 67
Jaina Church: .............................................................................................................................. 67
Jaina Philosophy: .................................................................................................................... 68
Spread of Jainism: ...................................................................................................................... 69
Jaina Literature: ...................................................................................................................... 70
Jaina Canonical Texts ............................................................................................................... 70
Non-canonical works: ................................................................................................................ 71
Causes for decline of Jainism: ................................................................................................ 72
1. Lack of Royal Patronage: ................................................................................................. 72
2. Lack of Efforts: .................................................................................................................... 72
3. Severity of Jainism: ........................................................................................................... 72
4. Unintelligible Philosophy: ................................................................................................ 72
5. Factionalism in Jainism: ................................................................................................. 73
6. Spread of Buddhism: ........................................................................................................ 73
7. Role of Hindu Preachers: ................................................................................................. 73
Contribution of Jainism:........................................................................................................... 73
1. Growth of Language and Literature: ............................................................................ 73
2. Principle of Non-Violence: ............................................................................................... 74
3. Influence on Politics .......................................................................................................... 74
4. Growth of Trading Community:..................................................................................... 75
5. Creation of Healthy Society: ........................................................................................... 75
6. Growth of Charitable Institutions: ............................................................................... 75
7. Growth of Art and Architecture: .................................................................................... 75
8. New Touch of Life: .............................................................................................................. 76
Buddhism and Gautama Buddha: ............................................................................................ 77
Doctrines of Buddhism: ............................................................................................................ 78
Buddha taught his followers the Four “Noble Truths” (Arya Satya): ..................... 78
Eight Fold Path or Astangika marg ................................................................................... 78
The Buddhist Sangha or Church: ......................................................................................... 81
Buddhist Councils: ................................................................................................................. 82
First Council: 400 BC ............................................................................................................ 82
Second Council: 383 BC ....................................................................................................... 82
Third Council: 250 BC........................................................................................................... 82
Fourth Council:........................................................................................................................ 83
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Spread of Theravada: ............................................................................................................. 83
Spread of Mahayana: ............................................................................................................. 84
Comparison between Mahayana and Hinayana: .......................................................... 85
Hinayana: .................................................................................................................................. 86
Mahayana: ................................................................................................................................. 86
Bodhisattva ............................................................................................................................... 86
The Buddhist Scriptures .......................................................................................................... 88
I. The Vinaya Pitaka: .............................................................................................................. 88
II. The Sutta Pitaka: ............................................................................................................... 89
III. The Abhidhamma Pitaka ................................................................................................ 90
Non-Canonical Pali Texts: ........................................................................................................ 90
Sanskrit Texts: ............................................................................................................................. 91
1. Prajna-Praramita:............................................................................................................... 91
2. Sadharma-Pundarika (250 A.D.): ................................................................................. 91
3. Avatamsaka: ........................................................................................................................ 91
4. Gandha-Vyuha: .................................................................................................................. 91
5. Sukhavati-Vyuha: .............................................................................................................. 91
6. Vajrachhedika or the Diamond Sutra ......................................................................... 92
7. Mahapari:.............................................................................................................................. 92
8. Lankavatara – (400 A.D.): ................................................................................................ 92
9. Surangama:.......................................................................................................................... 92
Expansion and Development of Buddhism: ....................................................................... 92
Factors for the Rise of Buddhism: ......................................................................................... 93
1. Influence of Time:............................................................................................................... 93
2. Simple Doctrines: ............................................................................................................... 93
3. Simple Language ................................................................................................................ 94
4. Personality of Buddha: ..................................................................................................... 94
5. Inexpensive: ......................................................................................................................... 94
6. No Caste Harried: ............................................................................................................... 94
7. Royal Patronage: ................................................................................................................. 95
8. Role of the Universities: ................................................................................................... 95
9. Buddhist Monks and Sangha: ....................................................................................... 95
10. Buddhist Councils: ......................................................................................................... 96
11. Absence of Strong Rivals:.............................................................................................. 97
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Causes for the Decline of Buddhism: ................................................................................... 97
1. Corruptions in Buddhist Sanghas: .............................................................................. 97
2. Reform in Hinduism:......................................................................................................... 98
3. Division among the Buddhists ...................................................................................... 98
4. Use of Sanskrit Language: .............................................................................................. 98
5. Patronage of Brahmanism: ............................................................................................. 98
6. Role of Hindu Preachers: ................................................................................................. 99
7. Rifts in Buddhist Order: .................................................................................................. 99
8. Buddha Worship: ............................................................................................................... 99
9. Lose of Royal Patronage: ................................................................................................ 100
10. Huna Invasion: ............................................................................................................... 100
11. Emergence of Rajputs: ................................................................................................. 100
12. Muslim Invasion: ........................................................................................................... 100
Contribution of Buddhism: .................................................................................................... 101
Buddhist Architecture: ............................................................................................................ 101
Maha Janapadas to the Maurya .............................................................................................. 103
Mahajanapada ........................................................................................................................... 103
The Rise of Magadha ................................................................................................................ 107
The Political Summary of Magadha Empire ..................................................................... 107
Brihadrath Dynasty ......................................................................................................................... 108
Bimbisara ................................................................................................................................ 109
Ajatashatru ............................................................................................................................. 111
Shishunaga Dynasty ................................................................................................................ 113
Nanda ............................................................................................................................................ 113
Persian and Greek invasions ..................................................................................................... 116
Persian Invasions ...................................................................................................................... 116
Cyrus ......................................................................................................................................... 116
Darius I..................................................................................................................................... 116
Xerxes ....................................................................................................................................... 116
Effects of the Persian Invasion ............................................................................................. 116
Alexander’s Invasion of India (327-325 B.C.) ...................................................................... 117
Causes of the Invasion ............................................................................................................ 117
Battle of Hydaspes .................................................................................................................... 117
Effects of Alexander’s invasion ............................................................................................. 118
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Mauryan Empire............................................................................................................................ 119
Maurya Dynasty ........................................................................................................................ 119
Chandragupta Maurya (324-300 B.C.) .......................................................................... 120
Bindusara ................................................................................................................................ 124
Ashoka ...................................................................................................................................... 124
Rock Edicts ............................................................................................................................. 127
Ashoka Dhamma ................................................................................................................... 128
Decline of Mauryans ............................................................................................................ 129
Reasons for Mauryan Decline ........................................................................................... 130
Society....................................................................................................................................... 133
Provincial Administration ................................................................................................... 135
City Administration .............................................................................................................. 136
Later Mauryas ............................................................................................................................ 138
Post Maurya Kingdoms ............................................................................................................... 140
The lndo -Greeks ....................................................................................................................... 140
Some of the kings of indo-Greek dynasties are : ........................................................................ 141
Antiochus II ............................................................................................................................. 141
Demetrius I of the Bactria .................................................................................................. 141
Apollodotus I ........................................................................................................................... 141
Apollodotus II ......................................................................................................................... 142
Menander II ............................................................................................................................. 142
Shakas .......................................................................................................................................... 142
Parthians...................................................................................................................................... 145
Kushanas ..................................................................................................................................... 145
Kujula Kadphises (AD 30-AD 80)..................................................................................... 147
Vima Taktu or Sadashkana (AD 80 -AD 95) ................................................................ 147
Vima Kadphises: (AD 95-AD 127) .................................................................................... 147
Kanishka I ............................................................................................................................... 147
Impact of Central Asian Contacts ........................................................................................ 149
Trade and Technology.......................................................................................................... 150
Polity .......................................................................................................................................... 151
New Elements of the Society ............................................................................................. 151
Religion ..................................................................................................................................... 152
Mahayana Buddhism........................................................................................................... 152
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Sunga to Satavahana................................................................................................................... 153
Sunga ............................................................................................................................................ 153
Pushyamitra Shunga ........................................................................................................... 153
Agnimitra ................................................................................................................................. 154
Bhagabhadra .......................................................................................................................... 155
Devabhuti ................................................................................................................................ 155
Kanva Dynasty ........................................................................................................................... 155
Vasudeva Kanva .................................................................................................................... 155
Mahameghavahans of Kalinga .............................................................................................. 155
Satavahana ................................................................................................................................. 156
Satkarni-I ................................................................................................................................. 158
Satkarni II ................................................................................................................................ 158
Hala ........................................................................................................................................... 159
Gautamiputra Satakarni .................................................................................................... 159
Vasisthiputra Sri Pulmavi .................................................................................................. 160
Economic Condition ................................................................................................................. 160
Social Organisation .................................................................................................................. 162
Administration ........................................................................................................................... 164
Religion ......................................................................................................................................... 165
Language ...................................................................................................................................... 165
Architecture ................................................................................................................................ 166
Satavahana Empire: Observations ...................................................................................... 167
Gupta Empire ............................................................................................................................. 169
Origin of Guptas ........................................................................................................................ 170
Origins and Caste ................................................................................................................. 170
The Kings ..................................................................................................................................... 170
Chandragupta (319 – 335 AD) .......................................................................................... 170
Samudragupta ( 335 – 380AD ) ........................................................................................ 171
Conquests of Samudragupta ............................................................................................. 172
Culture and Religion ................................................................................................................ 173
Ramagupta .............................................................................................................................. 175
Chandragupta II ( Vikramaditya ) .................................................................................... 176
Kumaragupta I (412-454 A.D.) ......................................................................................... 179
Skandagupta (454-467 A.D.): ........................................................................................... 179
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Huna Invasion ............................................................................................................................ 180
Decline of the Gupta Empire:................................................................................................ 180
Causes of Decline of Guptas: ................................................................................................ 181
GUPTA ADMINISTRATION ..................................................................................................... 182
Revenue Administration ......................................................................................................... 184
Gupta Economy ........................................................................................................................ 185
Social Developments ................................................................................................................ 186
Status of Women ....................................................................................................................... 187
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Indus Valley Civilisation
Introduction
The Harappan civilization was discovered in 1920-21 following
the excavations by R.D. Banerjee at Mohenjodaro and by D.R.
Salini at Harappa. Since at that time the remains of the
civilization were found only in the Indus valley, it came to be
known also as the Indus civilization. A culture may also be
named after the site from where it came to be known for the first
time. Since, it was at Harappa that the relics of this civilization
were first noticed, it is also known as the Harappan civilization.
The Indus or the Harappan culture is older than the chalcolithic
cultures which have been existent earlier, but it is far more
developed than these cultures. It arose in the north-west· ern
part of the Indian subcontinent. The Harappan culture covered
parts of Panjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and the
fringes of western Uttar Pradesh. It extended from Jammu in the
north to the Narmada estuary in the south, and from the
Makran coast of Baluchistan, in the west to Meerut in the
north-east. The total geographical area over which this
civilization flourished is more than 20 times of the area of
Egyptian and more than 12 times of the area of Egyptian and
Mesopotamian civilizations combined. It covers an area of about
12,50,000 sq. kms. These settlements are mostly located on river
banks. No other cultural zone in the third and second
millennium B.C. in the world was as large as the Harappan zone.
Although over 250 Harappan sites are known, only six can be
regarded as cities. Of these the two most important cities were
Harappa in Panjab and Mohenjo-daro in Sindh, both forming
parts of Pakistan. Situated at a distance of 483 kilometres they
were linked together by the Indus. A third city lay at Chanhudaro
about 130 km south of Mohenjodaro in Sindh, and a fourth at
Lothal in Gujarat at the head of the Gulf of Cambay. A fifth city
lay at Kalibangan in northern Rajasthan, a sixth called Banwali
is situated in Hissar district in Haryana. It saw two cultural
phases, pre-Harappan and Harappan, similar to that of
Kalibangan. The distribution pattern of settlements that the
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focus of Harappan civilization was not the Indus but the
Saraswati river and its tributaries which flowed between the
Indus and the Ganga. It is because of this reason that some
scholars call it Indus-Saraswati civilization, and few prefer the
nomenclature Saraswati civilization. Each of these cities were
surrounded by vast agricultural lands, rivers and forest that were
inhabited by scattered farming and pastoral communities and
bands of hunter food-gatherers. The Harappan culture is
noticeable· in its nature and flourishing stage at all these six
places. It is also found in its mature phase in, the coastal cities of
Sutkagendor and Surkotada, each one of which is marked by a
Citadel. The later Harappan phase is found in Rangpur and Rojdi
in the Kathiawar peninsula in Gujarat.
Town Planning
The Harappan culture was notable by its system of town-
planning. The overall layout of the Indus-Saraswati cities is
distinguished by the orientation of streets and buildings,
according to the cardinal directions - east-west, and north-south.
The idea of settlement planning did not appear suddenly with the
first large cities but was already well established in earlier period
as has been revealed from the excavations at Kot Diji,
Kalibangan, Harappa, Rahman Dheri, Nausharo etc. Harappa
and Mohenjo-daro each had its own citadel or acropolis. The
basic layout at all these settlements was established along a grid
that was defined by large streets running northsouth and east-
west and fortification all around. Earlier it was thought that all
cities were having a standard division into a high western citadel
and a lower town to the east reflecting the division of the cities
into rulers and the service communities, with the crafts
workshops located in the lower city. However, recent evidence,
particularly from Dholavira (in Gujarat), shows that it was
divided into four distinct localities, which were occupied
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respectively by rulers in the citadel, noblemen in the bailey or
castle, merchants, traders, farmers and craftsmen in the middle
town and the working class in the lower town.
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average size of brick used for houses was 7x15x30 cm but for the
construction of fortification walls the size of the brick was of
bigger size viz 10x20x40 cm. Both sizes of bricks have identical
proportions 1 :2:4, that the width is double the thickness and the
length four times, the thickness.
Many houses were at least two stoned and some scholars think
that some of the houses may have been three storied. Hearths
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were commonly found in Houses. Almost every house had a
bathroom, and in some cases there is evidence of bathrooms on
the first floor. The doors were made with wooden frames and a
brick socket set in the threshold served as door pivot. Some of
the doors seem to have been painted and possibly carved with
simple ornamentation The windows were small at first and
second stories. The adjacent houses were separated by a n arrow
space of "no man's land". Almost all the big houses had a well
within their courtyard. Deep grooves on the bricks at the top edge
of the well show that ropes were used to lift the water up,
probably with leather or wooden buckets.
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largest and most prosperous city of the ancient world as is
evident from the impressive buildings of baked bricks on stone
foundations. The multi-roomed and storied mansions had tiled
floors, paved baths, covered wells and an underground drainage
system. The average house was about 100-200 sqm- comparing
favourably with the upper-middle class apartments of our own
times. The general plan of the metropolis reveals that there was
the citadel in the west while the lower city in the cast was
probably divided into three parts, of which the area in the north
was for industrial workshops and kilns as it has yielded bronze
artefacts. In the south, the HR area was occupied by the elite
with elegant spacious mansions (extending to three hundred sq.
m.), some of which contained hordes of gold and jewellery. In
between, there were houses of the common people in the adjacent
area along poorly aligned streets.
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the course of excavation, impression of a large wooden mortar
was found placed in the centre of one of these circular brick
platforms. Such wooden mortars are used in many parts of the
world to remove the husk from the grain.
Well laid-out streets and side lanes equipped with drains are the
most outstanding features of the Harappan civilization. The
towns were well planned and the streets cut each other on the
right angles. Even the width of these streets were in a set
ratio. If the narrowest lane was one unit in width, the other
streets were twice, thrice and so on in width. Further, the civic
sense of people in this civilization was such that during the hey-
day of the civilization, no encroachment on the streets was to be
seen. According to scholars, such town planning was not seen
even in the nineteenth century London and Paris.
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which were covered with bricks or dressed stone blocks.
Corbelled-arch drains have also been found. One of them is
almost 6 ft. deep which functioned as main drain taking all the
waste water out of the town. At regular intervals along the main
sewage drains were rectangular sump pits for collecting waste
and these were regularly cleaned.
In almost all cities every big or small house had its own
courtyard and bathroom. In Kalibangan many houses had their
wells. Water flowed from the house to the streets which had
drams Sometimes these drams were covered with bricks and
sometimes with stone slabs. The street drains were equipped with
manholes. The remains of streets and drains have also been
found at Banwali, Altogether the drainage system and the quality
of the domestic bath-rooms and drains arc remarkable, and the
drainage system of Harappa is almost unique perhaps no other
civilization gave so much attention to health and cleanliness as
the Harappan.
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The Harappans continued to use knives of chert blades also.
Some of these chert blades are the finest examples known from
any early culture. A great skill and expertise is seen in precious
and semi-precious stone beads and weights. Long barrel shaped
cornelian beads (upto 10 cm. long) are the finest examples of
craftsmanship.
Nearly 2500 seals have been found. These are made of steatite.
They mostly depict a single animal-unicorn bull, elephant,
rhinoceros etc. but some also depict trees, semi-human and
human figurines, in some cases participating in a ceremony.
Shell working was another flourishing industry. Artisans,
settlements close to the sea manufactured shell ornaments like
pendants, rings, bracelets, inlays, beads etc., beside object as
bowls, ladles and gamesmen.
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In the Harappan civilization, the elaborate social structure and
the standard of living must have been achieved by a highly
developed system of communication and strong economy. In this,
intensive agricultural production and large-scale trade played
significant roles. In the beginning, trade may have been
internal, i.e. between one zone and another, and later external
trade also developed. Agricultural produce, industrial raw
material, like copper ores, stone, semi precious shells, etc. were
traded. Besides the raw material, finished products of metals
(pots and pans, weapon, etc.), precious and semiprecious stones
(beads, pendants, amulets etc.) ornaments of gold and silver were
also traded to various areas.
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from 1,2,4,8, to 64, then going to 160 and from then on in
decimal multiples of sixteen, 320, 640, 1600, 6400 (1600x4),
8000 (1600x 5) and 128,000 (i.e.16000 x 8). Interestingly, the
tradition of 16 or its multiples continued in India till 1950s.
Sixteen chhatank made a ser, and 16 annas made one rupee.
The measures of length were based upon a foot of 37.6 cm. and a
cubit of 51.8 to 53.6 cm.
Agriculture
The Indus region is not so fertile and comparatively rainless. Its
prosperous villages and towns show that it was fertile in ancient
times. The granaries at some Harappan cities clearly suggest that
cereals were produced in such large quantities that not only were
all the immediate needs of people duly met with, but there was
also enough reserve to face any future emergency.
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bricks raised for protection show that floods took place
annually.
The Indus carried far more alluvial soil than the Nile in Egypt
and deposited it on the flood plains Just as the Nile created
Egypt and supported its people, so also the Indus created Sindh
and fed its people. The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood
plains in November, when the flood water receded, and reaped
their harvests of wheat and barley in April before the advent of
the next flood. No hoe or ploughshare has been discovered, but
the furrows discovered in the pre-Harappan phase at Kalibangan
show that the fields were ploughed in Rajasthan in the Harappan
period The Harappans probably used the wooden ploughshare.
It is not known whether the plough was drawn by men or oxen.
Stone sickles may have been used for harvesting the crops.
Gabarbands or nalas enclosed by dams for storing water were a
feature in parts of Baluchistan and Afghanistan, but channel or
canal irrigation seems to have been absent.
The principal cereals seem to have been wheat and barley. The
Indus people produced wheat, barley, peas, etc. They produced
two types of wheat and barley. A good quantity of barley has been
discovered at Banwali. Rice, though known, was a favoured
grain. Six varieties of millets including ragi, kodon, sanwa, and
jowar were cultivated, as also peas and beans. Remains of rice
have been found mainly from Gujarat and Haryana areas. Other
crops include dates, varieties of legumes, sesame and mustard.
Fragments of cotton cloth found at Mohenjodaro and other
sites show that cotton was also grown. Cotton has been found at
Mehrgarh at least 2000 years before the mature phase of the
Civilization. This is the oldest evidence of cotton in the world. In
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addition to this, they produced sesamum and mustard. But the
position seems to have been different with the Harappans at
Lethal. Fcodgrains were stored in huge granaries in both
Mohenjodaro and Harappa and possibly in Kalibangan. Probably,
cereals were received as taxes from peasants and stored in
granary for the payment of wages.
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The contemporary Sumerian cities in Mesopotamia practically
produced the same foodgrains and domesticated the same
animals as the Harappans did but the Harappan people in
Gujarat produced rice and domesticated elephants, which was
not the case with the people of Mesopotamian cities.
Art
A large variety of objects such as seals, stone
statues, terracotta, etc. are superb examples of art
activities. The most outstanding pieces are a yogi
from Mohenjodaro and two small figurines from
Harappa. Bronzes are rare, the most famous being
a small female statue of about 11.5 cm. in height
identified as dancing girl, from Mohenjodaro.
Significantly, this has been made by the lost wax
method of casting. Daimabad bronze animal’s
workmanship most probably belong to
Harappan period. The red sandstone torso
found at Harappa is made of detachable limbs
and head and the grey stone torso perhaps
shows a dancing figure. Both these are so
realistic that had they not been found in
archaeological excavations none would believe that they belong to
the Harappan period.
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Harappans produced their own characteristic pottery, which was
made glossy and shining.
Political Organisation
There is no clear idea about the political organization of the
Harappans, In sharp contrast to Egypt and Mesopotamia no
temples have been found at any Harappan site. There are no
religious structures of any kind except the Great Bath, which
may have been used for ablutions. Therefore, it would be wrong
to think that priests ruled in Harappa, as they did in the cities of
Lower Mesopotamia. There are some indications of the practice of
fire cult at Lothal m Gujarat in the later phase, but no temples
were used for the purpose. Perhaps the Harappan rulers were
more concerned with commerce than with conquests, and
Harappa was possibly ruled by a class of merchants.
From the available evidence it may be said that the religion of the
Indus people comprised:
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These characteristics suggest that this religion
was mainly of an indigenous growth and "the
lineal progenitor of Hinduism", which is
characterised by most of these features. A large
number of female figurines of terracotta have
been discovered. The accepted view is that these
are representations of the Great Mother
Goddess. A striking oblong sealing found at
Harappa represents the Earth or Mother
Goddess, with a plant growing from her womb.
Some linga and yoni like objects have been found. Some scholars
opined that these were not linga and
yonis but gamesmen. However, the find
of a terracotta piece from Kalibangan
having linga and yoni in one piece, like
the ones in the historical period, show
that these were linga and yoni meant for
worship. Whether they were worshipped
independently or are symbolic
representation of Siva and Sakti respectively, cannot be
ascertained.
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worshipped was not the tree but its indwelling spirit. A
remarkable seal found at Mohenjodaro represents a deity,
standing between two branches of a pipal tree. The worship of
the deity is indicated by a line of seven human figures and by the
figure of a half-kneeling suppliant with long hair, behind whom is
a goat, with a human face. The continuance of this religious
tradition is found in the sculptures of Bharhut and Sanchi
showing the Yakshis as Dryads.
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individuals in various yogic postures (asanas) indicating
thereby that the Harappans practised yoga
Script
The language of Harappans is at present still unknown and must
remain so until the Harappan script is read. The Harappans
invented the art of writing like the people of ancient
Mesopotamia. Although the earliest specimen of Harappan script
was noticed in 1853 and the complete script discovered by 1923,
it has not been deciphered so far. Some try to connect it with the
Dravidian or the proto-Dravidian language, others with the
Sanskrit language, and still others with the Sumerian language,
but none of these readings is satisfactory. As the script has not
been deciphered, we cannot judge the Harappan contribution to
literature, nor can we say anything about their ideas and beliefs.
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between them and the mature Harappan culture is not clear,
though the, Harappan culture may have evolved out of these
indigenous settlements. There is no clear proof of outside
influence on the Harappan cities. Contact with the
Mesopotamian cities may have provided some stimulus to the
development of the Harappan culture. But there can be no doubt
about the Indian ness of the Harappan culture. Certain elements
distinguish it from the' contemporary cultures in Western Asia. It
planned its towns with their chess-board system, streets,
drainage, pipes and cess pits. On the other hand the
Mesopotamian cities show a haphazard growth. Rectangular
houses with brick-lined bathrooms and wells together with their
stairways are, found in all Harappan cities. Such town-planning
is not to be found in the cities of Western Asia. No other people in
antiquity had built such an excellent drainage system except
perhaps those of Crete in Knossos, nor did the people of Western
Asia show such skill in the use of burnt bricks as the Harappans
did.
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overexploitation of resources, etc. resulted in the land to become
barren and in the silting of rivers. Various other causes have
been suggested. Some ascribe it to the decreasing fertility on
account of the increasing salinity of the soil caused by the
expansion of the neighbouring desert others attribute it to a
sudden subsidence or uplift of the land which caused floods.
And still others point out that the Harappan culture was
destroyed by the Aryans.
The Harappan civilization was spread over a large area, and the
causes of its decline in all the regions cannot be one and the
same. While in the Saraswati region it declined mainly due to
shifting of river channels, along the Indus it declined largely due
to recurring floods. The rainfall declined in general which
affected the agriculture, the main economic resource. With the
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decline in economic conditions all other institutions like trade
and commerce, administrative and political structures, civic
amenities, etc. also declined over a period of time.
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Vedic Civilisation
The Vedas are neither any individual religious work nor a
collection of definite number of books compiled at a particular
period. The best possible source of Vedic civilization is its source
- the Vedic literature. The most important source are the Vedas.
Veda means "knowledge". The Vedic literature had grown in the
course of many centuries and was handed down from generation
to generation by word of mouth. It consists of successive classes
of literary creations. Some of these still exist, but many have
been completely lost for ever. These three classes are
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The Aryans spoke the Indo-European languages, which are
current in changed forms all over Europe, Iran and the greater
part of the Indian subcontinent. Originally the Aryans seem to
have lived somewhere in the area east of the Alps, in the region
known as Eurasia. Certain names of animals such as goats,
dogs, horses, etc., and names of certain plants such as pine,
maple, etc , are similar to one another in all the Indo-European
languages. These common words indicate the fauna and flora of
Eurasia. They show that the Aryans were acquainted with rivers
and forests. Curiously enough, common words for mountains
exist only in a few Aryan languages although the Aryans crossed
many hills. Their earliest life seems to have been mainly
pastoral, agriculture being a secondary occupation. The Aryans
did not lead a settled life, with the result that they could not
leave behind any solid maternal remains. Although the Aryans
used several animals, the horse played the most significant role
in their life. Its swiftness enabled them and some allied peoples
to make successful inroads into Western Asia from about 2000
BC onwards.
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4004 B.C. Similarly, on the analogy of the language of Avesta,
some scholars opined that the date of RigVeda may be 1000 B.C.
But the fact that some of the Vedic gods namely Indra, Varuna,
Mitra and the two Nasatyas are mentioned in Boghaz-Koi (Asia
Minor) inscription of 1400 B.C. prove that Rig Veda must have
come into existence much before that date. The BoghazKoi
inscription records a treaty between the Hittite and the Mitanni
Kings and these gods are cited as witness to this treaty, exactly
the way even today oath is taken in the courts and on
assumption of a public office in the name of god.
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excellence of the Aryans, and it is repeatedly mentioned. Another
river mentioned is the Sarasvati, now lost in the sands of
Rajasthan; the area represented by it is covered by the Ghaggar
river. In the north, the Rigveda mentions the Himalayas and
Mujavant mountains. It also mentions ocean (samudra) in
connection with rivers Sindhu and Saraswati falling into ocean.
The ocean is also mentioned in the context of foreign trade. The
RigVedic geography, therefore, covers present-day western Uttar
Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, whole of Pakistan
and south Afghanistan.
The Aryans came to India in several waves. The Rig Vedic people
represent the earliest wave of Aryans; they seem to have come
into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the dasas,
dasyus, etc. Since the dasyas are mentioned in the ancient
Iranian literature, they seem to have been a branch of the early
Aryans. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of Sambara by
Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan. In this case, the
term dasa appears in the name Divodasa, Possibly the dasyus in
the Rig Veda represent the original inhabitants of the country,
and an Aryan chief who overpowered them was called
Trasadasyu. The Aryan chief was soft towards the dasas, but
strongly hostile: to the dasyus. The term dasyuhatya, slaughter
of the dasyus is repeatedly mention in the Rig Veda. The dasyus
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possibly worshipped the phallus and did not keep cattle for dairy
products. In the Rig Veda Indra is called Purandara, which
means that he was the breaker of forts
A battle fought between the Bharatas on the one hand and the
host of ten kings on the other was known as the Battle of Ten
Kings. The territory known to Vedic people was divided into a
number of states-republics and monarchical. The battle of ten
kings, gives names of ten kings who participated in a war against
Sudas who was Bharata king of Tritsus family. The ten kings
were of the states of Purus, Yadus, Turvasas, Anus and Druhyus
along with five others viz Alinas, Pakhtas, Bhalanas, Sibis and
Vishanins. In the battle fought on the bank of Parushani (Ravi)
and Sudas emerged victorious. In the context of another battle of
Sudas, Rig Veda mentions people and kings like Ajias, Sigrus,
Yaksh us etc. The Bharatas, who gave their name to the whole
country as Bharatvarsha, are the most important people of the
Rig Veda. They settled in the region between the Saraswati and
Yamuna. Similarly, the RigVeda gives the location of other people
like the Purus in the region of Kurukshetra; the Tritsus east of
Ravi; the Alinas, the Pakhtas, the Bhalanas and the Sibis west of
Indus upto Kabul River and so on. The struggle for supremacy
among different kings and republics chiefs was a part of the
evolutionary process towards the formation of a larger political
entity.
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The next larger formation was called the vis, under the head
called vispati. Larger than vis was jana. Regarding jana we get
mention of panchajanah and of people called Yadus, (Yadva-
janaha) and Bharatas (Bharata-janaha). The king is also called
the protector of the jana or people. Above the jana was rashtra –
The country.
It seems that in the Rig Vedic period the king's post was
hereditary. However, the king did not exercise unlimited
power, for he had to reckon with the triba organizations.
Although his post was hereditary, there are some traces of
election by the tribal assembly called the samite. The king was
the protector of his tribe. He protected its cattle, fought its wars
and offered prayers to gods on its behalf.
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not an ideal society. There were cases of theft and burglary, and
especially common was the theft of cows. To keep an eye on such
unsocial activities Spies were employed. The samiti, mainly dealt
with policy decisions and political business, included common
people while the sabha, less political in character, was a more
select body of the Elders or Nobles.
The king did not maintain any regular or standing army, but in
times of war he mustered a militia whose military functions were
performed by different tribal groups called vrata, gana, grama,
sardha. Largely it was a tribal system of government with a
strong military element. There was no civil system or territorial
administration because people were in a stage of perpetual
expansion, migrating from one area to another.
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hereditary trades and occupations was not envisaged in the
society.
The term for family (kula) · is mentioned rarely in the Rig Veda. It
comprised not only mother, father, sons, slaves, etc., but many
more people also It seems that family in early Vedic phase was
indicated by the term griha, which frequently occurs in this text.
In the earliest Indo- European languages the same term rs used
for nephew, grandson, cousin, etc This would mean that
differentiation m family relationships leading to the setting up of
separate households had not proceeded far, and the family was a
very large joint unit. It was obviously a patriarchal family headed
by the father, as was the case in the Roman society. It seems that
several generations of the family lived under the same roof
because it was a patriarchal society - the birth of a son was
desired again and again, and especially people prayed to the gods
for brave sons to fight the wars. In the Rig Veda no desire is
expressed for daughters, though the desire for children and cattle
is a recurrent theme in the hymns.
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Girls were normally married off after puberty (between the age
of 16 and 17). Unmarried girls grew up in the home of their
parents. Some unmarried woman like Visvavara and Apala
offered sacrifices on their own. There are also evidences of widow
remarriage in the Rig-Veda Child marriage was not in vogue.
There are a few references to the freedom of choice in marriage. A
widow could marry the younger brother of her deceased
husband. The wife was husband's partner in all religious and
social ceremonies. Son inherited the father’s property. The
daughter could inherit it only if she was the only child of her
parents. Right to property was known in moveable things like
cattle, horse, gold and ornament and so also in immoveable
property like land and house.
The home of the teacher was the school where he taught the
particular sacred texts. The texts were in the first instance learnt
by pupils repeating the words taught by their teacher. A great
importance was attached to enunciation and pronunciation.
Intense training was given to students in oral tradition. It was
this training and learning which saved a huge mass of Vedic
literature. Gayatri mantra mentioned only in Rigveda is a
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prayer to savitri for the stimulation of the intellect. There were
women teachers. Many of them possessed the highest spiritiual
knowledge. Maitreyi and Gargi were gifted scholars.
The main cereal produced by the Rig Vedic people was Yava or
barley. Wheat and rice where not known to them. Godhuma or
wheat is mentioned in several later-Vedic texts only. Yava was
also a generic term for various kinds of cereals. In later-Vedic
times there is evidence of rice (Vrihi), bean-pulse (masa),
sesamum (tila), millet (syamaka), kidney bean (mudga) mustard
(sarshapa), etc. Milk, Milk products and cattle meat was popular.
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Alcoholic drinks were known and common. Soma and Sura are
two intoxicating liquors. Sura may be a kind of beer and Soma
was acceptable to Gods. There is also mention grain cooked with
milk (kshira-pakamodanam). Not only were fish, birds, wild
animals like boar, antelopes, and buffalo (gaur), etc. eaten but on
ceremonial occasions the meat of animals which were sacrificed,
such as sheep, goat and buffalo etc. was also eaten. The cow was
already deemed aghanya "not to be killed". The Vedas pre scribe a
penalty of death or expulsion from the kingdom to those who kill
or injure cows.
Two pieces of cloth were normally worn- the upper garment was
called uttariya and the lower one was known as antariya. The
dress for the male and the female did not differ much. Everyone
aspired for and everyone was blessed to live for a hundred years.
Epilepsy was common and it affected the children as well.
Superstitions and magical charms were employed to cure the
diseases. Miraculous cures are ascribed to the twin-gods, the
Ashvins, who are the great healers of diseases and experts in
the surgical art. They were divine physicians who restored
eyesight and cured the blind, sick and maimed.
Vedic Economy
Rig Vedic economy was primarily pastoral . They domesticated
Pashu (which included cattle, horse and even human beings), as
opposed to Mriga, i.e. wild animals. Cattle was synonymous
with wealth and a wealthy person was called Gomat. Cattle was
so important that the terms of battle were derived from Gau
itself, such as Gavisti, Gosu, Gavyat, Gavyu. Godhuli was a
measure of time. Gopa and Gopati were epithets given to the
king. Duhitri was the term used for daughter because she used
to milk the cow. One of the four categories of gods was known as
Gojata, i.e. cowborn. Buffalo was called Gauri and Gavala or
cow-haired.
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vis members. The cattle in general and cow in particular was the
main medium of exchange during the Rig Vedic period.
The economy was based upon agriculture. The people were well
acquainted with the sowing, harvesting, threshing and various
agro seasons. The people were pastoral, Cow was revered but
the cows, and bulls were sacrificed too. The gifts to the priests
were in terms of number of Cows and women slaves but not in
measurements of lands. Oxen were used for ploughing and
drawing carts and horses for drawing the chariots. The plough
was drawn by the oxen at times in teams of six, eight or even
twelve. The grains were harvested with sickles. The manure was
also used. From various references in the Rigveda it appears that
irrigation was also practised; excess of rains and drought is
mentioned as damaging the crops. The grains are collectively
called Yava and dhanya. The later Vedic texts mention ten
cultivated kinds of grains.
The trade and traders (vanik) were known in the Rigvedic era.
Barter was in vogue. It has been found that ten cows were
quoted as the price for an image of Indra. The conception of
money can be traced in the mention of a gift of 100 nishkas.
Money-lending was also known. There is a mention of an eighth
or a sixteenth part of one being paid either as an interest or part
of the principle. The sea is mentioned in the context of trade and
ocean wealth, like pearls and shells.
Religion
The Vedic gods can be classified into three categories namely;
1. terrestrial (prithivisthana)
2. aerial or intermediate (antarikshasthana)
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3. celestial (dyusthana).
Prithivi, Agni, Soma, Brihaspati and rivers belong to the first
category; Indra, Apam-napat, Rudra, Vayu-Vata, Prujanya,
andApah (water) to the second and Dyaus, Varuna, Mitra, Surya,
Savitri, Pushan, Vishnu, the Adityas, Ushas and the Asvins to
the third. Indra and Varuna (the supreme cosmic and moral
ruler) stand out, in that order, pre-eminent above the rest. Agni
and Soma were also popular deities. Agni was revered as the
messenger between the earth and the heaven. Further, Agni is
the only God who is regarded as present among all the categories
of Gods.
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The Gods are described as born, yet they are immortal. In
appearance they are humans, though sometimes they are
conceived as animals, e.g. Dyaus as bull and Sun as a swift
horse. The food of men such as milk, grain, flesh, etc. becomes
the food of Gods when offered in the sacrifice. On the whole, the
gods are benevolent, some of them also had malevolent traits,
like Rudra and Maruta. Splendour, strength, knowledge,
possession and tnlth are common attributes of the deities.
Prayers and offering to these Gods were made for material gains,
also for enlightenment and knowledge. For example, the most
popular and famous Gayatri Mantra is recited daily by the pious
Hindus even today.
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were supposed to help Indra in his contest with the reluctant
clouds, for in India the first showers of the rainy season are often
attended with storms and thunder.
Savitri is another name of the same deity Sun, and the sacred
hymn, the Gayathri Mantra, which is still repeated every morning
by pious Hindus all over world; is a verse dedicated to Savithri.
Vishnu, which in later Hindu mythology has become a name of
the Supreme Preserver of all beings, was a name of the sun in the
Vedic age. The rising sun, the sun at Zenith, and the setting sun
were considered the three steps of Vishnu striding across
limitless space. Vayu or the wind is sometimes invoked in the Rig
Veda.
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Vedic Samhitas were followed by the Brahmanas. These are
full of ritualistic formulae and' explain the social and' religious
aspects of rituals. The period of compilation of these texts is
commonly termed as the Later Vedic Period.
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Later Vedic Era
Later Vedic period generally seen between 1000BC to 600BC
introduced certain changes in the Socio-economic and political
setup of the Vedic Civilisation. During the period represented by
the later Samhitas and Brahmanas discussed earlier the
settlements covered virtually the whole of northern India. The
centre of civilization now shifted from Saraswati to Ganga
which now occupies the proud place of the most revered and
sacred river of India. This progress was accompanied by another
remarkable development and that is gradual expansion and
consolidation of vis. The earlier known jana like Bharatas,
Purus, Tritsus, and Turvasas of the Rigvedic period slowly were
merging with other janas and disappearing from the scene. In a
way gradual consolidation and expansion of some of the states
started taking place. Relatively minor janas of Rigvedic times like
Purus became more powerful and began to play more dominant
role. We no longer hear of the Anus, Druhyus, Turvasas, the
Krivis, etc. Besides these, in the eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
areas also such states as Kasi, Kosala, Videha, Magadha and
Anga developed. However, the areas of south India are not clearly
mentioned. The political life became more vivid and the struggle
for supremacy among different states was of frequent occurrence.
The ideal of universal empire loomed large.
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the fact that in one instance it is the samiti which chooses the
king and in another it withdraws that choice for the king's
misdeeds and tyranny.
Legal institutions were also coming into sharper focus. The king
administered justice and wielded the rod of punishment. Among
the crimes enumerated are theft, robbery, adultery, incest,
abduction, killing of man. Killing of cow, slaying of brahmana,
drinking intoxicating liquor, treachery, etc. were punishable by
death. Petty offences were left to "village judges". For
evidence, the eye-witness was more important than informer. The
punishments for crime were rather severe. The law was also very
clear on the question of inheritance of property, ownership of
land, etc. The father's property was to be inherited by sons alone.
The daughters could inherit it only if she was the only child or
there were no male issues.
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Later Vedic Economy
The growth of economic prosperity is indicated in many prayers
contained in the Atharvaveda for the success of farmers,
shepherds, merchants and so on. There are prayers for
ploughing, sowing, rains, increase in cattle, wealth and exorcism
against beasts, wild animals and robbers and the likes. The
plough was known as sira and the furrow sita. Cow dung was
used as manure. There is mention of six, eight and even twenty-
four oxen yoked to a plough. Many kinds of grains were grown
such as rice, barley, beans and sesame. Their seasons are also
mentioned: barley sown in winter, ripened in summer; rice sown
in the rains, reaped in autumn. The Satapatha Brahmana
enumerates various operations of agriculture such as ploughing,
sowing, reaping and threshing.
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now become a regular tax and was collected to maintain the
political and administrative structure.
Painted Grey Ware sites are found not only in western Uttar
Pradesh and Delhi, which was the Kuru-Panchala area, but also
in the adjoining parts of Panjab and Haryana, which was the
Madra area and in those of Rajasthan, which was the Matsya
area Altogether we ran count nearly 500 sites, mostly belonging
to the upper Gangetic basin Only a few sites such as Hastinapur,
Atranjikhera and Noh have been excavated.
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Painted Grey Ware people, who seem to be the same as the later,
Vedic people, were agricultural and led a settled life. But since
they cultivated with the wooden ploughshare, the peasants could
not produce enough for feeding those who were engaged in other
occupations. Hence peasants could, not contribute much to the
rise of towns.
Although the term Nagara used in later Vedic texts we can trace o
only the faint beginings of towns towards 'the' end of the 'later
'Vedic' period. Hastinapur and Kausambi (near Allahabad) can be
regarded 'as primitive' towns belonging to the end of the Vedic
period. They may be called proto-urban sites. On the whole the
later Vedic phase registered a great advance in the material life of
the people. The pastoral and semi-nomadic forms of living
were relegated to the background. Agriculture became the
primary source of livelihood, and life became settled and
sedentary. Supplemented by diverse arts and crafts the Vedic
people settled down permanently m the upper Gangetic plains.
The peasants living in the plains produced enough to maintain
themselves, and they could also spare a marginal, part of their
produce for the support of princes and priests.
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deal with the lower orders they made up their differences. From
the end of the later Vedic period it began to be emphasized that
the two should cooperate to rule over the rest of society. The
vaisyas constituted the common people, and they were
assigned the producing functions such as agriculture, cattle-
breeding, etc some of them also worked as artisans. Towards the
end of the Vedic period they began to engage in trade. The
vaisyas appear to be the only tribute payers in later Vedic
times, and the Kshatriyas are represented as living on the
tributes collected from the vaisyas. The process of subjugating
the mass of the tribesmen to the position of tribute-payers was
long and protracted. Rituals were prescribed for making the
refractory people (vis or vaisya) submissive to the prince
(rajanya). All the three higher varnas shared one common
feature; they were entitled to upanayana or investiture with
the sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras. The fourth
varna was deprived of the sacred thread ceremony, and with
this began the imposition of disabilities on the sudras.
The prince, who represented the rajanya order, tried to assert his
power over all the three other varnas. According to the Aitareya
Brahmana, in relation to the prince the Brahmana is described
as a seeker of livelihood and an acceptor of gifts but removable at
will. A vaisya is called tribute-paying, meant for being beaten,
and to be oppressed at will. The worst position is reserved for the
sudra. He is called the servant of another, to be made to work at
will by another, and to be beaten at will.
In the family the increasing power of the father, who could even
disinherit his son is observed. In princely families the right of
primogeniture was getting stronger. Male ancestors came to be
worshipped. Women were generally given a lower position
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Although some women theologians took part m philosophic
discussions and some queens participated in coronation rituals,
ordinarily women were thought to be inferior and subordinate to
men. The marriage of a man of higher Varna with a girl from
lower Varna was called “Anuloma Vivah”. It was allowed by the
sacred texts. The marriage of a girl of higher Varna with a man of
a lower Varna was called “Pratiloma Vivah” and it was NOT
allowed in the texts. Eight forms of Marriage were established
with the first four being accepted by the society and the later four
being unacceptable. Acceptability in case of a marriage was
primarily focused on the varna status of the children born of the
marriage.
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The 4th ashram has not been mentioned in early Vedic texts. The
Sanyas ashram is mentioned in Jabala Upanishad
The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost their
former importance. On the other hand Prajapati, the creator,
came to occupy the supreme position in the later Vedic pantheon.
Some of the other minor gods of the Rig Vedic period also came to
the forefront. Rudra, the god of animals, became important in
later Vedic times and Vishnu came to be conceived as the
preserver and protector of the people who now led a settled life
instead of a semi-nomadic life as they did m Rig Vedic times. In
addition, some symbolic objects began to be worshipped, and
signs of idolatry are visible in later Vedic times. As society
became divided into social classes such as brahmanas, rajaayas,
vaisyas and sudras, some of the social orders came to have their
own deities. Pushan, who was supposed to look after cattle,
came to be regarded as the god of the sudras, although in the age
of the Rig Veda cattle rearing was the primary occupation of the
Aryans.
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Sacrifices became far more important, and they assumed both
public and domestic character. Public sacrifices involved the
king and the whole of the community, which was still in many
cases identical with the tribe. Private sacrifices were performed
by individuals in their houses because in this period the Vedic
people led a settled life and maintained well-established
households. Individuals offered oblations to Agni, and each
one of these took the form of a ritual or sacrifice.
The later Vedic period saw certain important changes mainly the
beginning of territorial kingdom. Wars were fought not only for
the possession of cattle but also for that of territory. The
famous Mahabharata battle, fought between the Kauravas and
the Pandavas, is attributed to this period. The predominantly
pastoral society of early Vedic times became agricultural. The
tribal pastoralists came to be transformed into peasants who
could· maintain their chief with frequent tributes. Chiefs grew at
the expense of the tribal peasantry, and handsomely rewarded
the priests who supported their patrons against the common
people called the vaisyas. The sudras were still a small serving
order.
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general name ganita which includes Arithmetic (anka ganita),
Geometry (rekha ganita), Algebra (bija ganita) , Astronomy
and Astrology Uyotisa).
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The agricultural operations, including the ploughing of
fields, were better known to the later-Vedic people.
Indus people did not know the use of iron. It was purely a
copper-bronze culture, while the Vedic culture in its later
phase is replete with references to iron.
The horse, which played a decisive role in the Aryan system
of warfare, was not known to the Indus people. A few bones
of horse and terracotta figure of a horse-like animal have
been unearthed from surkotada.
Indus people were basically peace loving. Their arms
(swords, daggers, arrow-heads, spears) were primitive in
nature. Aryans were warlike people and were conversant
with all kinds of traditional arms and armour and had
devised a full-fledged science of war.
Aryans worshiped Varuna, Indra, aditi and a large number
of other deities which stood for the principal phenomena of
nature. They performed sacrifices and offered milk, ghee,
etc. to their gods. The Harappans worshipped Pashupati,
mother goddess, animals , snake and nature. The fire-altars
were discovered from only one Harappan site at Kalibangan.
The Harappans practiced earth burials whereas the Aryans
practiced cremation.
Harappan pottery called black or red pottery was wheel
made and very distinctive in nature. The distinctive Aryan
pottery is known as PGW (painted grey ware).
The Harappans were short statured, black in complexion,
Aryans were tall, well-built and handsome.
The Harappans ate all birds and animals including cow and
calf. They ate wheat, barley and bread. The Aryans preferred
Barley, milk and its products, specially ghee or butter and
enjoyed Soma drink.
Cotton was the basic fabric of the Harappans while the
Aryans put on woollen garments too.
Vedic Sanskrit is the mother of all non-Dravidian languages
, Indus script still remains un-deciphered.
It was quite clear that Indus people were literate whereas
the Vedic people were illiterate (In terms of writing) because
there is not a single word for writing in any of the Vedic
texts
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Jainism and Buddhism
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were the most important, and they emerged as the most potent
religious reform movements.
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rituals and sacrifices advocated in the Later Vedic period were
not acceptable to the common people. The sacrificial ceremonies
were also found to be too expensive. The superstitious beliefs and
mantras confused the people. The teachings of Upanishads, an
alternative to the system of sacrifices, were highly philosophical
in nature and therefore not easily understood by all. Therefore,
what was needed in the larger interests of the people was a
simple, short and intelligible way to salvation for all people. Such
religious teaching should also be in a language known to them.
This need was fulfilled by the teachings of Buddha and Mahavira.
The code of conduct prescribed for lay people by these new
religions appeared to be more practical than performing
protracted rites through the Brahmin priest.
Jainism
Jainism is one of the oldest religions in the world. Jains
traditionally trace their history through a succession of twenty-
four propagators of their faith known as tirthankaras with
Rishabh as the first and Mahavira as the last.
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22nd – Arishtanemi – Conchshell
Vardhamana Mahavir
Vardhamana Mahavira was born in 540 B.C(some says in 599
BCE) in a village Kundagrama near Vaishali which is identical
with Basarh in the district of Vaishali, in north Bihar on the
thirteenth day of the rising moon of Chaitra.
His father Siddartha was the head of the Jnatrika clan and his
mother Trishala was the sister of the Lichchhavi chief Chetaka,
whose daughter Chellana was wedded to Bimbisara. Thus
Mahavira’s family was connected with the royal family of
Magadha. Mahavira was married to Yashoda, by whom he had a
daughter, Annoja. In the beginning, Mahavira led the life of a
householder, but in the search for truth he abandoned his family
at the age of 30 years and became an ascetic. For twelve long
years, he wandered from place to place doing penance. In the
13th year, at the age of 42 he attained omniscience (Kaivalya)
under a Sal tree near village Jrimbhikagrama, on the northern
bank of the river Rijupalika.
Teachings of Mahavira:
Mahavira rejected the authority of the Vedas, the Vedic rituals
and the Brahmin supremacy. He advocated an austere and
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simple life with the ultimate aim to attain Kaivalya (nirvana or
moksha).
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Belief in True Prophets (like Jain Tirthankars) True Scriptures
(like Jain Shastras) and True Preceptors (like Jain saints).
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Five Main Vows:
Mahavira added the doctrine of brahmacharya or continence to
the four vows viz. ahimsa, satya, asateya and aparigraha
prescribed by Parsvanatha. Jainism encourages spiritual
development through cultivation of personal wisdom and through
reliance on self-control through vows. Jains accept different
levels of compliance for strict followers and laymen.
Divisions in Jainism:
The cause of the spread of Jainism in South India is said to be
the great famine that took place in Magadha 200 years after the
death of Mahavira. The famine lasted for twelve years, and in
order to protect themselves many Jaina monks went to the
south under the leadership of Bhadrabahu (Chandragupta
Maurya also accompanied him), but the rest of them stayed back
in Magadha under the leadership of Sthulabahu. At the end of
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the famine they came back to Magadha, where they developed
differences with the local Jainas. The changes that took place in
the code of conduct of the followers of Sthulabahu led to the
division of the Jainas into Digambaras (sky-clad or naked,
southerns) and Svetambaras (white-clad, Magadhans). In the
later centuries, further splits took place in both Digambaras and
Svetambaras. Samaiyas broke away from the former and
Terapantis from the latter. Both these new groups renounced
idol worship and worshipped only the scriptures.
Jaina councils:
1. First Jaina council: The first Jaina council was held at
Pataliputra under the leadership of Sthulabahu in the beginning
of the third century B.C. and resulted in the compilation of 12
Angas (sections) to replace the lost 14 Purvas (old texts). The
Digambaras boycotted the council and refused to accept its
decisions.
Jaina Church:
Mahavira himself founded the Jaina Church. He had eleven
ardent disciples called ganadharas (heads of schools), ten of
whom died in Mahavira’s life time. Only one of them, Arya
Sudharman, survived and became the first thera (pontiff) of
the Jaina Church after his death. His successor, Jambu held
the office for 44 years. During the reign of the last Nanda of
Magadha, the Jaina Church was presided by the fifth thera,
Sambhutavijaya and the sixth thera, Bhadrabahu.
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after Mahavira and was a contemporary of Chandragupta
Maurya.
Jaina Philosophy:
Jainism is a
philosophy based
on the teaching of
Mahavira. It takes
Reality to be a
multiple
comprising two
main kinds of
objects; Jivas
(souls) and the
Ajivas (non-souls). The Jivas are infinite in number, varying in
their capacity for knowledge, power and joy. The essence of Jiva
is consciousness, power and bliss. Potentially, every Jiva has
these qualities in infinite magnitude but actually it displays them
in varying degrees, being over-powered by the material particles
of karma-pudgala with which the souls are intermixed.
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statements must be made with caution, keeping in view that
they cannot be absolute and that opposite statements are
possible and seven modes of prediction (Saptabhangi) are
possible. The doctrine of Syadvada shows a close affinity with
Samkhya system of philosophy. Closely related to the Syadvada
is Nayavada (the doctrine of view points), which shows the seven
ways of approaching an object of knowledge. Jainism recognizes
five sources and kinds of knowledge: Mati, knowledge obtained
through sense-perception and inference; sruti, knowl edge
conveyed by others through intelligible symbols; Avadhi, acquired
by some supernormal means, Manahpryaya, gained by means of
telepathy; and Kevala Jnaria, knowledge of perfected souls who
have acquired omniscience. The Jainas lay great emphasis on
Ahimsa (non-violence), both in theory and practice. To attain
Nirvana, a man must abandon all trammels, including his
clothes. Only by a long course of fasting, self-mortification, study
and meditation, can he rid himself of Karma. Hence a monastic
life is essential for salvation.
Spread of Jainism:
Since Jainism did not very clearly mark itself out from the
brahmanical religion, it failed to attract the masses. Despite this,
Jainism gradually spread into south and west India. The early
Jainas discarded Sanskrit language mainly Patronized by the
brahmanas. They adopted Prakrit language of the common
people to preach their doctrines. Their religious literature was
written in Ardha-magadhi. Udayin, the successor of Ajatashatru
of Magadha, was a devout Jaina and so were the Nanda rulers.
Chandragupta Maurya became a Jaina, gave up his throne and
spent the last years of his life in Karnataka as a Jaina ascetic.
Jainism spread to Kalinga in Orissa in the fourth century B.C.
and in the first century B.C. it enjoyed the patronage of the
Kalinga king Kharavela. In the Kushana period, it flourished well
at Mathura and was dominant in eastern India in the time of
Harsha. During the early centuries of the Christian era, Mathura
in the north and Sravana-Belgola in the south were great centres
of Jaina activities. From the fifth century A.D. onwards many
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royal dynasties of South India, such as the Gangas, the
Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas patronised
Jainism. Jinasena and Gunabhadra composed their
Mahapurana at the time of King Amoghavarsha, whose great
Jaina work Ratnamalika became very popular. In later centuries
Jainism penetrated Malwa, Gujarat and Rajasthan. The
Chalukyan king of Solanki, Siddharaja (1094-1143), also known
as Jayasimha professed Jainism and his successor Kumarapala
were great patrons of Jainism.
Jaina Literature:
Jaina literature was written in Ardhamagadhi form of Prakrit,
and the texts were finally compiled in the sixth century A.D. in
Gujarat at a place called Valabhi, a great centre of education.
The adoption of Prakrit by the Jainas helped the growth of this
language and its literature. Many regional languages developed
out of Prakrit languages, particularly Shauraseni, out of which
grew the Marathi language. The Jainas composed the earliest
important works in Apabhramsha and prepared its first
grammar.
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first called the Jainacharita contains the biographies of the
twenty-three tirthankaras who preceded Mahavira; the second
section consists of the Theravali, a list of ganas and their
ganadharas (heads); the third section contains the Samachari or
the rules for the Jaina monks.
Non-canonical works:
It consists of commentaries, stories, historical works, semi-
historical works, romantic works and religious lyrics.
Commentaries to the canonical texts form the most significant
part of non-canonical literature. The oldest of these, called
Niryuktis may be traced as far back as the time of Bhadrabahu.
These were later developed into elaborate Bhasyas and Churnis
written in Prakrit, and Tikas and Vrittis written in Sanskrit.
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Haribhadra and Upamitibha-Vaprapanchakatha of Siddharshi
(906 A.D.).
2. Lack of Efforts:
There was also a decline in the missionary zeal and sincerity of
the Jaina mendicants. They were no more particular in
undertaking the strain of spreading Jainism in villages and
towns. The traders and businessmen still remained loyal to
Jainism. But they had no time to do anything for the spread of
Jainism.
3. Severity of Jainism:
The severity of Jainism boomeranged against it to bring about its
decline. Unlike the ‘middle path’ of Buddhism, Jainism stood for
severe penance, meditation, fasting and restraint etc. All these
were too severe to endure. People soon became disillusioned with
it. In course of time, Jainism, once adored, became alienated
from the people.
4. Unintelligible Philosophy:
Most of the Jaina philosophy was unintelligible for the masses.
The concepts of Jeeva, Ajeeva, Pudgala, Syadbada etc. could not
be understood properly by the people. Many could not accept the
view that stone, water, tree or earth had a soul of their own.
There was, thus, a gradual decline in popular faith for Jainism.
This paved the way for its decline.
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5. Factionalism in Jainism:
Factionalism among the Jainas after the death of Mahavira was
also cause of the decline of Jainism. Some now advocated to
literally follow the teachings of Mahavira, while others wanted to
tone down the severity of Jainism. As such, the rift led to a
division in Jain ranks. They were now divided into ‘Digamvara’
and ‘Swetamvara’ groups. The former, led by Bhadrabahu, gave
up dress, adopted severe penance for self-purification and
became indifferent to worldly life. The ‘Swetamvara’ group, led
by Sitalabahu, wore white dress. The division weakened Jainism
and as such, its spread came to be curtailed.
6. Spread of Buddhism:
Buddhism came as formidable obstacle in the path of the spread
of Jainism. Buddhist was simple and intelligible. There was no
severity in it. Even a householder could follow it.
Contribution of Jainism:
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were also written in Sanskrit. Thus, the literature also grew due
to the rise of Jainism.
2. Principle of Non-Violence:
Mahavira Jaina was the embodiment of peace. He was the
preacher of nonviolence. He rejected the Vedic rituals and taught
to be kind and humane to the animals. Further, he emphasized
that both living and non-living beings have life and they get pain.
His concept of non-violence largely influenced the course of
Indian history.
3. Influence on Politics
Jainism influenced the Indians politics too. It cast its influence
over many rulers. The great Chandragupta Maurya became the
famous Chadramuni coming under the spell of Jainism. The
mighty emperor Mahameghavahana Kharavela became an
ardent devotee of Mahavira Jaina. By following the principle of
non-violence the kings became kind hearted and tolerant. This
was a lasting impact of Jainism on Indian politics. The Jainas
also distinguished themselves in giving their unstinted support
for the improvement of political and economic life in the country.
The Jainas, especially in southern and western India, produced a
large number of eminent and efficient monarchs, ministers, and
generals and thereby contributed to maintain and improve the
political importance of the people. Not only the ordinary Jainas
but their acharyas, i.e., saints. also aided materially to create the
proper political environment based on ahimsa culture necessary
for the resuscitation of the life in the country. It is considered
that due to the keen interest taken by the Jaina Acharyas, i.e..
saints. in political affairs of the country, Jainism occupies an
important place in the history of India. The Jaina ascetics were
never indifferent towards the secular affairs in general. We know
from the account of Megasthenes that, in the 4th century B.C.,
the Sramanas of Jaina ascetics who lived in the woods were
frequently consulted by the kings through their messengers,
regarding the cause of things. So far as Karnataka is concerned
Jainism, throughout its course of more than one thousand years,
was an example of a religion which showed that religious tenets
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were practiced without sacrificing the political exigencies when
the question of rejuvenating life in the country was at stake. That
is why in Karnataka we find that the Jaina acharyas ceased to
be merely exponents of dogmas and turned themselves into
creators of kingdoms. It has already been noted that the Jaina
saints were virtually responsible for the founding of the Ganga
kingdom in the 2nd century A.D. and the Hoyasala kingdom in
the 11th century A.D.
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of Jaina Tirthankara were found in many parts of India. The
image of Bahuvalin in Shravanavelgola in Karnataka (known as
Gomateswara) is the highest Jaina image ever craved in India.
The Jaina images found in Mathura, Bundelkhand, Northem
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Benares are important Jaina Art
remains in India. The cave art of Udayagiri in Bhubaneswar,
Madhya Pradesh, Ellora and Maharashtra are unique examples
of Jaina art. The Dilwara Jaina temple at Mount Abu of
Rajasthan is a dream in marble. Nearly 90 percent of Jaina
temples are the gifts of single wealthy individuals and as such
the Jaina temples are distinguished for elaborate details and
exquisite finish. The Jain Tower in the fort of Chittor is another
specimen of architectural engineering. Innumerable manuscripts
in palm leaves were written down and some of them were painted
with gold dust. These have given rise to a new school of painting
known as the “Western Indian School”. Thus, Jainism helped in
the growth of art and architecture in India.
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Buddhism
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law”. For forty-five years he roamed about as a wandering
teacher and proclaimed his gospel to the princes and people and
laid the foundation of the Buddhist Order of monks (Sangha).
Gautama Buddha passed away at the age of 80 in 483 B.C. at a
place called Kusinagar, identical with the village called Kasia in
the district of Deoria in eastern Uttar Pradesh. (Mahaparinirvana)
Doctrines of Buddhism:
Buddha proved to be a practical reformer who took note of the
realities of the day. He did not involve himself in fruitless
controversies regarding the soul (atman) and the Brahma
which raged strongly in his time; he addressed himself to the
worldly problems. Within Buddhism, samsara is defined as the
continual repetitive cycle of birth and death. Karma is the
force that drives saṃsara.
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The eight fold path was recommended to eliminate the human
misery. It comprises of three basic divisions of Wisdom (Pragya
Skanda), Ethical Conduct (Sheel Skanda) And Concentration
anicca (transiency)
dukka (sorrow),
anatta (soullessness).
Rupa (form)
Samjna (Name)
Vedana (sentations)
Vijnana (consciousness)
Samskara (Disposition).
Thus the individual is made up of a combination of these five
components, which are never the same from one moment to the
next, and therefore his whole being is in a state of constant flux.
According to Buddha, every effect is caused and every cause has
an effect. The Buddha discovered the twelve-linked chain of
causation (PatichchhaSamuppada) which is Ignorance (Avidya),
Impressions of past actions (Samaskaras), Consciousness
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(Vijnana), Psychophysical organism (Namarapa), Sense-organs
with objects (Sparsa), Sensations (Vedana), Thirst for sense-
enjoyments (trisna), Clinging to the enjoyments (Upadana), Will
to be born (Bhava), Birth or Rebirth (Jatli) and Old age and
Death (Jara-marana).
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Buddhist Councils:
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After the Third Council, King Asoka sent missions to Sri Lanka,
Kanara, Karnataka, Kashmir, Himalaya region, Burma,
Afghanistan. Asoka’s son, Mahinda, brought the Tripitaka to Sri
Lanka, along with the commentaries that were recited at the
Third Council. These teachings later became known as the “Pali-
canon”.
Fourth Council:
The Fourth and the last Buddhist Council was held in Kashmir
under the leadership of Vasumitra who was helped by
Asvaghosha during the reign of Kanishka. Its purpose was to
settle the differences among all the 18 sects of Buddhism and to
compose the commentaries. The results of THIRD COUNCIL were:
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became the main mechanism for preservation of the teachings.
Also extra monastic rules were introduced. Only during one short
period in history Buddhism was banned in Shri Lanka, but it was
later restored with teachings from Thailand which in turn had
originated in Shri Lanka.
Spread of Mahayana:
Nagarjuna developed the Mahayana philosophy of Sunyata
(emptiness) and proved that everything is ‘Void’ (not only the self)
in a small text called Madhyamika-karika. About the 4th
Century CE, the Masters Asanga and Vasubandhu wrote
enormous amount of works on Mahayana. The Mahayana
teachings were mainly written down in Sanskrit. The Mahayana
philosophy is based on the older tradition and fully accepts these
teachings, but not all traditional interpretations. One of the most
important aspects is for example the traditional interpretation
that Buddhahood can be achieved only by very few people. The
Mahayana teaches instead that every sentient being (being with a
mind) can become a Buddha, the only thing preventing our full
enlightenment is the failure to improve one’s own actions and
state of mind. This motivation is reflected in taking an
additional set of vows, known as Bodhisattva vows. The main
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vow is to free all sentient beings from suffering. These vows are
not taken for this life only, but for all future lives as well, until
this goal is achieved. The Mahayana tradition mainly developed
in North India, and spread further North into China and Tibet. In
China, Buddhist philosophy and practice was often mixed with
Taoist and Confucian aspects. Via China, Mahayana Buddhism
also spread to other countries like Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia,
Laos and Japan. Also, in China the Ch’an tradition evolved,
which was introduced into Japan. Around the 6th. century AD,
within the Mahayana tradition the tantras or tantric texts
emerged. Tantric practices are psychologically very profound
techniques to quickly achieve Buddhahood. This is considered
important, not for oneself, but because as a Buddha one has the
best achievable qualities to help others. The motivation is: ‘the
faster I can achieve Buddhahood, the sooner I can be of
maximum benefit to others’. Depending on the class of tantra,
extra vows may need to be taken on top of the Refuge and
Bodhisattva vows. Also, specific commitments may be required
like doing a specific retreat, daily recitation of mantras or a daily
meditation practice. In the 8th. century, the Mahayana and
Tantrayana (or Vajrayana) traditions of (North) Indian Buddhism
were introduced into Tibet.
Hinayana:
Also called "Deficient Vehicle", the "Abandoned Vehicle", or the
"Defective Vehicle". It believes in the original teaching of
Buddha. Don't believe in Idol Worship and try to attain individual
salvation through self discipline and meditation. Stharvivada or
Thervada is a Hinayana sect, which follows the "doctrine of
elders". Asoka Patronized Hinayan and Pali the language of
masses was use by the Hinayan scholars.
Mahayana:
This sect believes in the heavenliness of Buddha and believes in
Idol Worship. It is also called Bodhisattva Vehicle. Mahāyāna
Buddhism spread from India to China, Japan, Vietnam, Korea,
Singapore, Taiwan, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia. Zen,
Pure Land, Tiantai, and Nichiren, Shingon and Tibetan
Buddhism are traditions of Mahayana. Fundamental principles of
Mahāyāna doctrine were based on the possibility of universal
liberation from suffering for all beings (hence the "Great Vehicle")
and the existence of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas embodying
Buddha Nature. It allows salvation to be alternatively obtained
through the grace of the Amitābha Buddha by having faith and
devoting oneself to mindfulness of the Buddha. Believes in
Mantras.
Bodhisattva
A Bodhisattva means one who has essence of enlightment.
Anyone who has a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for
the benefit of all is a Bodhisattva. It’s a very popular subject in
Buddhist art. A bodhisattva is bound to enlightment and refers to
all who are destined to become Buddhas in this life or another
life. There are celestial bodhisattvas which are manifestations of
Gautam Buddha. Important 8 Bodhisattvas are as follows:
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Avalokiteśvara
Avalokiteśvara encompasses all Buddhas. In China he is known
as Guānshìyīn Púsà , in tibetan as Chenrezig, in Thai as
Avalokitesuarn. He is said to incarnate in Dalai Lama. he is
depicted as holding a lotus flower. He is depicted as female also.
A cave wall painting of Avalokiteśvara is devoted in Ajanta Caves
as Padmapani.
Manjusri:
Samantabhadra
Samantabhadra means Universal
Worthy and he is associated with meditation. Known as Fugen
Bosatsu in Japanese and very popular in Japan among the
Tendai and Shingon sects. His manifestation is Action and he is
key figure in Flower Garland Sutra
Ksitigarbha
Ksitigarbha is usually depicted as a Buddhist monk in the Orient
/ East Asia. Ksitigarbha means Earth Womb. he is regarded as
Bodhisattva of Earth or Hell beings or Mortals. He is regarded as
guardian of children and patron deity of deceased children and
aborted fetuses in Japanese culture. he carries a staff.
Ksitigarbha, Samantabhadra, Manjusri, and Avalokitesvara are
the principal Bodhisattvas of East Asian Mahayana Buddhism.
Maitreya
He is also known as Ajita Boddhisattva. He holds a "water phial"
in his left hand. Earliest mention of Metteyya is in the Digha
Nikaya 26 of the Pali Canon. It is said that he will arrive when
oceans will decrease in size (that is why keeps a Kumbha or
philial in his hand) and will rule the Ketumati Pure Land
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(Varanasi). Budai or Laughing Buddha is claimed to be an
incarnation of Maitreya. Budai was a Chinese Zen monk who
lived during the Later Liang Dynasty (907–923 CE) in China. In
Japanese, he is called Hotei and is one of the seven Lucky Gods
of Japan.
Vajrapani
Vajrapani is depicted as one of the 3 protective deities around
Buddha, other are Manjusri and Avlokiteshwara. Vajrapani
manifests Buddha's power, Manjusri manifests Buddha's wisdom
and Avlokiteshwara manifests Buddha's compassion. In Japan a
dharma protector called Nio is also Vajrapani.
Sadāparibhūta
Sadāparibhūta is a Bodhisattva which manifests “never
disparaging” spirit.
Akasagarbha
Akasagarbha is boundless as space. He is known as twin brother
of Ksitigarbha. He is manifestation of wisdom.
1. Vinay Pitaka
2. Sutta Pitaka
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka
I. The Vinaya Pitaka:
It contains pronouncements attributed to the Buddha, laying
down numer ous rules for the conduct of the Order.
Supplementing this, the Mahavagga, ‘Great Section’, lays down
rules for admission to the monastic order, regulations on dress,
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etc. The Chullavagga, ‘Smaller Section’, contains duties for
monks and nuns, edifying Buddhist stories, methods of settling
disputes among monks, etc.
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e) The Bhuddhavamsa – It records legends in verse about the
twenty-four Buddhas who preceded Gautama in earlier
times.
f) The Theragatha – Literally meaning “Hymns of the elder
Monks” it contains some of the India’s greatest religious
poetry.
g) The Therigatha – The Hymns of the Nuns.
III. The Abhidhamma Pitaka
It consists of a number of works on Buddhist psy chology and
metaphysics. Of its seven books, the Dhammasangani provides a
good expo sition of Buddhist philosophy, psychology and ethics;
and the Kathavatthu, ascribed to Moggaliputta Tissa, is valuable
for the light it throws on the evolution of Buddhist dogmas.
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Buddhist literature in Pali belongs to the Hinayana school and
hence the Pali canon are spoken as the Hinayana Canon.
Sanskrit Texts:
With the rise of Mahayanism, Sanskrit was adopted by the
Mahayanist School. There are a few Sanskrit texts belonging to
the Hinayana School. The bulk of Buddhist literature in Sanskrit
belongs to the Mahayana School. Among the Mahayana Sutras,
the following texts or dharmas, also called the Vaipulya Sutras
(“Expanded Sermons”) are regarded as the most important.
1. Prajna-Praramita:
It is the most important philosophical work of the Mahayana
school which deals especially with the notion of Sunya or
nothingness. According to it, beyond this impermanent and
illusory world is a new world of freedom, which one can attain
with the aid of Prajna or intuitive and transcendental wisdom.
3. Avatamsaka:
Supposed to be the teaching given by Buddha three weeks after
his enlightenment, it contains the doctrine of ‘interpenetration’.
The twenty-fifth chapter expounds the doctrine of Parinamana,
the ‘transference’ of merit, whereby one’s merit can be turned
over for the Salvation of others
4. Gandha-Vyuha:
It is actually a part of the above Avatamsaka Sutra, but is often
called a Sutra in its own right.
5. Sukhavati-Vyuha:
Deals with the subject of salvation through faith in Amitabha.
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6. Vajrachhedika or the Diamond Sutra
It expounds the doctrine of Sunyata and clarifies several other
concepts central to Mahayana
7. Mahapari:
Nirvana
9. Surangama:
lt outlines the means of attaining enlightenment by concentration
and meditation.
The period (200 B.C. to 700 A.D) saw the emergence of a number
of Buddhist saint-scholars who made an immense contribution to
the Buddhist phisosophy and religion. Asvaghosha, who was a
contemporary of Kanishka wrote Buddhacharita, a poetic
biography of Buddha, and probably was the author of the
Sraddhotpada. Nagarjuna, who was a friend and contemporary of
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the Satavahana King Yagnasri Gautampiputra (166 to 196 A.D.),
propounded the Madhyamika school of Buddhist philosophy
popularly known as Sunyavada.
1. Influence of Time:
6th Century B.C. was an ideal time for the spread of Buddhism.
It was a time when people were fed up with the superstitions,
complex rituals and rites and blind beliefs. The message of the
Buddha came as a welcome relief to people already groaning
under the oppressive weight of Brahmanism. They were easily
drawn to Buddhism by the simplicity of its faith and its religious
tolerance.
2. Simple Doctrines:
As compared with Jainism, Buddhism was essentially simple. It
did not confuse the people. Rather its ‘Arya Satya’ ‘Eight-fold
Path and ‘concept of non-violence’ were so simple that people
could easily understand and follow these. Buddhism also lacked
the severity of Jainism, as well as the complexity of Vedic rituals.
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The people, already fed up with Brahminical manipulations of
Vedic religion, came to accept Buddhism as a soothing and
refreshing change
3. Simple Language
The Buddha spread his message in the simple language of the
masses of people. The Prakrit language which Buddha used was
the spoken language of India. The Vedic religion was understood
only with the help of Sanskrit language which was the monopoly
of the Brahmins. Buddhism was easily understood and people
accepted it after being convinced about its simple philosophy and
pleasing message.
4. Personality of Buddha:
The personality of the Buddha endeared him and his religion to
the masses. The Buddha was kind and ego-less. His calm
composure, sweet words of simple philosophy and his life of
renunciation drew the masses to him. He had ready moral
solutions for problems of the people. His example of a prince
renouncing the world to save humanity from sins and rebirth and
wandering from place to place to convince the people with his
messages and sermons came to naturally evoke awe, admiration
and acceptance of the people for him and his religion. The spread
of Buddhism was thus rapid.
5. Inexpensive:
Buddhism was inexpensive, without the expensive rituals that
characterized the Vedic religion. Practical morality, not rites and
expensive rituals, came as its beacon feature and helped to set
up a healthy tradition in society. It advocated a spiritual path
without any material obligations of satisfying gods and Brahmins
through rituals and gifts. People competed to embrace Buddhism
6. No Caste Harried:
Buddhism did not believe in cast-distinctions. It opposed that
caste system and regarded people of all castes equally. Its
followers sat together, forgetting their caste and discussed ethics
and morality. The non-Brahmins in particular were drawn to its
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fold. Its popularity spread by leaps and bounds. Buddhism made
a special appeal to the people of the non-Vedic areas where it
found a virgin soul for conversion, especially the people of
Magadha responded readily to the Buddhism because they were
looked down upon by the orthodox brahmanas. Women were also
admitted to the Sangha and thus brought on par with men. In
comparison with Brahmanism, Buddhism was liberal and
democratic.
7. Royal Patronage:
Royal patronage of Buddhism also accounted for its rapid rise.
The Buddha himself was a Kshatriya prince. Kings like Prasenjit,
Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Asoka, Kanishka and Harshavardhan
patronised Buddhism and helped its spread throughout India
and outside, as well. Asoka deputed his children, Mahendra and
Sanghamitra, to Sri Lanka for the spread of Buddhism. Kanishka
and Harshavardhan worked untiringly for the spread of
Buddhism throughout India.
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India. Soon local people were drawn to these branches of the
Buddhist ‘Order’. They either became monks (bhikshu) or
Upasakas (lay-worshippers) and led lives of austere serenity.
Their example influenced more and more people to follow it. As a
result. Buddhism spread rapidly.
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life of indiscipline. Their example and perverted life-style could
not but bring popular hatred. No more the people were inclined
towards Buddhism.
2. Reform in Hinduism:
Buddhism had dealt a heavy blow to Brahminical faith.
Threatened with extinction, Hinduism started to re-organize
itself. Attempts were now made to give up the complex system of
rites and rituals and make Hinduism simple and attractive. The
Hindus even came to accept the Buddha as a Hindu
incarnation and accepted the principle of non-violence. This
helped revive Hinduism and made it popular again. This took
away the fragrance out of the flower of Buddhism. The decline of
Buddhism became inevitable
5. Patronage of Brahmanism:
In course of time there was the rise of the Brahminical faith once
again. Pushyamitra Sunga, the Brahmin commander of the last
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Maurya ruler Vrihadratha, assassinated the king and founded
the Sunga dynasty replacing the Maurya dynasty. The
Asvamedha sacrifice was done by him. It gave an impetus to the
Brahminical faith. Non-violence, the basic principle of Buddhism,
was given up. He destroyed many stupas and monasteries. Many
Buddhist monks were put to sword. This stemmed the growth of
Buddhism. Again, patronage of the imperial Guptas for
Brahminical faith came to open the path of decline for
Buddhism.
8. Buddha Worship:
Image worship was started in Buddhism by the Mahayana
Buddhists. They started worshipping the image of the Buddha.
This mode of worship was a violation of the Buddhist principles
of opposing complex rites and rituals of Brahminical worship.
This paradox led the people to believe that Buddhism is tending
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towards the fold of Hinduism. Buddhism’s importance decreased
thereby.
Thus, many causes were responsible for the gradual decline and
fall of Buddhism in the land of her birth although it continued to
flourish in countries beyond India for centuries. Even today, it
has a large number of followers all over the world.
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Contribution of Buddhism:
With its emphasis on non-violence and the sanctity of animal life,
Buddhism boosted the cattle wealth of the country. The earliest
Buddhist text, Suttanipata, declares the cattle to be givers of
food, beauty and happiness, and thus pleads for their protection.
The brahmanical insistence on the sacredness of the cow and
non-violence was apparently derived from Buddhist teachings.
Buddhism created and developed a new awareness in the field of
intellect and culture. The place of superstition was taken by logic
and it promoted rationalism among people.
In the field of architecture and art, Buddhism takes the credit for:
the first human statues to be worshipped; stone panels depicting
the life of the Buddha at Gaya in Bihar and at Sanchi and
Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh; cave architecture in the Barabar
hills at Gaya and in western India around Nasik; art pieces of
Amravati and Nagarjunakonda.
Buddhist Architecture:
With Buddhist architecture was particularly associated the
Stupa, a domical structure of brick or stone masonry. Shrines
known as Chaityas with the votive Chaityas installed for worship
and prayer, as also monasteries (Viharas, Sangharamas), were
essential features of Buddhist religious establishments.
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sacred parasol (chatra). Pradaksinapatha was the path for
clockwise circumbulation surrounded by a fence built encircling
the stupa. The whole structure is surrounded by a massive rail
with four imposing gateways on the four sides. The chaitya
shrine in its typical form was a long rectangular hall, apsidal at
the rear end and divided into three sections by two rows of pillars
along the length of the hall meeting at the back end.
Rock cut chitya shrines are at Bhaja near Poona (2nd century
B.C) Kondane Pitalkhora, Bedsa, Nasik, Kanheri, Ajanta, Karle
and other places in Western India. Fragmentary remains of many
monasteries (vihara) have been excavated in the north as well as
in the south. The monastery at Nalanda belongs to the fifth
century A.D. and one at Paharpur (Somapura Mahavihara) was
established towards the close of the 8th or the beginning of the
9th century
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Maha Janapadas to the Maurya
Mahajanapada
The Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya gives a list of sixteen
great kingdoms called ‘Sixteen Mahajanapadas’. They were Anga,
Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru,
Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka, Avanti, Gandhara and
Kambhoja. The Jain texts also contain references to the existence
of sixteen kingdoms. In course of time, the small and weak
kingdoms either submitted to the stronger rulers or gradually got
eliminated. Finally in the mid 6 th century B.C., only four
kingdoms – Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha survived.
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in eastern Uttar Pradesh) with two capitals at Kusinara
and Pawa,
(v) Kasi with its capital at Varanasi - Ayodhya was the
capital of Kosala. King Prasenajit was its famous
ruler. He was highly educated. His position was
further strengthened by the matrimonial alliance with
Magadha. His sister was married to Bimbisara and
Kasi was given to her as dowry. Subsequently there
was a dispute with Ajatasatru. After the end of the
conflict, Prasenajit married the daughter of
Bimbisara. After the death of this powerful king,
Kosala became part of the Magadha.
(vi) Kosala (covering the present districts ofFaizabad, Gonda,
Bahraich etc.), with its capital at Sravasti,
(vii) Vatsa (covering the modern districts Allahabad,
Mirzapur etc.), with its capital at Kausambi - The
Vatsa kingdom was situated on the banks of the river
Yamuna. Its capital was Kausambi near modern
Allahabad. Its most popular ruler was Udayana. He
strengthened his position by entering into
matrimonial alliances with Avanti, Anga and
Magadha. After his death, Vatsa was annexed to the
Avanti kingdom
(viii) Chedi, (covering the modern Bundelkhand area with its
capital at Shuktimati),
(ix) Kuru (covering the modern Haryana and Delhi area to the
west of river Yamuna) with its capital at Indraprastha
(modern Delhi),
(x) Panchala (covering the area of western Uttar Pradesh up
to the east of river Yamuna up to the Kosala Janapada)
with its capital at Ahichhatra,
(xi) Surasena, (covering Brij Mandal with its capital at
Mathura),
(xii) Matsya (covering the area of Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur
in Rajasthan)
(xiii) Avanti (modern Malawa) with its capital at Ujjayini
and Mahishmati - The capital of Avanti was Ujjain.
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The most important ruler of this kingdom was
Pradyota. He became powerful by marrying
Vasavadatta, the daughter of Udayana. He patronized
Buddhism. The successors of Pradyota were weak and
later this kingdom was taken over by the rulers of
Magadha.
(xiv) Ashmaka (between the rivers Narmada'and Godavari)
with its capital at Potana,
(xv) Gandhara (area covering the western part of Pakistan and
eastern Afghanistan) with its capitals at Taxila and
Pushkalavati,
(xvi) Kamboja (identified with modern district of Hazara
disricts of Pakistan).
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Mahabharata, the whole of India from Himalayas in the north to
Kanyakumari in the south, from Gandhara in the west to Bengal
and Assam in the east are covered by these Janapadas.
Along with the list of Mahajanapadas 'we also find the names of
many famous cities during the time of Buddha. Some of these
were Champa , Rajagriha, Srava sti, Saket, Kausambi and Kasi.
These were mostly the capital cities of Mahajanapadas. There
were also non-monarchical states which can be called republics
or ganasanghas. Buddhist texts reveal that during the time of the
Buddha there were many such republican states. Some of the
important ones were: (i) Mallas of Kusinara (ii) Mallas of Pava (iii)
Sakyas of Kapilavastu (iv) Koliyas of Ramagrama (v) Moriyas of
Pipphalivana (vi) Bulis of Alakappa (vii) Kalamas of Kesaputta
(viii) Bhaggas of Sumsumaragiri (ix) Lichchhavis of Vaisali.
The Buddhist texts also speak of nine ganas of the Mallas and
nine of Kasi. These helped the Vajjis against the aggression of
Magadha. The Mallas of Kusinagara and Pava were the
kshatriyas of the Ikshvaku dynasty. According to Divyavadana,
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perhaps at the time of Buddha, the Mallas were divided into
two branches, namely Kusinara (Kusinagara) and Pava in
eastern Uttar Pradesh. Perhaps they also formed a sangha of
nine republican states. The Sakyas of Kapilavastu, modern
Piparahwa in the Siddharthanagar district of Uttar Pradesh on
the Nepal border, were also Ikshvaku kshatriyas. Gautama
Buddha was born in the Sakya family and Suddhodana was the
'King' of the Sakyas. The Koliyas of Ramagrama were eastern
neighbours of the Sakyas.
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North, Son River in West, Vindhya ranges in south and
Champa in East. The three sides protected the territory and it
was not easy for any invader to invade Magadha so easily. The
earliest capital of Magadha was Girivraja.
Brihadrath Dynasty
The earliest known king of Magadha is Brihadrath. Name of
Brihadrath appears in Rig-Veda. Magadha is mentioned in
Atharvaveda. The puranic sources say that Brihadrath was the
eldest son of Vasu.
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It is interesting to note that the kingdom of Kuru-Panchala, Kasi
and Matsya, celebrated in the Mahabharata, continued in this
period, although they ranked as minor powers.
Bimbisara
Bimbisara was the first great king of the Haranyaka Dynasty.
Bimbisara was the most remarkable king of the pre Mauryan
dynasties of Magadha. He used the policy of marital alliances
to expand his kingdom, a tradition which was not yet seen in any
dynasty. He also used a policy of sending envoys to strengthen
the bilateral relationships. Bimbisara had 4 wives. These wives
were a result of Bimbisara’s Policy of dynastic alliances. His chief
queen was Khema. The 4 queen of Bimbisara were Kosaladevi,
sister of Pasendi or Prasenjit of Aiksvaka dynasty. Kashi was
given to Bimbisara as a dowry gift in his marriage with
Kosaladevi. Chellena the daughter of Cetaka or Chetaka, the
Licchhavi King of Vaishali who was brother of Trishla, mother of
Mahavira. Khema or Kshema was daughter of Madra King of
Punjab. Vaidehi was daughter of Videha King. This proves that
Bimbisara used matrimonial alliances to expand his kingdom.
For example Kosaladevi brought Kasi under his rule, however,
Kashi later became the cause of hostility between his son
Ajatshatru and his brother in law Pasendi. Bimbisara was great
in military skills as well. He defeated Brahamdatta of Anga and
annexed Anga in Magadha. Further territories were also were
annexed to Magadha by Bimbisara. Bimbisara, annexed Anga,
and his son Ajatasatru conquered the Lichchhavis of Vaisali. All
these kings - Pradyota, Udayana, Bimbisara and Prasenajit -
flourished in the second half of the sixth century B.C. At the
beginning of the fifth century B.C., the Pauravas and the
Pradyotas seem to have retired from the contest for supremacy,
which was thus left to be fought out between the Haryankas of
Magadha, and the Ikshvakus of Kosala.
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Ajatashatru
The period assigned to Ajatshatru’s rule is 491 BC to 461 BC. He
was son of Bimbisara’s wife Vaidehi, the Buddhist texts mention
his name as Vaidehi Putra Ajatashatru. Ajatashatru was not the
only son of Bimbisara. There were many sons and daughters
from his all wives but Ajatshatru proved to be dominant. He
killed his father by starving him to death; this is what Buddhist
traditions say. However, Jaina texts say that he was not involved
in patricide. However, most scholars agree that he ended the life
of his father. The killing of Bimbisara brought enmity between
Ajatshatru and Pasendi, the king of Kosala. His sister Kosaladevi
died of shock of his husband’s tragic end. Pasendi immediately
confiscated Kashi, which was given as a gift to Kosaladevi in
marriage.
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caused a lot of casualties. It was also known as scythed chariot,
which was invented by Ajatshatru
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dynastic feuding triggered a revolt and the people thrown these
Haranyaka Dynasty rule and imposed Shishunaga as ruler. This
was the foundation of Shishunaga Dynasty.
Shishunaga Dynasty
Shishunaga was the founder of this dynasty. He was an amatya
/ officer / governor of the last Haranyaka ruler Nagdasaka. After
this coup d’état, Shishunaga made Grivraja his residence and
deputed his son to Banaras. Shishunaga was succeeded by
Kalasoka. During Kalasoka, Pataliputra became the capital of
Magadha. In Purana, he is mentioned as Kakavarna and in Sri
Lankan texts he is mentioned as Kalasoka.
Nanda
Mahapadmananda was the first ruler of the Nanda Dynasty.
There are several theories about the birth of Mahapadmananda.
The Purana theory say that Mahapadmananda was son of
Nandivardhana & a Shudra Woman. Another theory says that
there was a good-looking barber, who won the heart of a queen
who subsequently killed the king. Thus, Mahapadmananda was a
son of this barber. Whatever may be correct but this was the line
which started the trend of lowborn (as of contemporary
conditions) rule started in Magadha.
The Nandas were the first Non Kshatriya rulers in the history of
India. They were also the first Empire Builders in the recorded
history of India. Estimates say that the army of Nandas was
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consisting of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 (or 80,000) cavalry, 2,000
(or 8,000) war chariots and 3,000 (or 6,000) war elephants.
Nanda ruled almost all parts of India for 100 years. The last ruler
was Dhanananda who was over thrown by Chandragupta Maurya
thus founding Mauryan Empire in 321 BC
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Persian and Greek invasions
Persian Invasions
Cyrus (558 – 530 B.C) Cyrus the Great was the greatest
conqueror of the Achaemenian Empire. He was the first
conqueror who led an expedition and entered into India. He
captured the Gandhara region. All Indian tribes to the west of the
Indus river submitted to him and paid tribute. His son Cambyses
had no time to pay attention towards India.
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Iranian connection with India proved more fruitful than the
short-lived Indo- Macedonian contact.
Battle of Hydaspes
In 327 B.C. Alexander crossed the Hindukush Mountains and
spent nearly ten months in fighting with the tribes. He crossed
the Indus in February 326 B.C. with the help of the bridge of
boats. He was warmly received by Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila.
From there Alexander sent a message to Porus to submit. But
Porus refused and decided to fight against Alexander. Then
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Alexander marched from Taxila to the banks of the river
Hydaspes (Jhelum). On the other side of the river he saw the vast
army of Porus. As there were heavy floods in the river, Alexander
was not able to cross it. After a few days, he crossed the river and
the famous battle of Hydaspes was fought on the plains of Karri.
It was a well-contested battle. Although Porus had a strong army,
he lost the battle. Alexander was impressed by the courage and
heroism of this Indian prince, treated him generously and
reinstated him on his throne. Alexander continued his march as
far as the river Beas encountering opposition from the local
tribes. He wanted to proceed still further eastwards towards the
Gangetic valley. But he could not do so because his soldiers
refused to fight. Hardships of prolonged warfare made them tired
and they wanted to return home. Alexander could not persuade
them and therefore decided to return. He made arrangements to
look after his conquered territories in India. He divided the whole
territory from the Indus to the Beas into three provinces and put
them under his governors. His retreat began in October 326 B.C.
and the return journey was not free from ordeals. Many
republican tribes attacked his army. Anyhow he managed to
reach beyond the Indus. On his way he reached Babylon where
he fell seriously ill and died in 323 B.C.
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Mauryan Empire
Maurya Dynasty
The Mauryan Empire was the
first and one of the greatest
empires that were established
on Indian soil. The vast
Mauryan Empire stretching
from the valley of the Oxus to
the delta of Kaveri was given
a well-knit, common
administration.
Chandragupta Maurya was the first ruler who unified entire India
under one political unit. About Mauryan rulers we have
epigraphical sources, literary sources, foreign accounts and
materials obtained from archaeological excavations.
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Chandragupta Maurya (324-300 B.C.)
The Purana account says that Chandragupta was a son of last
Nanda Monarch Dhanananda from his Shudra concubine Mura
and that is why is name is Maurya. This
account has been rejected as well as accepted
by many scholars and has been quite
controversial. As per the Mahaparinibbana
Sutta, Chandragupta was a scion of Moriya
Clan, which was branch of Sakyas
Khatriyas. These Kshatriyas had received a
share in the relics of Buddha. Some other traditions link his
ancestry to peacock tamers. So there is no single theory about
the ancestry of Chandragupta. One thing on which all scholars
agree is that he was from a “humble” background. He is
mentioned in the Greek texts as Sandrokyptos, Sandrokottos
and Androcottus. The Buddhist sources like Mahavamsa and
Dipavamsa also describe Chandragupta Maurya as a scion of the
Kshatriya clan of the Moriyas branch of Sakyas who lived in
Pipphalivana, in eastern Uttar Pradesh. The Mudrarakshasa, a
play written by Vishakha Datta, uses the terms like Vrishala and
Kulahina, for Chandragupta which mean a person of humble
origin. Justin, a Greek writer, also says that Chandragupta was
"born in humble life". According to Buddhist sources
Chandragupta's father was killed in a battle and he was brought
up by his maternal uncle. Chandragupta is said to have served
the Nanda Army as a General or Senapati in one of the theories.
He, instigated by Vishnugupta or Chanakya revolted against his
master but his revolt failed. Dhanananda insulted Vishnugupta,
a Brahmin by breaching a social etiquette. When the revolt failed,
both of them fled to safety. The Mahavamsa writes that
Chandragupta while concealed in a woman's hut overheard the
woman scolding her child, who in the act of eating had burnt his
fingers by beginning from the center of the bread. She scolded
the child and taught him that hot bread should not be touched
from the center and it should be broken in pieces from the
corners. Chandragupta learnt from this story and transferred
himself to the North West. Chanakya, finding the signs of royalty
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in the child Chandragupta, took him as his pupil, and educated
him at Taxila which was then a great centre of learning.
Chandragupta's early life and education at Taxila is indirectly
proved by the fact that the Greek sources tell us that he had seen
Alexander in course of the latter's campaign of Punjab. The
details of Chandragupta's conquests and empire building process
are not available to us. From the Greek and Jain sources it
seems that Chandragupta took advantage of the disturbances
caused by the invasion of Alexander and his sudden death in 323
B.C. in Babylon. He, with the help of Kautilya raised a large army
and launched campaigns.
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Alexander, had shaken, as it were, the yoke of servitude from its
neck and put his Governors to death. The architect of this
liberation was Sandrocottas. Sandrocottas of Greek writers has
been identified with Chandragupta Maurya.
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Chandragupta defeated the invading army of the Greek
Kshatrapa Seleucus who had succeeded Alexander in the eastern
part of his empire. After death of Alexander, Seleucus, one of the
generals of Alexander; became his successor. He launched a
campaign against India in 304 BC to recapture the territories
won by Alexander. He crossed Indus but his mission failed and
an alliance with Chandragupta ended the mission. By this treaty,
Seleucus returned the Arachosia (Kandahar), Paropanisade
(Kabul), Aria (Herat) and Gedrsoia (Baluchistan) to
Chandragupta. The alliance was cemented by Chandragupta.
Following were the acts that cemented the ties:
This victory was achieved in about 305 B.C. The Greek writers do
not give details of the war but state that a treaty was concluded
in which Seleucus conceded the territories of Kandahar,
Kabul,Herat and Baluchistan and Chandragupta presented him
500 elephants. It is also stated that this also led to the
matrimonial alliance between the two - perhaps Seleucus married
his daughter to Chandragupta Maurya or to his son Bindusara.
Seleucus sent Megasthenese as his ambassador to the court of
Chandragupta. Plutarch writes, "Sandrocottas who had by that
time mounted the throne overran and subdued the whole of India
with an army of 6,00,000". Thus, Chandragupta established a
vast empire which with the
exception of Kalinga, extended
from Afghanistan in the west to
Assam in the east and from
Kashmir in north to Karnataka
in south. This is indirectly proved
by the find spots of the edicts of
his grandson, Ashoka. Ashoka is
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said to have added only Kalinga to the Mauryan empire, and
there is no definite evidence that his father Bindusara made any
conquests at all. Chandragupta Maurya is said to have ruled for
24 years i.e. from 324 B.C. to 300 B.C.
Bindusara
Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his son Bindusara. We
know little about this king. His other name is Amitraghata which
means destroyer of foes. The Greek scholars write him as
“Amitrachates” or “Allitrochates”. The Jain scholar Hemachandra
and Tibetan Monk Taranath say that Chanakya outlived
Chandragupta and continued as a minister of Bindusara. From
Divyavadana we came to know that Bindusara appointed his
eldest son Sumana (also named Susima) as his viceroy at Taxila
and Ashoka at Ujjain. It also tells us that a revolt broke out at
Taxila and when it could not be suppressed by Susima, Ashoka
was sent to restore peace. Some scholars give the credit of south
Indian conquest to Bindusara, but most scholars believe that this
was done by his father Chandragupta Maurya. Bindusara
continued the policy of friendly relations with Hellenic world.
Pliny mentions that Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt sent
Dionysius as his ambassador to his court. He was friendly with
the Greek King Antiochos-IIS and asked him to send sweet wine,
figs and a philosopher. The two things were sent but third "a
philosopher" was not sent as the land of the law at Greece did not
permit. Deimachos was a Syrian ambassador who came in the
court of Bindusara. Bindusara ruled for approximately 25-26
years and his succession was disputed which ultimately gave
India a great king called Asoka. Bindusara supported the
Ajivikas, a religious sect. Bindusara appointed his son Asoka as
the governor of Ujjain.
Ashoka
Ashokavardhana or Asoka was governor of Taxila and Ujjain
during the reign of his father Bindusara. The Sri Lankan texts
represent Asoka as “wading through a pool of Blood” quoting that
he terminated all 99 of his brothers except his uterine brother
Tisya. The Buddhist texts mention his mother’s name as
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Subhadrangi. His first wife was a princess of Ujjaini called Devi
or Vedisa. His two other wives were Karuvaki and Asandhimitra.
Asoka’s only son mentioned in inscriptions is Tivara, who was
born to Karuvaki. The name of Karuvaki and Tivara are
mentioned in Queen’s edict
Ashoka is the first king in the Indian history who has left his
records engraved on stones. The history of Ashoka and his reign
can be reconstructed with the help of these inscriptions and
some other literary sources. The inscriptions on rocks are called
Rock Edicts, and those on Pillars, Pillar Edicts. The Ashokan
inscriptions are found in India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan.
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worth note that the Mauryan Empire was probably in friendly
terms with the southern kings such as Cholas and Pandyas.
Kalinga was strategically located in the heart of his territory and
that is why his campaign to Kalinga was strategically important.
Once Kalinga was won, there was no much need to win over
further territories. The Kalinga war was a horrifying event. It
mentions that hundred and fifty thousand people were displaced,
hundred thousand people were killed and many hundred
thousand perished. The vivid description of Kalinga war is given
in 13th Rock Edict. After the war of Kalinga Asoka realized the
gravity of war and the event had a profound impact on his mind.
He vowed to never wage such war and also directed his sons and
grandsons. The 13th Rock edict mentions Asoka’s remorse after
the war and his changed attitude from Dig-vajay to
Dhammavijay. Asoka adopted Buddhism in 9th year of his reign
after winning Kalinga. Nigrodha/Upagupta, a boy monk, inspired
him. Later, he met Moggaliputta Tissa, who ultimately become
his mentor. Later his brother Tissa, queen Karuvaki also adopted
Buddhism.
Asoka was true to his ideals. He was not a dreamer but a man of
practical genius. His Dhamma is so universal that it appeals to
humanity even today. He was an example in history for his
benevolent administration and also for following the policy of
non-aggression even after his victory in the war. His central ideal
was to promote the welfare of humanity. Asoka sponsored the
third Buddhist Council in 250 BC. This council was held at
Pataliputra. It was presided by Moggaliputta Tissa. Abhidhamma
Pitaka was established in this council.
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Rock Edicts
Major Rock Edict I: Prohibits animal slaughter. Bans festive
gatherings and killings of animals. Only two peacocks and one
deer were killed in Ashoka’s kitchen. He wished to discontinue
this practice of killing two peacocks and one deer as well.
Major Rock Edict II : Provides for care for man and animals,
describes about Chola, Pandyas , Satyapura and Keralputra
Kingdoms of South India
Major Rock Edict X: Condemns the desire for fame and glory.
Stresses on popularity of Dhamma.
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Major Rock Edict XII: Directed and determined request for
tolerance among different religious sects.
Ashoka Dhamma
There is no doubt that Ashoka's
personal religion was Buddhism. In
his Bhabru edict he says he had full
faith in Buddha, Dhamma and
Sangha. He showed respect to all
sects and faiths and believed in
unity among ethical and moral
values of all sects.
After the Kalinga war, the greatest ideal and objective before
Ashoka was the propagation of Dhamma. The Dhamma, as
explained in Ashoka's edicts is not a religion or a religious system
but a 'Moral Law', a 'Common Code of Conduct' or an 'Ethical
Order'. In Pillar Edict II Ashoka himself puts the question: "What
is Dhamma?" Then he enumerates the two basic attributes or
constituents of Dhamma : less evil and many good deeds. He
says such evils as rage, cruelty, anger, pride and envy are to be
avoided. and many good deeds like kindness, liberality,
truthfulness, gentleness, self control, purity of heart, attachment
to morality, inner and outer purity etc. - are to be pursued
vigorously.
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from killing or injuring animals and to have regard for them, to
be charitable to all, to be respectful to parents, teachers,
relatives, friends, and ascetics, to treat slaves and servant kindly
and above all to tell the truth.
Decline of Mauryans
Asoka died in 232 BC after a reign of 40 years. His policy of
ahimsa partially contributed to the decline of Maurya Empire.
None of the successors of Asoka rose to his status. His only son
who was named in edicts was Tivara and there is a possibility
that he died before his father's death as not much is heard about
him later. Jaluka was one of his sons who is mentioned in
Rajtarangini of Kalhana and became independent ruler of
Kashmir. Kunala is said to have reigned for 8 years but in
southern traditions he is mentioned as a blinded person.
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Ashokvadana says that Asoka was compelled to abdicate his
throne in favour of his Grandson Samprati who was son of blind
Kunala. Samprati was a great patron of Jainism with his seat
was at Ujjain. Another grandson Dasaratha is mentioned in
Vayupurana & Matsya purana, who has been testified by
scholars. It is possible that the empire was partitioned into
eastern and western parts, with Dasaratha getting eastern and
Samprati getting western parts.
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adopted because foreign accounts give details of a flourished
economy.
Some scholars hold the oppressive policy of the later Mauryan for
decline of the empire.
Mauryan Administration
King was the supreme source of all powers and was center of all
authorities, judiciary and administration. The Mauryan
Administration was highly centralized and King used to select
ministers, high official. A well-planned system of supervision and
inspection was there in the Mauryan Administration
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The second book of Kautilya Arthashastra (The Duties of
Government Superintendents) or Adyakshaprachara
contemplates a ubiquitous bureaucracy, which keeps in touch
with all sections of the society. These superintendents were called
Adhyakshas. Adhyakshas composed a highly skilled secretariat,
divided into several departments.
Sitaadhyaksha (Agriculture)
Suradhyaksha (Excise)
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navy and commiserate. Navy, Transport in forces and
commiserate were Mauryan innovations.
Society
There was a separate department of road. The width of the cattle
tracks, pedestrians, chariots and other traffic were different.
There were trunk roads which were managed by the department
of Roads. Trees were planted on both sides of the roads. Inns
were constructed at places on the road. Nurseries and drinking
water facilities such as wells, canals were provided.
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There was a proper system of census, which registered all the
details of the deaths and births. Nagarika was the census officer
who was responsible to keep a ready reference data of the
farmers, cattle, traders, cowherds etc. This was to ensure that
proper tax is levied.
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members, ministers and public welfare were the main avenues to
use the revenue.
Foreign Trade by means of the land and sea was prevalent, and it
was regulated by passports kinds of documents. Indigo, cotton
and silk was most traded property. Antiochus I with his joint
rule with Selucus issued coins of Indian standard rather than the
Attic Standard. This shows that the Mauryan Economy was
world’s largest economy and the currency of Mauryas was
accepted Worldwide and was main currency of those time. The
trade routes were called Vanikpatha.
Provincial Administration
The Maurya empire was divided into 5 provinces (probably). They
were as follows:
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• It was duty of the Pradesika to tour the kingdom every five year
and collect details of the administration.
Village was the smallest unit of polity and it was called Grama.
The head of the grama was a Gramika. The Gramika was not a
paid employee of the government but was elected by the village
people. The 10 villages were collectively headed by a Gopa and
100 villages were collectively headed by a Sthanaka. Gramika in
Open Panchayats solved most disputes.
City Administration
A number of cities such as Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali,
Suvarnagiri, Samapa, Isila, and Kausambi are mentioned in the
edicts of Ashoka. The Arthashashtra has a full chapter on the
administration of cities. Megasthenese has described in detail the
administration of Pataliputra and it can be safely presumed that
similar administrative system was followed in most of the
Mauryan cities.
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goods. The sixth board collected taxes as per the value of sold
goods. The tax was normally one-tenth of the sold goods. The city
council appointed officers who looked after the public welfare
such as maintenance and repairs of roads, markets, hospitals,
temples, educational institutions, sanitation, water supplies,
harbors etc. The officer incharge of the city was known as
Nagaraka.
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that one of the carved gateways was donated by the guilds of
ivory workers. Similarly, the Nasik cave inscription mentions
that two weaver's guilds gave permanent endowments for the
maintenance of a temple.
Later Mauryas
Magadha Empire under Asoka was extended from the foot of the
Hindu Kush to the borders of the Tamil country. After the
Kalinga war, Asoka became a monk and expansion of Buddhism
in other countries took place during his time. None of the later
Mauryas was efficient to keep such a vast empire intact. The
sources of history after Mauryas are scant. There was no account
left by Kautilya and Megasthenes about the later Mauryas.
Knowledge about the later Mauryas is based upon Puranas, Jain
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and Buddhism texts. Different Puranas give different accounts of
Asoka’s successors. The account given by Vayu Purana says that
Kunala succeeded Asoka while the Matsya Purana says that
Suyasas succeeded Asoka. Nevertheless, all Purana accounts as
well as Harchacharita of Banabhatta says- that the last
Mauryan ruler was Brihadratha. Brihadratha was a weak ruler
and his Senapati Pushymitra Shunga while a parading the entire
Mauryan army before Brihadratha to show him the strength of
the army assassinated him and this was the end of the Mauryas.
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Post Maurya Kingdoms
Shakas
The Greeks were followed by the Sakas, who controlled a much
larger part of India than the Greeks did, There were five branches
of the Sakas with their seats of power in different parts of India
and Afghanistan One branch of the Sakas settled in Afghanistan.
Another branch of the Sakas settled in Punjab with Taxila as
their capital. A third branch settled in Mathura, where they ruled
for about two centuries. A fourth branch established us hold over
western India, where they continued to rule till the fourth
century A D. A fifth branch of the Sakas established its power m
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the upper Deccan. Although the Sakas ruled in different parts of
the country, only those who ruled in central and western India
rose to prominence. The Sakas did not meet much effective
resistance from the rulers and people of India. In about 58 B.C,
we hear of a king of Ujjain who effectively fought against the
Sakas and succeeded in driving them out in his time. He called
himself Vikramaditya, and an era called the Vikrama Samvat is
reckoned from the event of his victory over the Sakas in 58 B.C.
From this time onwards Vikramaditya became a coveted title
Whoever achieved anything great adopted this title just as the
Roman emperors adopted the title of Caesar in order to -
emphasize their great power. As a 'result of this practice we have
as many as 14 Vikramadityas in Indian history, and the title
continued to be fashionable with the Indian kings till the twelfth
century A.D , and it was especially prevalent in western India and
the western Deccan.
The earliest Shaka Ruler of India Maues (80-65 BC) or Moga was
the earliest Shaka ruler. He
established Shaka power in
Gandhara. His capital was ‘’Sirkap’’
and he issued a large number of
copper coins and few silver coins.
Some sources indicate that he
assumed the title of ‘’ maharaja
mahatma ‘’ and his coins are bearing
the images of Indian deities’ viz.
Shiva, and Buddha. He used Greek
and Kharoshthi in coin legends. The
famous Taxila Copper Plate is
ascribed to him as Moga Inscription.
It was found in area of Taxila in modern Pakistan. Taxila copper
plate bears a precise data and it is written in Kharoshthi. Taxila
Copper Plate mentioned about the dedication of a relic of the
Buddha Shakyamuni to a Buddhist monastery by the Shaka
ruler Patika Kusulaka. Patika Kusulaka is also mentioned in
Mathura lion capital.
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The most prominent ruler of western India was Nahapana whose
reference is found in various inscriptions found in Maharashtra
and in the records of the Satavahanas. The most famous Central
Indian Saka ruler in India was Rudradaman I ( A D 130-150).He
ruled not only over Sindh, Kutch and Gujarat, but had also
recovered from the Satavahanas Konkan, the Narmada valley,
Malwa and Kathiawar. He is famous in history because of' the
repairs he undertook to improve the Sudarsana lake in the semi-
arid zone of Kathiawar. This lake had been in use for irrigation
for a long time, and was as old as the time of the Mauryas
Rudradaman was a great lover of Sanskrit. Although a foreigner
settled in India, he issued the first-ever long inscription in chaste
Sanskrit.
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last king in the hands of Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty,
in about A.D. 390.
Parthians
The Saka domination
in north-western India
was followed by that of
the Parthians, and in
many ancient Indian
Sanskrit texts the two
peoples are together
mentioned as Saka-
Pahlavas. In fact they
ruled over this country
on parallel lines for
some time Originally
the Parthians lived in
Iran, from where they moved to India. In comparison with the
Greeks and the Sakas they occupied only a small portion of'
north-western India in the first century. The most famous
Parthian king was Gondophernes, in whose reign St. Thomas is
said to have come to India for the propagation of Christianity. In
course of time the Parthians, like the Sakas before them, became
an integral part of Indian polity and society.
Kushanas
The Parthians were followed by the Kushanas, - who are also
called Yuechis or Tocharin, The Kushanas were one of the five
clans into which the Yuechi tribe was divided. A nomadic people
from the steppes of north Central Asia having in the
neighbourhood of China, the Kushanas first occupied Bactria or
north Afghanistan where they displaced the Sakas, Gradually
they moved to the Kabul valley and , seized Gandhara by crossing
the Hindukush, replacing the rule of the Greeks and Parthians in
these areas. Finally they set up their authority over the lower
Indus basin and the greater part of the Gangetic basin, Their
Empire extended, from the Oxus to the Ganga, from Khorasan m
Central Asia to Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. A good part of Central
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Asia now included in the USSR, a portion of Iran, a portion of
Afghanistan, almost the whole of Pakistan, and almost the whole
of northern India were brought under one rule by the Kushana
This treated a unique opportunity for peoples and cultures, and
the process gave rise to a new type of culture which embraced
five modern countries. In the year 165 B.C., Yue Chis came in
conflict with a neighbouring tribe known as Hiung-nu. The Yueh-
chi were defeated and forced to move out of their land. They
could not move towards the east, since the China Wall had
become a barrier. On their move westwards the Yue-chi came in
conflict with another tribe called Wu-sun whom they defeated
easily. At about this time the Yueh-chi were divided into two
groups - Little Yueh-chi which migrated to Tibet and great Yueh-
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Kujula Kadphises (AD 30-AD 80)
Kujula Kadphises was the first Yueh Chi chief who crossed the
Hindukush Mountains and laid down the foundation of the
Kushana Empire. He established himself in Kabul and Kashmir
and is credited for defeat of Last Greek Kings. He adopted the
epithet of Dharma-thida. Another epithet adopted by Kujala
Kadphises was Sachdharmathida, which is coterminous with
SatyaDharma Sthitha. Both of the above epithets show that he
was interested in both Buddhism as well as Shivaite.
Kanishka I
Kanishka-I was the most power ruler of the Kushana Empire and
is known for his military prowess. His main capital was
Purushpura (Peshawar) and regional capitals were Taxila
(Pakistan) , Begram (Afghanistan) and Mathura (India). His
date of accession is disputed. However, most sources agree that
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Kanishka was the founder of the Shaka Era of AD 78. This has
been mentioned as Saka kala or Saka Nripa kala, probably
because he was thought to be a Shaka. Kanishka extended his
whole-hearted patronage to Buddhism. He held a Buddhist
council in Kashmir, where the doctrines of the Mahayana form of
Buddhism were finalized. Kanishka was also a great patron of art
and Sanskrit literature.
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The successors of Kanishka continued to rule in north-western
India till about A.D 230, and some of them bore typical Indian
names such as Vasudeva. Kanishka-I was succeeded by
Vāsishka, who had a short reign who is identified with the
Vaskushana, Vajheska, Jushka in different sources.
Jushkapura near modern Zukar was a city founded by him.
Kanishka II was a successor of Vāsishka and is known to have
assumed the title of Kaisar.
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Trade and Technology
The Sakas and Kushana added new ingredients to Indian culture
and enriched it immensely. They settled in India for good and
completely identified themselves with its culture. Since they did
not have their script, language or religion, they adopted these
elements of culture from India. They became an integral part of
Indian society to which they contributed considerably. They
introduced better cavalry and the use of the riding horse on a
large scale. They made common the use of reins and saddles,
which appear in the Buddhist sculptures of the second and third
centuries A D. The Sakas and the Kushans were excellent
horsemen. Their passionate love for horseman-ship is attested by
numerous equestrian terracotta figures of Kushan times
discovered from Begram in Afghanistan Some of these foreign
horsemen were heavily armoured, and fought with spears and
lances. Possibly they also used some kind of a toe stirrup made
of rope which facilitated their movements. The Sakas and
Kushans introduced turban, tumc, trousers, and heavy long
coat. Even now the Afghans and Punjabis wear turbans, and the
sherwani is a successor of the long coat. The Central Asians also
brought in cap, helmet and boots which were used by warriors.
Because of these advantages they made a clean sweep of their
opponents in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. Later, when
this military technology spread in the country, the dependent
princes turned them to good use against their former conquerors.
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is significant that the Kushans were the first rulers in India to
issue gold coins on a wide scale.
Polity
The Central Asian conquerors imposed their rule on numerous
petty native princes. This led to the development of a feudatory
organization The Kushans adopted the pompous title of king of
kings, which indicates their supremacy over numerous small
princes. The Sakas and the Kushans strengthened the idea of the
divine origin of kingship. The Kushan kings were called sons of
god. This title was adopted by the Kushans from the Chmese,
who called their king the son of heaven. It was used in India
naturally to stress the royal authority. The Hindu lawgiver Manu
asks the people to respect the king even if he is a child, because
he is a great god ruling in, the form of a human being. They also
introduced the satrap system of government. The empire was
divided into numerous satrapies, and each satrapy was placed
under the rule of a satrap. Some curious practices such as
hereditary dual rule, two kings ruling in the same kingdom at
one and the same time, were introduced. We find that father and
son ruled jointly at one and the same time. Thus it appears that
there was less of centralization under these rulers.
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period of ancient Indian history were foreigners assimilated into
Indian society on such a large scale as they were ID post-Maurya
times
Religion
Some of the foreign rulers were converted to Vaishnavism, which
means the worship of Vishnu, the god of protection and
preservation. The Greek ambassador called Heliodorus set up a
pillar in honour of Vishnu near Vidisa (headquarters of Vidisa
district) m Madhya Pradesh. A few other rulers adopted
Buddhism. The famous Greek ruler Menander was converted to
Buddhism. The questions and the answers that he exchanged
with the Buddhist teacher Nagasena, also called Nagarjuna,
constitute a· good source for the cultural history of the post
Maurya period. The Kushan rulers worshipped both Siva and the
Buddha, and the images of these two gods appeared on the
Kushan coins several Kushan rulers were worshippers of Vishnu.
This was certainly the case with' the Kushan ruler Vasudeva,
whose very name is a synonym for Krishna, who was worshipped
as an incarnation of Vishnu.
Mahayana Buddhism
The contact with foreigners brought about changes in Indian
religions. This especially happened to Buddhism. Buddhism in its
original form was too puritanical and too abstract for
foreigners, who wanted something concrete and intelligible. They
did not appreciate the philosophical doctrines of Buddhism,
emphasized by the existing Buddhist schools. They wanted
something which they could easily understand and which could
satisfy their religious cravings. So there developed a new form of
Buddhism called the Mahayana or the Great Wheel, in which the
image of the Buddha began to be worshipped. The doors of this
sect were opened to all sections of the people. Those who did not
subscribe to the newly-founded sect came to be known as the
followers of the Hinayana or the Small Wheel. Fortunately for
Mahayana, Kanishka became its great patron He convened a
council m Kashmir, where the Buddhist teachings were engraved
on sheets of copper and deposited under a stupa. We do not
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know the contents of these inscriptions because this stupa has
not been discovered so far Kanishka set up many stupas in
memory of the Buddha.
Sunga to Satavahana
Sunga
Pushyamitra Shunga
Pushyamitra Shunga founded the Shunga dynasty in around
185-183 BC. Capital of Shunga Dynasty was Pataliputra and its
major centers were Ujjain, Mathura, Saket, Sanchi, and
Kapilvastu. Vidisha was capital of later Shunga rulers. West
Bengal and parts of Bangladesh, some parts of northern Orissa,
Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh. In South India, the
contemporary of Mauryas & Shungas were Saatvahanas,
Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas.The extent of Saatvahana was
modern Andhra Pradesh, Pandyas was Tamil Nadu and
Karnataka and Cheras was Kerala (Cheras derived from
Keralaputra).
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it for some time. However, Pushyamitra succeeded in regaining
the lost territory. He also fought a campaign against Kharavela of
Kalinga who invaded north India .
Agnimitra
Agnimitra was the second king of Shunga
dynasty, who succeeded his father
Pushyamitra Shunga. He had a short
reign of 8 years.He is the hero of
Malvikagnimitram of Kalidasa in which
he has been referred to as Raja. By the
times of Agnimitra, Vidarbha had become
independent of the Maurays. Agnimitra
was succeeded by Vasumitra around 131 BC. Not much details
are available of the successors of Agni Mitra. Different accounts
mention the name of different kings such as Andhraka,
Pulindaka, Ghosha or Vajramitra. The last rulers of Shunga
dynasty were Bhagabhadra and Devabhuti, about whom we have
some details.
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Bhagabhadra
Information about the king Bhagabhadra is derived from the
Heliodorus pillar, which was found in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh
near modern Besnagar. Heliodorus was a Greek ambassador and
he dedicated this pillar to God Vasudeva (Vishnu).The Heliodorus
pillar has a surmounted figure of a Garuda.
Devabhuti
Devabhuti was the last Shunga Ruler who was killed by his own
minister Vasudeva Kanva in around 73 BC. Vasudeva Kanva
thus assassinated the last ruler of Shunga Dynasty and founded
the Kanva Dynasty.
Kanva Dynasty
Vasudeva Kanva
Vasudeva Kanva killed the last ruler of the Shunga Dynasty. The
Kanvas were Brahmins and considered themselves as
descendents from Rishi Kanva. At the time of Vasudeva Kanva’s
accession, the Shunga kingdom was already finished as the
Punjab region was under the Greeks and most parts of the
Gangetic planes was under different rulers. One of the Shunga
rulers named Sumitra; who rules around 133 BC, was killed by
Muladeva. Muladeva founded the independent Kosala Kingdom.
Bhumimitra succeeded Vasudeva. Bhumimitra after reigning for
14 years was succeeded by his son Narayana, who was
succeeded by Susharman. Much detail about these kings has
been ascertained only based on Numismatics. Only these four
kings of the Kanva dynasty are known. This dynasty is said to
have been overthrown by the Satavahana dynasty.
Mahameghavahans of Kalinga
After the decline of Mauryas, Kalinga rose to power around 1st
century BC in the area of modern Odisha. We best know about
the Third ruler of this dynasty, named ‘’ Kharvela’’. Kharvela is
known to have revived the past glory of Kalinga. Kharvela (209-
170 BC) King Kharvela belged to the epic time Chedi dynasty.
His capital was Kalinganagara. We know about Kharvela from
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Hathigumpha inscription, found in a cave in Udayagiri near
Bhubaneswar. Kharvela reinstated the army and military of
Kalinga. Kharvela led successful campaigns against the
kingdoms of Magadha, Anga, and Satavahana. The Kalinga
Kingdom was expanded till Ganga to Kaveri from north to south
by Kharvela. Kharvela was a Jain follower, but despite being a
Jain follower he never hesitated in warfare.He patronized the
Jaina ascetics by making provision for their maintenance,
constructing the house/dwellings. Hathigumpha inscription
Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela is a 17 lines inscription in
Brahmi found at Udayagiri hills, Bhubneshwar, Orissa, 6 miles
away from the place where Dhauli edit of Asoka was located. The
inscription says that it is dated 165th year of Maurya kings and
13th year Kharvela reign, and gives a biographical sketch of the
king. It says.
o In the 8th year, he advanced till Barabar hills and defeated the
king of Rajgriha.
Satavahana
The most important of the native successors of the Mauryas in
the Deccan and in central India were the Satavahanas. The
Satavahanas are considered to be identical with the Andhras who
are mentioned in the Puranas The Puranas speak only of the
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Andhra rule and not of the Satavahana rule. On the other hand
the name Andhra does not occur in Satavahana inscriptions.
According to some Puranas altogether the Andhras ruled for 300
years and this period is assigned to the rule of the Satavahana
dynasty. The Andhras are an ancient people and are mentioned
in the Aitareya Brahmana also. The Greek writer Pliny mentions
that the Andhras were powerful people who possessed a large
number of villages and thirty towns, an army of one lakh
infantry, two thousand cavalry and one thousand elephants.
During the Mauryan age they were part of the Mauryan Empire
but it appears that immediately after the fall of the dynasty, the
Andhras declared themselves free. The earliest inscriptions of
the Satavahanas belong to the first century B.C, when they
defeated the Kanvas and established their power in parts of
central India. The early Satavahana kings appeared not in
Andhra, but in Maharashtra where most of their early
inscriptions have been found. They set up their power in the
upper Godavari valley, which at present produces rich and
diverse crops in Maharashtra. Gradually the Satavahana
extended their power over Karnataka and Andhra their greatest
competitors wore the Sakes, who
had established their power in the
upper Deccan and western India.
At one stage the Satavahanas were
dispossessed of their dominions by
the Sakas in Maharashtra and
western India. Before the
emergence of the Satavahanas in
Maharashtra and Cholas, Cheras
and Pandyas in southern India the
region was settled by megalithic
people.
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myths and the information has been collected by a large number
of coins minted in Lead, Silver and an alloy of copper. The
origin of Satavahanas is a mystery but they are considered
Brahmins and most kings use the names of their mothers with
their names. The coins issued by Satavahanas had Bilingual
legends. The name of the Kings was mentioned in Prakrit as well
as some south Indian Language. Satavahana Kings promoted
Buddhism. Nagarjunkonda and Amaravati became important
Buddhist centers during the Satavahana Era.
Satkarni-I
Satkarni-I or Sri Satkarni was son of Simuka and was a great
ruler among the Early Satavahanas. Naganika was the name of
his queen and he has been described as the Lord of
Dakshinpatha. He extended the empire to further south, Malwa
and Narmada valley. He performed Ashvamedha Yajna and
Rajsuya Yajna.
Satkarni II
Satkarni II was the longest ruling king of the Satavahana
Dynasty and date of his accession is considered to be 166 BC. He
has been mentioned in the Hathigumpha inscription of the
kharvela, in which he is depicted as enemy of Kharvela. In this
inscription, it is mentioned that Kharvela disregarded Satkarni
and dispatched to the western regions an army of strong cavalry.
Satkarni II was succeeded by Lamobodara followed by Apilaka
and some other rulers like Hala.
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Hala
Hala was one greater king of the Satavahanas who was 17th King
of the Satavahana line. He had compiled the "Gatha saptasati"
or Gaha Sattasai which mainly a text on love theme. Gatha
saptasati is in Prakrit. He is also mentioned in another text
Lilavati. These rulers were small rulers only and are considered
to be under the suzerainty of Kanvas. The expansion of the
Satavahanas was checked just after Satkarni II. The Shakas
pushed them southwards and the western Deccan was occupied
by the Shaka King Nahapana.
Gautamiputra Satakarni
The fortunes of the family were restored by Gautamiputra
Satakarni. He called himself the only brahmana, who was the
Destroyer of the
Shaka, Pahalava
and Yavana
Power revived the
lost power of
Satavahana.
Gautamiputra
Satkarni is
known to have
made a total and sharp recovery of the Satvahans. His mother
Gautami has mentioned his achievements in the Nasik
Inscription. Nasik Prasasti describes Gautamiputra as the ruler
of the Aparanta, Anupa, Saurashtra, Kukura, Akara, and
Avanti. In south his reign was up to Kanchi in South. He
assumed the title of raja-raja and Maharaja. He claims to have
destroyed The Kshaharata lineage to which his adversary
Nahapana belonged. This claim is true, because more than 8,000
silver coins of Nahapana, found near Nasik, bear marks of being
restruck by the Satavahana king He also occupied Malwa and
Kathiawar which lay under the control of the Sakas. It seems
that the empire of Gautamiputra Satakarrn extended from Malwa
in the north to Karnataka m the south possibly he also enjoyed
general authority over Andhra. Gautamiputra Satakarni is the
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first king bearing matronym and this practice was followed by
nearly all his successors. He patronized Brahmanism. Yet, he
also gave donations to Buddhists.
Economic Condition
There was a remarkable progress in the fields of trade and
industry during the Satavahana rule. Merchants organized guilds
to increase their activities. The craft guilds organized by different
craftsmen such as potters, weavers and oil pressers also came
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into existence. Silver coins called Karshapanas were used for
trade. The Satavahana period also witnessed overseas
commercial activity. Ptolemy mentions many ports in the Deccan.
The greatest port of the Satavahanas was Kalyani on the west
Deccan, Gandakasela and Ganjam on the east coast were the
other important seaports.
Through contacts with the north the people of the Deccan learnt
the use of coins, burnt bricks, ringwells, etc These elements of
material life had become quite important in north India by 300
B.C., but they acquired importance in the Deccan a couple of
centuries later, In Peddabankur in Karimnagar district we find
regular use of fire-baked bricks, and use of flat, perforated roof
tiles. All this must have contributed to lasting structures. What
is further remarkable is the fact 'that as many as 22 brickwells
belonging to the second century have been discovered at that
site. Naturally these facilitated thick habitations, and we find
there covered drains underground to lead waste water into
soakage pits. Towns appeared in Maharashtra by the first
century B C., when we find several crafts. They emerged in the
eastern Deccan a century later. Pliny informs us that the Andhra
country in the eastern Deccan included 30 walled towns, besides
numerous villages. Several towns of the second and third
centuries in this area are known from inscriptions and
excavations. Increasing trade is indicated by numerous Roman
and Satavahana coins. They appeared about a century later in
the eastern Deccan, in the Godavari-Krishna area.
Social Organisation
The Satavahanas originally seem to have been a tribe of the
Deccan. But they were brahmanized, and their most famous king
Gautamiputra Satakarni claims to have established the fourfold
varna system which had fallen into disorder. He boasts that he
put an end to the intermixture between the people of different
social orders. Such confusion was obviously caused by the Saka
infiltration and by the thin and superficial brahmanization of the
tribes living in the Deccan.
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and more acculturated by the Buddhist monks, who were
induced by land grants to settle in the western Deccan. It is
suggested that traders also supported the Buddhist monks, for
the earliest caves seem to have been located on the trade routes.
The Satavahanas were also the first rulers to make land grants
to the brahmanas, although we have more instances of grants
being made to Buddhist monks. According to the Dharmasastras
it was the function of the Kshatriyas to rule, but the Satavahana
rulers called themselves brahmanas. Gautamiputra boasts that
he was the true brahmanas siree the Andhras are identified with
the early Satavahanas, probably they were a local tribe who were
converted to Brahmanism, The orthodox brahmanas of the north
looked upon the Andhras as a mixed caste. This shows that the
Andhras were a tribal people who were brought within the fold of
Hindu society as a mixed caste.
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them acted as regents. But basically the Satavahana ruling
family was patriarchal because succession to the throne passed
to the male member.
Administration
The Satavahana rulers strove for the royal ideal set forth in the
Dharmasastras, The king was represented as the upholder of
dhama to him was assigned a few divine attributes. The
Satavahana king is represented as possessing the qualities of
ancient gods such as Rama, Bhima, Kesava, Arjuna, etc. He is
compared in prowess and lustre to these legendary figures and to
supernatural forces. This was evidently meant to attribute
divinity to the Satavahana king.
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The cultivated fields and villages granted to them were declared
free from molestation by royal policemen and soldiers, and all
kinds of royal officers. These areas therefore became small
independent islands within the Satavahana kingdom. Possibly
the Buddhist monks also preached peace and rules of good
conduct among the people they lived with, and taught them to
respect political authority and social order The brahmanas, of
course, helped enforce the rules of the varna system which made
society stable. The Satavahana kingdom had three grades of
feudatories. The highest grade was formed by the king who as
called raja and who had the right to strike corns. The second
grade was formed by the mahabhoja, and the third grade by the
senapati It seems that these feudatories and' landed
beneficiaries enjoyed some authority in their respective localities.
Religion
The Satavahana rulers claim to have been brahmanas, and they
represented the march of triumphant Brahmanism. From the
very beginning kings and queens performed the Vedic, sacrifices
such as the asvamedha, vajapeya, etc. . They also worshipped a
large number of Vaishnava gods such as Krishna, Vasudeva,
and others; They paid liberal sacrificial fees to the brahmanas.
Language
The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit. All
inscriptions were composed in this language and written in the
Brahmi, script, as was the case in Asokan times, Some
Satavahana kings may have composed Prakrit books. One Prakrit
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text called Gathasaptasati is attributed to a Satavahana king
called Hala. It consisted of 700 verses, all written in Prakrit, but
it seems to have been finally re-touched much later, possibly
after the sixth century A D
Architecture
In the Satavahana phase many temples and monasteries were
cut out of the solid rock in the north-western Deccan or
Maharashtra with great skill and patience. In fact the process
had started about a century earlier from 200 B C. the two
common structures were the temple which was called chaitya
and the monastery which was called vihara. The chaitya was a
large hall with a number of columns, and the vihara consisted of
a central hall entered by a doorway from a verandah in front. The
most famous chaitya is that of Karle in the western Deccan, It-
is about 40 metres long, 15 metres wide and 15 metres high, it is
a most impressive specimen of massive rock architecture.
The Kingdom was divided into the Janpadas and subdivided into
Aharas. The ruler of each Ahara was an Amatya. Ahara was
divided into Grama which was under the headmen called
Gramika. Two feudatories viz. Mahasenapati and
Mahataravalara were created in the Satavahana Dynasty.
King was called Rajan or Raja and he had the right to mint the
coins. A Senapati was appointed as the provincial governor.
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- It was influenced by Mauryan Administration
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Gupta Empire
Gupta empire came to be established in A.D. 319AD, at a period when India
had many different kingdoms. Although the Gupta Empire was not as large
as the Maurya Empire, it kept north India politically united for more than
a century. When the Gupta dynasty ascended the throne around 320 CE,
continuing until 550 CE, they consolidated northern India by subjugating
the local and provincial powers that had become independent after the
downfall of the Kushans.
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Origin of Guptas
As per Poona Copper Plate inscription, the history of the Gupta
dynasty begins with its founding by Sri-Gupta around 240 CE and
Ghatotkacha was the next to follow him with the title Maharaja. This title
was often borne by feudatory chiefs. The Poona copper plate inscription of
Prabhavati Gupta describes Sri Gupta as the Adhiraja of the Gupta
dynasty.
Gupta Empire records and Chinese records provided by the later Chinese
traveler I-Tsing, furnished the names of the first three rulers of the
Gupta Dynasty, Maharaja Sri Gupta, Maharaja Sri Ghatotkacha and
Ghatotokacha’s son, Maharajadhiraja Sri Chandragupta, considered the
first Gupta emperor.
In the Panchobh Copper Plate, some kings bearing the title Guptas and
related to the imperial Gupta Dynasty, claimed themselves as Vaisyas. In
the Riddhapura copper plate inscription, it is stated that Sri Gupta
belonged to the Dharan Gotra.
The Kings
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He took the title of Maharajadhiraja, and his accession in about A.D. 319-
20 marked the beginning of Gupta era.
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wrath respectively. A mention of setting up a temple of Janardana at
Airikina to augment his own glories. Eran
is the site of first reported monument of
Sati dated 510AD in India, mentioned in
Eran inscription
Standard Type
the Archer Type
the Battle Axe Type
the Ashvamedha Type
the Tiger Slayer Type
the King and Queen Type
the Lyre Player Type.
Coins of Samudragupta exhibit a fine quality of technical and sculptural
finesse. At least three types of coins — Archer Type, Battle-Axe and
Tiger type — represent Samudragupta in martial armour. The
coins bearing the epithets like parakramah (valour), kritanta-parashu
(deadly battle-axe), vyaghra parakramah (valourous tiger), prove his being
Samudragupta, with Garuda pillar a skilful warrior. Samudragupta’s
Asvamedha type of coins commeorate
the Ashvamedha sacrifices he performed and signify his many victories
and supremacy
Conquests of Samudragupta
Samuragupta conquered a majority of North India in phases.
1. The first category includes the twelve states of Dakshinapatha with the
names of their kings who were captured and then liberated and reinstated.
They were Kosala, Mahakantara, Kaurata, Pishtapura, Kottura, Erandapalli,
Kanchi, Avamukta, Vengi, Palakka, Devrashtra and Kushthalpura.
2. The second category includes the names of the eight kings of Aryavarta,
who were violently exterminated; prominent of them were
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Rudradwa, Ganapatinaga, Nagasena, etc. Eran was annexed into Gupta
empire by Samudragupta when he annexed many kingdoms of Aryavarta
into Gupta dominion.
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Narada and others by his sharp and polished intellect and musical
accomplishment.” His title of Kaviraj (King of poets) is justified by
various poetical compositions. Unfortunately, none of these compositions
have survived.
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Ramagupta
Initially, he was known from the traditional narratives (like a Sanskrit play,
named Devichandragupta by Vishakhadatta) only and not supported by
any contemporary epigraphical evidence. But later, three Durjanpur
inscriptions on Jaina tirthankara images were discovered from Durjanpur
near Vidisha, which mention him as the Maharajadhiraja
A large number of his copper coins also have been found from the Eran-
Vidisha region and classified in five distinct types, which include the
Garuda, Garudadhvaja, lion and border legend types. The Brahmi legends
on these coins are written in the early Gupta style.
The weak king was inclined to accept these terms. This infuriated his
younger brother Chandragupta, who went himself in the disguise of the
queen to the Saka chief and killed him. Then he murdered his royal brother
Ramagupta and married the queen, Dhruvswamini.
Historians still don’t know what liberties the author Vishakadatta took with
the incidents, but Dhruvadevi was indeed Chandragupta II’s Chief Queen as
seen in the Vaisali Terracotta Seal that calls her “Mahadevi”
Dhruvasvamini. The Bilsad Pillar Inscription of their son Kumaragupta I
(414–455 CE) also refers to her as “Mahadevi Dhruvadevi”.
The official records of the Guptas, however do not refer to Ramagupta and
trace the succession directly from Samudragupta to Chandragupta II.
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Chandragupta II ( Vikramaditya )
Samudragupta was succeeded by his younger son Chandragupta II.
But, according to some scholars, Samudragupta who died shortly before A.
D. 380 was succeeded by his eider son Ramagupta (as mentioned earlier).
During his rule, the Gupta Empire achieved its zenith. Art, architecture, and
sculpture flourished, and the cultural development of ancient India reached
its climax. The period of prominence of the Gupta dynasty is very often
referred to as the “Golden Age of India”.
The marriage of his daughter Prabhavati by his wife Kubernaga with the
Vakataka king Rudrasena II helped him to establish his political influence in
the Deccan. His son-in-law died accidentally in 385 CE after a very short
reign, following which Queen Prabhavatigupta (385-405) ruled the
Vakataka kingdom as a regent on behalf of her two sons. During this
twenty-year period, the Vakataka realm was practically a part of the Gupta
empire. His greatest victory was his victory over the Shaka-Kshatrapa
dynasty and annexation of their kingdom in western Malwa and Gujarat, by
defeating their last ruler Rudrasimha III. The geographical location of the
Vakataka kingdom allowed Chandragupta II to take the opportunity to
defeat the Western Kshatrapas once for all.
The conquest gave Chandragupta the Western sea coast, famous for trade
and commerce. This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa, and its chief
city Ujjain. Ujjain seems to have been made the second capital of
Chandragupta II though Pataliputra continued to be the capital.
‘King Chandra’ whose exploits has been mentioned in the Mehrauli Iron
Pillar Inscription, which is located in the Qutub-Minar complex in Delhi is
identified by many scholars with Chandragupta II. According to this
inscription, Chandra crossed the Sindhu region of seven rivers and
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defeated Valhikas (identified with Bacteria). It also mentions
Chandragupta’s victory over enemies from Vanga (Bengal).
The pillar bears an inscription which states that it was erected as a flagstaff
in honour of the Hindu god Vishnu, and in the memory of Chandragupta II
(A derivation of “Natya-darpana“by Vishakadata states that the pillar
had been put up by Chandragupta II himself after defeating Vahilakas. And
after this great feat, he put up this pillar as a memory of the victory).
The large number of beautiful gold coins issued by the Gupta dynasty are a
testament to the imperial grandeur of that age. Chandragupta II also
started producing silver coins in the Saka tradition.
Coinage
Chandragupta continued issuing most of the gold coin types introduced by
his father Samudragupta, such as the Sceptre type (rare for Chandragupta
II), Archer type, and the Tiger-Slayer type. However, Chandragupta II
also introduced several new types, such as the Horseman type and Lion-
slayer type, both of which were used by his son Kumaragupta I. In addition,
Chandragupta II was the first Gupta king to issue silver coins. These coins
were intended to replace the silver coinage of the Western Kshatrapas after
Chandragupta II defeated them, and were modeled on the Kshatrapa
coinage. The main difference was to replace the dynastic symbol of the
Kshatrapas (the three-arched hill) by the dynastic symbol of the Guptas (the
mythic eagle Garuda).
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Navratnas
Indian tradition claims that Dhanwanthari, Kshapanaka, Amarasimha,
Shankhu, Khatakarpara, Kalidasa, Vetalbhatt (or Vetalabhatta), Vararuchi,
and Varahamihira were a part of Vikramaditya’s court. The king
commissioned nine men of letters, called the “nava-ratna”, to work in his
court.
Fa Hien, a Chinese Buddhist, was the of the pilgrims who visited India in
search of original Buddhist texts. during the reign of Gupta emperor
Chandragupta II (though he does not mention name of any king in his
account).
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Kapilavastu, Lumbini, Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi and Rajgriha
and made careful observations about the empire’s conditions.
From his accounts, the Gupta Empire was a prosperous period, until the
Rome-China trade axis was broken with the fall of the Han dynasty,
the Guptas’ did indeed prosper. His writings form one of the most
important sources for the history of this period.
The Bilsad inscription is the oldest record of his reign and it dates to Gupta
year 96, which corresponds to 415 CE. An inscription on a figure of a
yaksha from Mathura in the reign of Kumaragupta has been dated to 432
CE, and a pedestal (with no king’s name on it, but presumably from
Kumaragupta’s reign) has been dated to 442 CE. He maintained intact the
vast empire built up by his two predecessors. The last days of his reign
were not good. The Gupta Empire was threatened by the rebellion of
Pushyamitras (a tribe who were settled in central India but then rebelled) of
central India and invasion of the White Huns. But, Kumaragupta was
successful in defeating both threats and performed the Ashvamedha
(horse sacrifice) to celebrate his victory.
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It appears that these wars adversely affected the economy of the empire, and
the debased gold coinage of Skandagupta bears testimony to these.
Moreover, he appears to have been the last Gupta ruler to mint silver coins
in western India. Skandagupta’s name appear in the Javanese text
Tantrikamandaka. The Junagarh inscription of his reign tells us
about the public works undertaken during his times. The Sudarsana lake
(originally built during the Maurya times) burst due to excessive rains and
in the early part of his rule his governor Parnadatta and his son
Chakrapalita got it repaired.
Huna Invasion
The initial Huna or Alxon raids on Gandhara took place in the late 5th and
early 6th century AD, upon the death of the Gupta ruler, Skandagupta
(455–470).Based on Chinese and Persian histories believes that the
Hunas conquered Gandhara from the Ki-to-lo (Kidarites) in 475 AD.
Skandagupta died about A.D. 467 and the line of succession after him is
very uncertain. Skandagupta was followed by weak rulers Purugupta (467–
473), Kumaragupta II (473–476), Budhagupta (476–495?), Narasimhagupta
Baladitya, Kumaragupta III, Vishnugupta, Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta,
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whose kingdom in the plains of Northern India was continuously attacked
by the Hunas.
In the 480’s the Hephthalites broke through the Gupta defenses in the
northwest, and much of the empire in northwest was overrun by the Hun by
500. The empire disintegrated under the attacks of Toramana and his
successor Mihirakula. It appears from inscriptions that the Guptas,
although their power was much diminished, continued to resist the Huns.
The Hun invader Toramana was defeated by Bhanugupta in 510 CE.
The Huns were defeated and driven out of India in 528 AD by a coalition
consisting of Gupta emperor Narasimhagupta and the king Yashodharman
from Malwa.
The Guptas continued to rule till about 550 A.D., but by then their power
had already become very insignificant.
1. Huna invasions were the main cause for the decline of the Gupta
power.
2. In addition to the Hun invasion, the factors, which contribute to the
decline of the empire include competition from the Vakatakas and the
rise of Yashodharman in Malwa. Yasodharman set up, in 532 A.D.,
pillars of victory commemorating his conquest of almost the whole of
northern India. Yashodharman’s rule was short- lived, but it meant a
severe blow to the Gupta Empire.
3. Further, the internal attacks of the Pushyamitras, who are identified
with the Patumitras and Durmitras of the Puranas, also caused
notable destabilization to the state power of the Guptas.
4. Another cause for the disintegration was the succession of weak rulers
after Skandagupta.
5. Yet another factor behind the disintegration of the Gupta state power
was the administrative weakness. Guptas made no efforts to impose
an effective control over their regions. Their control was effective as
long as powerful rulers occupied the Gupta throne and exercised their
authority effectively.
6. Crisis of succession or weak monarchs led local chiefs to declare
independence. This naturally resulted in constant military
preparedness that led to the crippling of the financial resources of the
Gupta Empire. Though Skandagupta thwarted the early attacks of
the Hunas, the struggle disrupted the international trade of
north-western India and eroded one of the most important financial
bases of the Guptas.
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7. By the end of the 5th century AD and beginning of the 6th century AD,
taking advantage of the chaotic condition of the Gupta Empire,
many regional powers asserted themselves by declaring independence.
Further, for some historians, another cause for the disintegration of
the Gupta Empire was the beginning of feudalization of the
polity, economy and society. They argue that this process of
feudalization with the issue of land grants first to religious and later to
secular beneficiaries resulted in loss of revenue and diminished
administrative control over the kingdom. Further, the growing
importance of Samantas weakened the central authority.
8. Another cause for the decline and disintegration of the Guptas is said
to be their tilt towards the asceticism of Buddhism during the reign of
Kumaragupta and Buddhagupta. It is suggested that the founding of
Nalanda University by Kumaragupta and of Buddhist learning and the
patronage extended by Buddhagupta are index of their tilt towards
Buddhism that advocates non-violence.
GUPTA ADMINISTRATION
Besides, the Guptas added other epithets claiming for themselves super-
human qualities which raised them almost to the level of gods. In fact, in the
Allahabad Pillar Inscription, Samudragupta is referred to as a god dwelling
on earth.
Kingship was hereditary, but royal power was limited by the absence of a
firm practice of primogeniture.
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The Guptas continued the traditional machinery of bureaucratic
administration but it was not as elaborate as that of the Mauryas. The
Mantri (chief-minister) stood at the head of civil administration. Among
other high imperial officers were included the Mahabaladikarta
(commander-in-chief), the Mahadandanayaka (general) and the
Mahapratihara (chief of the palace guards).
A high ranking official, heard for the first time in the Gupta records was
the Sandhivigrahika (the foreign minister).
A link between the central and the provincial administration under the
Guptas is furnished by the class of officers called Kumaramatyas and
Ayuktas.
The Kumaramatyas were the high officers and the personal staff of the
emperor and were appointed by the king in the home provinces and possibly
paid in cash. Recruitment was not confined to the upper varnas only and
several offices came to be combined in the hands of the same person, and
posts became hereditary. This naturally weakened the royal control.
The Ayuktas were entrusted with the task of restoring the wealth of kings
conquered by the emperor and sometimes placed in charge of districts or
metropolitan towns.
Rajya
Rashtra
Desha
Mandala
Prithvi
Avani.
It was divided into 26 provinces, which were styled as
Bhukti
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Pradesha
Bhoga.
The lowest unit of administration was the village. In eastern India, the
vishayas were divided into vithis, which again was divided into villages.
The Gramapati or Gramadhyaksha was the village head- man. The
Gupta inscriptions from north Bengal show that there were other units
higher than the villages such as the Rural Board
With the absence of any close supervision of the state, village affairs were
now managed by the leading local elements. No land transactions could be
affected without their consent. The village disputes were also settled by
these bodies with the help of Grama- vriddhas or Mahattaras (village
elders).
Revenue Administration
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Land revenue was the main source of the state’s income besides the fines.
In Samudragupta’s time there is instance of an officer Gopasramin
working as Akshapataladhikrita whose duty was to enter numerous
matters in the account’s registers, recover royal dues, to check
embezzlement and recover fines. Another prominent high official was
Pustapala (record-keeper). The Gupta kings maintained a regular
department for the proper survey and measurement of land as well as for
the collection of land revenue.
Gupta Economy
The agricultural crops constituted the main resources which the society
produced and the major part of the revenue of the state came from the
agriculture. It is argued by many scholars that the state was the exclusive
owner of the land. The most decisive argument in favor of the exclusive
state ownership of land is in the Paharpur copper plate inscription of
Buddhagupta. It appears that though the land was to all intents and
purposes that of the peasants, the king claimed its theoretical ownership.
The canals which were meant to prevent inundation were also mentioned by
Amarasimha as jalanirgamah. The tanks were variously called, according
to their sizes, as Vapi, tadaga and dirghula. Another method for irrigation
was the use of ghati-yantra or araghatta.
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The sources of the Gupta period suggest that certain important changes
were taking place in the agrarian society. Feudal development surfaced
under the Guptas with the grant of fiscal and administrative concessions to
priests and administrators. Started in the Deccan by the Satavahanas, the
practice became a regular affair in Gupta times.
Religious functionaries were granted land, free of tax, forever, and they were
authorized to collect from the peasants all the taxes which could have
otherwise gone to the emperor. Religious grants were of two types:
Social Developments
Land grants to the brahmanas on a large scale suggest that the brahmana
supremacy continued in Gupta times. The term dvija was now beginning to
be used increasingly for the brahmanas. The greater the emphasis on
brahmana purity the greater was the stress laid on the impurity of the
outcaste.
The Varna system seems to have been considerably modified owing to the
proliferation of castes.
The khastriya caste swelled up with the influx of the Hunas and
subsequently of the Gurjars who joined their ranks as Rajputs.
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The increase in the number of shudra castes and untouchables was largely
due to the absorption of backward forest tribes into the settled Varna
society. Often guilds of craftsmen were transformed into castes.
It has been suggested that transfers of lands or land revenues gave rise to a
new caste, that of the kayasthas (scribes) who undermined the monopoly of
the brahmanas as scribes.
The position of the shudras improved in this period and they were now
permitted to listen to the epics and the Puranas. They were also allowed to
perform certain domestic rites which naturally brought fee to the priests. All
this can be attributed to a change in the economic status of the shudras.
The Varna system did not always function smoothly. The Shanti Parva of
the Mahabharata, which may be assigned to the Gupta period, contains at
least nine verses which stress the need of combination of the brahmanas
and the kshatriyas; these may indicate some kind of concerted opposition
from the vaishyas and shudras. The Anushashana Parva of the
Mahabharata represents the shudras as destroyer of the king.
Most of the legal texts of the period took the Dharmashastra of Manu as
their basis and elaborated upon it. A number of such works were written
during this period, the best knows being those of Yajnavalkya, Narada,
Brihaspati and Katyayana.
The joint family system, which became an essential feature of Hindu caste-
society, was prevalent at the time.
Status of Women
The status of women continued to decline. In a patriarchal set-up the
men began to treat women as items of property, so much so that a woman
was expected to follow her husband to the next world. The practice of sati
(self- immolation at the funeral pyre of the husband) gained approval of the
jurists. But it seems to have been confined to the upper classes. The first
memorial of a sati dated A.D. 510 is found at Eran Inscription in
Madhya Pradesh.
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Lawgivers of the period, almost unanimously advocated early marriage;
some of them preferred even pre-puberty marriage. Celibacy was to be
strictly observed by widows.
Women were denied any right to property except for stridhana in the form of
jewellery, garments, and similar other presents made to the bride on the
occasion of her marriage. They were not entitled to formal education.
In the Gupta period, like shudras, women were also allowed to listen to
epics and the Puranas, and advised to worship Krishna. But women of
higher orders did not have access to independent sources of livelihood in
pre-Gupta and Gupta times. The fact that women of the two lower varnas
were free to earn their livelihood gave them considerable freedom, which was
denied to women of the upper varnas.
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HISTORY
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