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MODERN HISTORY
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3 Social Reforms 18 – 24
6 Partition of Bengal 28 – 30
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INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY:
History has been rightly defined as ‘continues interaction between present and the past’ by
E. H. Carr. And Truly, it is essential to know history to understand the present of any society,
economy, polity, civilization and soon. Thus in order to know the contemporary India, we
must have the background of modern Indian history and Indian freedom struggle. Indian
constitution, present day Indian politics and ideologies behind it, Indian economy and
phenomenon of poverty and deprivation in it and some of the sacrosanct principles in Indian
public life like freedom of speech and expression, freedom of religion, press freedom etc.
are a direct culmination of values cherished during freedom struggle. This makes study of
Indian freedom struggle more pertinent.
British East India Company was the first East India Company founded in 1600. Following
were the different East India Companies.
Dutch East India company established its first factory in India in Masulipattanam in 1605.
In 1599, the first British who came to India by land route was John Mildenhall as a
ambassador of East India Company.
The East India Company was granted an Engliish royal Charter by Queen Elizabeth –
I on December 31st, 1600 under the name “Governor and company of merchants of
London trading in to the East Indies”.
British abandoned Armagaon in 1638 and innediately next year in 1639 British
founded Fort Saint george which was completed on 23 rd Aprill coinciding with Saint
George’s Day and which was celebreated in honour of England that is Saint George
- First Carnatic war was a part of war of Austrian succession that was fought between
kingdom of Prussia, Spain, France, Bavaria, Sweden, etc on one side and England,
Dutch, Hansburg monarchy on the other side.
- Treaty of Aux – la –Chapella (1748) could not bring any substantial settlement with
regard to the commercial struggle between Britain and France in Indian (Territory).
- The First Carnatic War in India began with the appearing of a British fleet on the
Coramandel coast (1745). French Governor Dupleix induced Nawab of Arcot for
interventaion but the Nawab decided an impartial policy. Initially British captured a
few French ships, the French called for backup from Mauritius under the command of
bertrand Francois, a French Squadron in 17416. In September 1746, French captured
the Madreas without any opposition and all British there were made prisoners of war
including Robert Clive.
- The Nawab of Arcot had adopted the impartial policy but ot dirve British out of the
Madreas, he marched with 10000 soldires towards St. George but he was defeated.
- The negotiations about the fate of Madras took so much time to let Robert Clive
escape from St. George to Fort St. David.
- British fleet arrived in 1748under Admiral Boscuwen and attempted the siege of
Pondicherry. Major Stringer Lawrence led land force of Company who was the first
Commander in – chief, India.
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- Nizam of Hyderabad Asaf Jah – I died in 1748 and then civil war for succession broke
out. This war of succession was nothing but the Second Carnatic War.
- Both English and French Companies backed rival candidated to the Nawbship.
French wanted to reduce growiing influence of English in the Carnatic and hence
they supported Chanda Sahib(Hussain Dost Khan) against Muhammad Anwaruddin
supported by the British.
- French allied with Muzafar Jung and Chanda Sahib to brign them into power
respectively at Hyderabed and Arcot.
- On the other hand, British supported Nasir Jund and Nwab Muhammad Anwaruddin.
Muhammad Anwaruddin was killed in Ballte with French at Ambur in 1749. Then,
British supported Muhammad Ali Khan Wajah, the son of the Muhammad
Anwaruddin.
- In the famous Siege of Aroct, Robert Clive led the British troops to capture Arcot and
he was successful in that. In this way, Muhammad Ali Khan Wajah was recognized as
the Nawab of Aroct. The War Ended With The Treaty Of Pondicherry. This siege of
Arcot (1751) was a heroic feat more important than the Battle of Plassey.
In the form of seven years war, conflict between England and France was renewed in
1756. This third Carnatic War put an end to the ambitions of French to create a colonial
empire in India.
- Unlike the earlier two Carnatic wars which were limited to Deccan only, this war
spread in Bengal also. British forces captured French sattlements at Chandernager in
1757.
- British army soon established their control over the full use of new resources and
French were decisively defeated in the Battle of Wandiwash on 2nd January, 1760 and
besieged Pondicherry.
- This war ended with the signing of the 1763. The French were given the tradign
rights. Pondicherry was also restored to them.
BRITISH CONQUEST :
- THE British were motivated by the desire to control all rich resources of the province
of Bengal.
- Local bankers and merchants also supported British; because their own interests
were closely connected with those of East India company.
- Mubhal Emperor Farrukhsiyar Granted a farman in 1717 due to which company
enjoyed great privileges’ in Bengal.
- Without paying ant taxes, they could export and import goods from Bengal. Also they
exercise right to issue passes (Dastaks) for movement for such goods. This farman
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meant loss of revenue to Government of Bengal and also power to issue dastaks were
misused by company servants to evade taxes on their private trade.
- Company also started levying large duties on goods coming into the Calcutta.
- Murshid Quli Khan, Sarfarz Khan and Alivardi Khan, all these Nawabs of Bengal
objected to misuse of farman given by Emperor. They firmly suppressed the misuse
of dastaks as well.
- Under the regime of Siraj –ud- Daula, the company openly abused the trading rights
intrigues against the Nawab. British also had begun to fortify Calcutta. But the Nawab
rightly interpreted it was challenge to his sovereignty.
- French had their trading station at Chandranager near Calcutta. Therefore, Nawab
Siraj –ud – Duala ordered both French and British to demolish their fortifications.
French agreed the Nawab’s but on the other hand British refused to do that. That is
why Nawab attacked and took Calcutta in 1756 without much opposition.
- 146 British prisoners were thrown into a tiny room out of which20 died due to
suffocation. (The room later known as The Black Hole)
- Due to this force under Robert Clive was immediately sent to Bengal. Siraj – ud –
Daula done nothing to consolidate his gains. Clive breached neutrality and then he
captured Chandernagar.
- Mir Jafar was chosen as puppet to replaced Siraj –ud –Daula. In May 1757 British
Calcutta Council made a secret treaty with Mir Jafar promising to replace Siraj – ud-
daula by him.
- Finally on 23 rd June 1757, the Battle was fought between forces of Siraj – ud – daula,
his French support troops and Robert Clive led British forces on other had, at Plassey
100km north of Plassy.
- Nawab forces were defeated in this battle.
- Once the company had won their victory at Plassey, successive Nawabs Mir Jafar and
Mir Qasim were exposed to a series of demands which destroyed their authority
within 10 years.
- The decisive Battle of Buyxar was fought on 22nd 23 rd October, 1764. The
berlligerents were the East India Company on one side and combined forces of Mir
Kasim (Nawab of Bengal), Emperor Shah Alam –II and Shuja –ud – Daula (Nawab of
Awadh) on the other had. This alliance was thoroughly defeated.
4. Mir Kasim also fled and he died a few years later in extreme obscurity.
The Battle of Buxar ended with the Treaty of Allhabad.
Treaty of Allahabad was signed between Lord Clive and Mughal Emperor Shah
Alam –II who had submitted to the British in the Battle of Buxar.
- Under this Treaty, Mughal Emperor granted Diwani rights to British Company.
Diwani rights means right to administer the territory and collect taxes to the East
India Company at Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
- In lieu of this Right, the Company gave an annual tribute of 26 lakhs Ruppes to the
mughals.
- The district of Kora and Allahabad were returned to Mughal Emperor.
- Awadh was returned to Shuja –ud – daula but Allhabad and Kora were taken from
him.
- The Nawab of Awadh paid 53 lakhs ruppes of war indemnity to the British.
In 1770, there was a catastrophic famine in Bengal. Its effect proved one of the most
terrible famines known in human History. Every 1 out 3 people in Bengal died and the
population of 30 million reduced to 10 million.
In the Battle of Panipat (1761), the Marathas got defeated. But still the Marathas managed to
overcome this crisis and they recovered their control over Delhi after a decade. However
old Maratha confederacy controlled by Peshwa had given way to five virtually independent
states.
1. Peshwa at Pune
2. Gaikwads at Baroda
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3. Bhosale at Nagpur
4. Holkars at Indore
5. Sindhias at Gwalior
Internal rivalries weakened Peshwa’s government and remaining four leaders were often
hostile to one another; even though the Marathas were still a formidable power.
(immediately after the Battle of Panipat, third Peshwa of Mrathas Balj Bajirao died. He was
succeeded by his son Mdhavrao I. Uncle Raghunathrao assisted him in the administrative
affairs. Conflict arose between Mdhavrao –I and Raghunathrao. Madhavrao-I died shortly
due to Tuberculosis. His brother Narayanrarobecame the next Peshwa who was murdered
by Raghunathrao in 1773. Finally Raghunathrao became the Peshwa.
Gangabai, the widow of late Narayanrao gave birth to son named Sawai Mdhavrao.
Twelve Maratha chief led by Nana Phadnavis, one of the ministers of the late Narauanrao
conspired to make sawai Madhavrao as the new peshwa.
Subsidiary Alliance:
Developed during the governor –generalship of Lord Wellesly.Company kept her army
near the boundaries of Indian state for protection of state& collected fee annually.
Due to this Indian states lost their sovereignty & states were not be appointed as heir. He
divided states into 3 categories.
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Permanent settlement was introduced in 1793 by Lord Corwallies in Bengal and Bihar
Zamindars and revenue collectors were converted into landlords who not only acted as
government agents but also became the owners of the entire land in their Zamindaris.
Their ownership right was made hereditary and transferable.
Zamindars gave 10/11 th of the rent they collected from the peasantry to the state and
kept 1/11 th for themselves but the land revenue sum paid them was fixed in perpetuity.
Even if the crop frailed because fo some reason, the zamindar had to pay his revenue
rigidly on the date, otherwise his land was to be sold.
It the rental of a zamindar’s estate is increased due to improvement in agriculture or his
capacity to extract from his tenants or any other reason, zamindar would keep the entire
amount of increase.
Initially the settlement was made for ten years in 1790 but on March 22 nd. 1793 the
settlement was fixed to last forever.
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Reed and Munro pointed out that under permanent settelement the company was a
financial loser as it had to share collected revenue with the zamindars and also, the
company could claim a share of growing income from the land.
Under Ryotwari System, the land revenue was directly collected from peasants as Ryot
itself.
Ryotaar System of revenue collection was implemented in Madras, Malabar,
Colmbatore, Karnool.
In this system peasants were made the owner of the land and 50% of the net produce
was fixed as land revenue.
Due to this system, government retained the right to enhance land revenue at will and
the Ryot had to pay revenue even when his produce was partially or completely
destroyed by flood or drought.
Charles Wood was a British Liberal politician and Member of Parliament. He served as
Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1846 to 1852. Later he became the President of the Board
of Control of the East Indian Company. In 1854 he sent the “Wood’s dispatch” to the
Governor General Lord Dalhousie.
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Revolt of 1857
India’s initial response to East India Co.’s colonial rule was not a united response. Different
sections of society responded to it in a different way. For example, middle classes took to
western education and newly emerging professions like government services as well as
legal practice. But major sections of society like peasants, artisans, people working in army
of East India co. and rural peasantry were strongly unhappy and there was a dormant
volcano lying under the crest of society, which outburst with proper opportunity in 1857.
‘Royal Enfield’ gun brought into use of company’s army was believed to have covering
made of fat of cow and pig which are respectively sacred for Hindus and absolutely
untouchable for Muslims. This resulted in unrest in company’s army. And finally it resulted
in Mangal Pande’s individual heroism of assassinating British officials at Barackpur on 29th
march, 1857; followed by his brief trial and hanging on 8th April, 1857.
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Leaders of revolt:
Delhi – Bahadur Shah jafar (mughal emperor in 80s who couldn’t participate in war) +
Bakhtkhan (Bahadur Shah’s general)
There have been lot of discussions and debated about the ideological interpretations of the
revolt. There are two main schools of thought regarding the interpretations of the1857, one
suggesting that 1857 was India’s first freedom struggle and the other suggesting that it was
just a ‘mutiny of sepoys’ fuelled by local anger of sepoys in the army and their immediate
and local causes. However the former view seems to have prevailed in Indian historical
discourse, in recent times. Another novel interpretation of 1857 being ‘a jihad’ has been
recently putforth by an eminent historian in Maharashtra.
Leaders of Revolt:
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1857 – 1885
After the ‘Revolt of 1857’, British learned their lessons and consequently devised
their policies through legislations such as ‘Good Government of India Act 1858’, Indian
council Act 1861’ to name a few. British reorganized army i.e. they increased number of
native soldiers reduced from (2,38,000 to 1, 40, 000); proportion between the European and
Indian troops was fixed at 1 : 2 in Bengal Presidency and at 1 : 3 in Bombay and Madras
presidencies. Aftermath 1857, the policy of subordinate Union (1857 – 1835) was followed
with the Indian Presidency state it took the form of British India Finance capitalism.
The Act of 1858 did not restructure administration significantly, only control of Indian
administration was transferred from the East India Company to the Crown. There was
provision for the appointment of secretary of state with an advisory body popularly called –
India office.
Some of the developments that took place in 1860-1861 laid the foundations of future
British policies and thereby future of the British Empire. These developments are:
1. In 1860: Income tax Act (By James Wilson) the first budget (in modern sense) of
Government of India was represented the same year.
2. 1861 : Indian Penal code (IPC) came into effect.
3. 1861 : Archaeological Survey of India was established and Alexander Cunningham
was made its head.
4. 1681 : Indian Council Act 1861, it was the modest beginning of parliamentary System
in India. Let us see what it contained.
It added a fifth member, who was to be jurist, to the Executive council of the Governor,
General.
It expanded the Governor – General’s Executive Council by addition of “not less than 6
and not more than 12” additional ‘members, at least half of whom were to be non-
officials.
1. The very purpose to establish closer contact with the public opinion was undermined by
act itself. Indian members were only given non- official positions in legislative work.
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And these members were either big landlords or Princes of the princely states who
seldom represented public opinion.
2. The non- official members could hardly play any role. No questions could be asked and
the budget could not be discussed.
3. Although the legislative powers of provincial legislative councils (e.g. Bombay
Presidency etc.) were restored but Governor – General’s prior approval had to be
obtained in majority of the decisions. Governor General (Viceroy) could issue
ordinances too.
Having several defects, Act of 1861 made modest beginning towards decentralization.
Thereafter British followed policy of decentralization an administration. Of course it did
not come easy way, Indians struggled and compelled British to decentralization during
the time frame of 1857 – 1920:
We already discussed Indian council Act 1861. Under this act legislative councils
were setup in the provinces. Lord Mayo popularly hailed for financial decentralization,
in 1870 introduced the system of provincial Finance. Several Municipal Acts were
passed in 1870s constituting corresponding Municipalities. Even hated (by Indian
people) and infamous Lord Lytton followed (or have to follow) policy of financial
devolution. In 1877 provincial governments were given the control of expenditure on
financial services like excise, land revenue reforms, law and justice etc. and also
handed over some specified sources of revenue (e.g. excise, license fee etc) from their
respective provinces. The powers of provincial legislative councils were enlarged by
the Indian council Act 1892. The process was carried further through enactment Indian
council Act 1909. The Government of India Act 1919 introduced ‘dyarchy’ in the
provinces i.e. Provincial subjects were divided into two parts – the ‘Reserved”
Transferred.”
The middle class, remained alien to Revolt of 1887,began to lead the struggle. This
western educated class initially believed in British sense of justice, but to their despair
they observed discrimination in various fields and in each field including Justice, Army,
Press etc. they felt this feeling of disillusionment (despair) deeply when they realized
exploitative nature of British imperialism & colonialism. Among them were Dadabhai
Naoroji., M. G. Rnade, R.C. Dutt who educated public opinion. These nationalist pointed
out that India’s capital and wealth was being ‘drained’ to Britain in the from of salaries
and Pensions of British officials working in India, Interest on loans taken by the Indian
Government, profits of British Capitalists in India, and the Home chares or expenses of
the Indian Government in Britain.
Despite the words of nationalist leader, true nature of British Raj and its colonialism
ws not realized by downtrodden and peasants in 19th century peasant movements in
India and 20th century peasant movements is that former lacked an adequate
understanding of colonialism. The peasant (in 19th century) often rebelled only when he
felt that it was not possible to carry on in the existing manner. He was ready to pay rent
but resent undue enhancement of rent and evictions.
After the revolt in Indian political sphere change happened gradually, it took time to
educate and form a public opinion. The public opinion was also shaped by religious
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awakening and social reform movements. These movements are of the form: Revivalist
or Reformist. Works of keshavchandra sen,Mahatma Jyotiba Phule , Swami Dayanand
Saraswati, Ramkrishna Pramhans, Swami Vivekannanda etc .were remarkable. They
provided necessary impetus for political work, ideology & practice. In 1866 East India
association was established in London. In 1967 Poona Sarvajnik Sabha was set up in
Maharashtra, whereas in Bengal Mohan Bose and Surendranath Banerjee.
Repressive policies of Lord Lytton spread unrest which was blessings in disguise, as
Arms Act, Vernicular Press Act, lowering eligibility age of civil services united Indians
protesting against them. Path towards National Political Organization.
The ida of National political organization was there, only it had to be given a concrete
shape. Efforts were made, for Instance, in 1877 the Poona Sarvjanik Sabha had urged the
representativfes of Bombay and Bengal to work together and the following year sent a
deputation to Calcutta. And the following year sent a deputation to Calcutta. The Indian
Association of Calcutta (Kolkata ) had plans to hold national conference. In 1883 Telang
went from Bombay to Calcutta to arrange for ‘more political concert’ between Calcutta
dn Bombay.
Ilbert Bill controversy exposed British, and provided necessary stir to Speding up the
process of formation of common national Political organization. During 1883-84 the
various local associations in the presidency towns were forging towards unity. The effort
of the Indian Association in general & Shri. Surendranath Benerjee in organizing the
Indian National conference. The second National conference was arranged during X-
mas week of 1885. The rise of Indian National Congress caught imagination of the nation,
specially in earlier time of learned men & women.
1) Lord Lytton promulgated the Vernacular press Act (1878) which imposed severe
restrictions on the vernacular press –a major instrument in the hands of the
intelligentsia in spreading nationalist ideas.
2) He wanted toward the seditious ambitions of the western educated elite.
Education in India:
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6) Modern education was also the medium for spread of modern science and ideas of
equality and liberty.
7) The printing press revolutionized the educational system in tehat the emphasis
shifted from personal, oral communication to impersonal communication of idea
through books, journals and other media.
8) Modern education was gradually thrown open to al castes, religious groups and to
women.
9) Education opportunities helped one to acquire the necessary skills outside caste.
Occupations thus become a relatively independent element.
1) Delhi- Area region in 1860-61 suffered from great Famine. Col Baird Committee
appointed to investigate the causes of famine but his committee performed no
function and did not put forward any significant recommendation because of this
basic factors and forces responsible for the famine remained intact.
2) In 1866 a great famine affected all India but its impact was mainly in Orissa. The
government appointed George Campbell Commission to investigate the causes of
famine and to recommend measures to prevent recurrences in future. committee
held government system responsible for creating the famine like conditions and
suggested that the government during famine times must organize the relief
measures.
3) Due to ignorance of the recommendations of Cambell committee, serious famine
reoccurred in many parts of country including Punjab, UP and Madras in 1876.
4) In accordance with the recommendation of Strachey Commission famine fund with
amount Rs. 1 crore was set up and famine code was also formulated in 1883. This
code has 4 parts. The first part of the code dealt with the government measures
during the normal times. The second part dealt with relief campaing. The third part
dealt with the duties of officials during relief measures. The fourth part dealt with the
division of famine – affected areas.
5) In spite of the formaulation to famine policy and its implementation a number of
famines struck India repeatedly. A severe famine occurred in 1896-97 and another
famine occurred in 1899-1900. The government of Lord Curzon appointed Anthony
McDonald Committee in 1900 to suggest measures to counter the famine effectively.
6) In 1942-43 a severe famine struck the Bengal regaion. The government appointed
John Woodhad Committee. The Committee recommended that all Indian Food
Council should be set up. The dept of food and agriculture should be merged and
steps should be taken to increase agriculture production. Though British government
initiated number of steps but these steps failed to improve the condition of Indian
masses in any way.
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Social Reforms
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL REFORMS:
With the coming of Britiths, not only the political and social set up of Indian society radically
and fundamentally transformed but also there was a great churning in social and religious
spheres. Work of Christian missionaries in India and deliberate attempts of the British to
spread western values made Indians in three ways: viz.
Brahmo Samaj:
Prarthana Samaj:
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1) Sir Ayed Ahmed Khan was a British Govt Servant & supporter of British Rule.
2) He wanted to remove the bitter enmity between Muslims & British Ruler.
3) Bring Muslims in conformity with modern science and philosophy.
4) Persuade Muslims to receive modern education and enter the services.
5) In 1862 he founded the Scientific Society to translate and publish scientific works in
Urdu to familiarize the people with modern science
6) Established Mohmmedan Anglo – Oriental College at Aligarh in 1875 which later
became Aliharh Muslim University.
Arya Samaj:
1) Founded in 1875 by Swami Dayanand Saraswati.
2) Reformation in Hindu religion in north India.
3) Believe in one God & worshipped in Spirit not in Images.
4) He held the Vedas to be infallible and the fountain of all knowledge.
5) “Sayarth Prakash” book written by Dayanand Sarawati
6) Guiding 10 principles : Study Vades & other related to tenets of Virtue & Morality.
7) There was no room for caste distinctions and social inequality.
8) Opposed child marriage and encouraged remarriage of widows.
9) A network of schools and colleges was established throughout northern Indian to
promote the objects of Arya Samaj
10) The Dayanand Anglo – Vedic School of Lahore which soon developed into a premier
college of Punjab set the pattern for such institutions.
11) His mover for the reconversion of those Hindus who had been converted. For this
purpose a purificatory ceremony called Shuddhi was prescribed.
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1) Emancipation of women.
2) In 1856 law was passed permitting widow remarriage.
3) In 1860 raised the marriageable age of girls to ten.
4) Many superstitions also began to disappear.
5) The reform movements contributed a great deal to the birth of Indian nationalism.
6) The reform activities united people and the attack on institutions like caste which
hampered social unity created a sense of oneness in the people.
Limitations:
1) The questions to which they gave primacy concerned only small section sof Indian
society.
2) Some of them failed to emphasize or even recognize that colonizal to the interests of
the Indian people.
3) Most of them worked within the framework of their respective communities in a way
tended to promote identities based on religion or caste.
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1)Under the leadership of Sidhu and Knhu thousands of Santhals revolted against the
oppressive British and their local Indian collaborations.
Events like the passage of the Vernacular Press Act in 1878 and the IIert Bill of 1882,
as well as the reduction of the age limit for the Civil Services Exams in 14876 resulted in a
wave of opposition from the middle class Indians. Consequently some of them came
together and formed a number of small political parties that came out in the streets fro
protests and rallies. The British foresaw the situation resulting in another rebellion on the
pattern of the War of Independence of 1857. To avoid such a situation, the British decided to
provide an outlet to the local people where they could discuss their political problems. In
order to achieve this goal, Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant, had a series
of meetings with Lord Dufferin, the Vioceroy. Hume also had the support of a large number
of Englishmen in India, including Sir William wedderbun, George Yule and Charles
Bradlaugh.
On his return from Britain, Hume consulted the local Indian leaders and started
working towards the establishment of an Indian political organization. He invited the
convention of the Indian National Union, an organization he had already formed in 1884, to
Bombay in 1884, to Bombay in December 1885. Seventy delegates, most of whom were
lawyers, educationalists and journalists, attended the convention in which the Indian
National Congress was established. This first session of Congress was presided over by
Womesh Chandra Banerjee and he was also elected as the first president of the
organization.
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Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, who was invited to attend the Bombay session, refused the
offer. He also urged the Muslims to abstain from the Congress activities and
predicated that the party would eventually become a Hindu party and would only
look after the interests of the Hindus. Syed Ameer Ali, another important Muslim
figure of the era, also refused to join Indian National Congress.
(1885-1905)
By 1885, a stage had been reached in the political development of India when
collective efforts were felt strongly necessary to accomplish certain objectives. Inspired by
these objectives, leaders practicing different political trends, convictions and ideologies
had met on 28 December 1885 at Gawalia Tank Ground in Bombay (now Mumbai) to initiate
a new chapter of our history.
Mr.A.O. Hume. A liberal retired official of the Government of India had helped to
give practical, definite shape to an all – India had helped to give practical, definite shape to
an all- India organization. British authorities were still in ‘Mutiny complex’ those days,
observing it from close quarters; political workers adopted a strategy that did not arouse
official hostility. Such cooperation form British noblemen and early nationalist’s viewpoint of
apprehension that anarchy and disorder would prevail in India if British Government was
superceded --- was looked on with suspicion by many of the liberals, Extremists and even
historians. And it is held that Indian National Congress was established by the likes of A. O.
Hume under the direction of Lord Dufferin, Viceroy, to provide a safe constitutional outlet for
the rising discontent among the masses. The theory. But it is a myth. The official attitude
stiffened after 1887 and Lord Dufferin challenged the national character of the Congress as
representing only ‘microscopic minority’ and its demands as ‘a big jump into the unknown’.
Had he directed to use Congress as a safety valve, he would not have willingness to oppose
Congress’ propaganda and that too only after two years from its establishment.
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Methods:
Use of Press
It was obvious to use press to propagate anti- imperialist ideas and to educate people as
one third of the founding fathers of the Congress were journalist. Also initially, the
congress had no formal Structural set up for carrying on political work. Naturally press
was a handy medium to propagate its resolutions and proceedings. Newspapers also
became view papers, some of the contributors were –
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The Hindu and Swadesamitran under the editorship of G.Subramaniya Iyer, Bengalee
under Surendranath Banerjee, Voice of India under Dadabhai Naoroji etc. (It is historical
fact that Extremist leaders used the press more effectively. Best example: B.G. Tilak)
Newspapers played an institutional role of opposition to the Government policies were
severely criticized. In Villages educated people read it for whole community which
included majority of illiterates. In this way mild beginning of political participation was
started.
Propaganda in Legislatures:
Indian Council Act 1892 only appeased and not satisfied Moderate’s demands. But
still nationalist leadership with their limited powers in legislature, used legislative
proceedings for ventilating grievances, exposing the shortcomings of bureaucracy and
defects in the government policies. Nationalist leaders like P.M. Mehta, G.K. Gohale. Etc.
used Legislative Councils to enhance their own political stature and build a national
movement.
Assessment of moderates
A. Contribution
1. Moderates introduced modern politics, politics of prayer, petition and memorials
was new for Indian people. They laid the foundations of politicization of people.
2. The word ‘Congress’ was borrowed from American history which means an
assembly of people. The Congress was organized in the form of Parliament and
sessions were conducted democratically through debate and discussions over all the
issues. It was indeed the great work of the Congress, and not the British State, to
imbibe, popularize Parliamentary democracy in India.
3. Moderate leaders assessed the economic impact of British Raj on India. They focused
public attention on the fact of Indian poverty and explained that this poverty was
largely due to the colonial exploitation of India’s economic resources by Britain.
4. Their main practical achievements were:
Appointment of a public service commission in 1886.
Enactment of the Indian Councils Act 1892.
Resolution of the House of Commons in 1893 for simultaneous examination for the
I.C.S in London and India.
Appointment of Welby (Royal) Commission on Indian Expenditure.
5. Judging by the objectives set their achievements are quite substantial as they laid
strong foundation for national movement, politicized public and evolved anti-
colonial ideology.
B. Criticism
1. Although Moderates evolved and developed anti-colonial ideology, they failed to
understand the character of the colonial state in the beginnings.
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2. Their political style was widely criticized as ‘political mendicancey’. For instance,
Lala Lajpat Rai wrote: “It was at best an opportunist movement. It opened
opportunities for treacheries and hypocrites. It enabled some people to trade in the
name of patriotism”.
3. Their loyalty to the Crown was also subject matter of criticism. Their belief that India
lacked some of the essential elements which constituted a nation and British rule kept
them together was widely criticized by ardent nationalists & Extremists.
4. They did not reach to the masses. Their reach was limited, they initially politicized
educated Indians. And so, the Marxist interpretations held them responsible to hold
interest of capitalist class.
Nowtwithstanding this criticism, as eminent historian Bipan Chandra puts it ---
“They (moderates) rooted their nationalism in a hard – headed and penetrating
analysis of the complex mechanism of modern imperialism and the chief contractions
between the interests of the Indian people and British Rule
Inspite of their many failures the early nationalists laid strong foundations for the
national movement to grow upon and that they deserve a high place among the
maker of modern India”.
One of the earnest achievements of moderates, during period under review (1885 -
1905): Indian council Act 1892. We will have a look at it.
i) The Act of 1892 fell short of fulfilling the demands made by the Congress. Nature
of British Rule remained as before: despotism.
ii) Elections were indirect. Principle of election implemented ensured that Governor
would have final say and election is reduced to mere nomination as Governor
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could accept or reject indirectly elected member who got elected through district
boards, chamber of commerce etc (i.e. given electorate). The rules of election
were unsatisfactory. Certain classes were over – represented while others did not
get any representation at all.
iii) Annual Budget could be discussed but members were neither allowed to vote nor
to move a motion to amend it.
iv) Supplementary questions could not be asked. Even questions had to put with
certain conditions (restrictions) imposed, on matters of public interest, and prior
notice had to be given (six days prior). And still any question could be disallowed
without assigning any reason.
In this way Act of 1892 was not intended to mark the beginnings of parliamentary
system in India, nevertheless, it was a definite milestone on the road that led to
the establishment of Parliamentary Government later on.
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- British accepted very few of the reforms for which early nationalsit agatated.
- During this phase, moderates did not assign an important role to the masses in the
struggle.
- There was concentration of this political activity in the presidencies only.
- Most ot them were criticised because of their slow methods.
- Another major drawback was for moderates politics remained as part time affair.
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PARTION OF BENGAL
- The partition of the Bengal was the most unpopular measure of Lord Curzon during
his viceroyalty. The reson given by Curzon was that, the province of Bengal was too
big unwieldy to be administered by a single provincial government effectively.
But the main motive behind the partition plan was the Carzon’s desire to weaken the
Bengal which was ht enave centre of Indian nationalism at that time. The
government’s decision of partition of Bengal had been made public in Dec. 1903. The
Bengal was partitioned into two parts viz
a) Eastern Bengal and Assam Which indluded Chittagong, Dacca & Rajshahi
Divisions Hill Tippera & Malda apart from Assam and
b) The rest of Bengal.
With the partition Bengalis were not only divided into two parts but also felle
under minority in Bengal itself. Curzon aimed to prop up all Muslim communities
as a counter to Indian National Congress and split the Indian community.
- The partition of Bengal formally came into force on Oct. 16, 1905. Down to the last day
before the partition, moderates intensively used their conventional methods. But they
failed to won the British favour.
- Swadeshi literally means ‘of one’s own country’.
- To promote Indian interpirse and industry and to generate partiotism, swadeshi
movemtn implied theat people should use goods produced within India.
- Swadeshi and Boycott were comlementary to each other.
- Advocacy of ‘Boycott’ also accompanied the promotion of swadeshi.
- By organising Boycott of Foreign goods. Britains economic interests could be hurt
and the Brititsh Government could be forced to concede to the Indian demands.
The ‘day of mourning’ was declared on the actual day of partition throughout the
Bengal. In the houses chullahs wre kept unlit. All the people tied rakhis on each
other’s hand as a symbol of unity.
it was decided to annual the partition on Bengal in 1911 mainly to curb th emenace of
revolutionary terrorism.
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- Extremists wanted Tilak of Lajput Rai as president buton the other hand moderates
wanted dadabhai Naorojee as president. Dadabhai elected as a president who was
widely respected by all the nationalists
- The word swaraj was first time used in the congress session but its meaning was
differently interpreted by moderates and Extremists.
- 1907: Extremists wanted 1907 session to be held in Nagpur but moderates wanted it
to be held in Surat to exculde Tilak from Presidency because a leader from the host
province could not be session president and likely to drop resolutions of swadesh,
- Boycott and national education. Both sides were not ready for compromise, so split
became inevitable.
- For extremists, final battle for freedom had began as the people had been aroused
and it was a time for a big push. They felts, moderates had exhausted their historical
role and they were a big drag on the movement.
- Moderates on the other hand were determined to part Company with extremists.
Because in they knew to remain with extremists was a danger. Differences between
moderates and extremists.
Moderates Extremists
1) Zamindars and upper middle Educated middle and lower middle
classes in towns is the social base. classes in towns are social base.
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Also British policy of carrot and stick helped in the Surat split.
- Provisions:
1. The act formally introduced the principle of elections for the first time.
2. The size of the legislative council (both provincial and state) increased due to this
act. Members in the central legislative council were increased from 16 to 60. But the
various provincial legislative councils had different number of members.
3. It allowed provincial legislative councils to had non – official majority but retained
official majority in the central legislative council.
4. At both central and provincial level, act enlarged the deliberative function of
legislative councils viz, members were allowed to ask supplementary questions more
resolutions on the budget etc.
5. Association of Indians with the executive councils of the viceroy and governors was
provided. Appointing as law member, satyndra Prasad Sinha became first Indian to
join viceroy’s executive council .
6. The act introduced a system of communal representation for Muslims through
separate electorates. Separate electorate means Muslim members were to be
elected only by Muslim voters i.e. legalization of communalism and from then –
viceroy minto comes to knows as ‘father of communal electorate’.
7. This act also provided for the separate representation of presidency corporations,
universities, rramindas and chambers of commerce professional classes etc.
- Groth of militant nationalism gave rise of the revolutionary terrorism in India which
acquired a more activist form after the fall of Swadeshi and Boycott movement.
- Few nationalist leaders along with several news papers viz. ‘Sandhya’ and
‘yugantar’(Bengal) & ‘Kal’ secretly began to advocated revolutionary terrorism after
1905.
- Henchandra Kanugo of Anushilan samiti was one of the most remarkable figure
among first generation of revolutionaries. He went abroad to get military training. A
combined regllous school and a bomb factory was set up after his return in 1908.
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All India Muslim league was founded at the end of 1906 in Dacca by a group of Big
Zamindars ex bureaucrats & appear class muslim like Agakhan. The Nawab of Dacca &
Nawab Mohanshin – al – mulk.
- It supparated the partition of Bengal always raised the slogans for separated muslims
interests & demanded special safeguards for muslims in the government sewices.
- In 1908, a branch of muslimes laeg was set up by Amir Ali in London.
- Its main task, was to keep emerging intelligentsia among the muslims form joining
the Indian national congress.
- Their activities werw anti- congress & anti Hindus but not anti – British. In 1912, a
brilliant congress leader M.A. Jinnah was invited to join muslim League which
advited setting up of self – government as one of its objective.
1920 – 1947
Gandhiji returned to in India on 9th Jan 1915. Lokmanya Tilak passed away on 1st
August 1920. Sesequently the leadership of Indian National congress undisputedly passed in
the hands of Mahatma Gandhi. After his return to India he had given more importance to
programmes of rural reconstruction, use of Khadi etc.
ROWLATT ACT:
The Government passed the Rovlatt act in addition to the continuation of its carrot
and stick policy in early 1919. Most of the Indian members of Legislative council opposed it
but the Government was firm on its decision. This act gave government was firm on its
decision. This act gave government right to detain and arrest anyone without presenting
him/her before magistrate for the maximum period of two years.
Not aware of the banning on the meetings on Baisakhi Day 13th April 1919 unarmed
crowd was gathered in the Jalianwala Bagh in Amritsar in Punjab. The park was enclosed
from all the sides. General Dyer’s troops fired upon the unarmed crowd. Gandhiji started
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Background:
Indians had participated in the First World War on behalf of British Govt. and had
fought valiantly across the globe. The political ambitions in India were high post war, with
Indians demanding their rightful share government.
The congress which had split in Surat session in 1907 came together once at Lucknow
in 1916. The Muslim League and Congress also kept aside their differences to make a ‘patch
– up’.
The Home Rule movement was beinning to take shape. The British Govt. at this stage
decided to send Secretary of State Lord Montagu to India to discuss the next political
installment. In August, 1917, Montagu made his declaration which was hailed by some as the
‘Magna Charta’ of India but criticized by many for falling short of the Indian ambilitions. The
idea of ‘Self Government’ was put in ambiguously without a clear road map.
Meanwhile, Gandhiji, who had returned from Africa in 1915, began to take active part
in Indian politics in with Kheda, Ahmedabad Satygraha.
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The British Government had decided to enact a stringent law to put check to
Revolutionary Terrorism. The infamous ‘Rowlett Act was seen by Congress as the ultimate
repressive tool and they decided to protest against it.
Gandhi’s innovative way ‘Satyagrah’ was used to protest which attracted severe
repression from British government. Marshal law was imosed at various places. In Amrutsar,
on the 14th April 1919, General Dayer ordered and executed the most inhuman massacre at
Jalianwala Bagh. The incident shook the Indian minds. Protest arose in entire nation with
Tagore returning his Knighthood.
At the same time the issue of Caliph of Turkstan was burning up. So Gandhiji, who
had become an important leader in Congress by this time decided to launch a movement.
The movement would include anti British protest with the case of Calph as well. A new body,
All India Khilafat Conference was convened in 1919 and Congress in Nagpur in 1920
decided to initiate mass struggle.
Non Cooperation
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The movement that began with Ganghiji’s declaration soon engulfed India.
Particularly the influence was large in West, North – West, and Northern part along with
Bengal
The incident at Chauri Chaura in UP, made Gandhiji to withdraw the movement.
Immediate cause could have been Chauri Chaura. One of the major reasons to withdraw
movement was the very nature of movement. Masses can not be put into prolonged
struggle. They tend to loose the initial enthusiasm and can not stand long against heavy
government repression. Gandhiji knew this and so he withdrew the movement even at the
strong dissenting tone of his colleagues.
Thus with the withdrawal of the movement, Gandhi and Congress made their way for
Constructive work that was to be done.
Significance:-
- The Non Cooperation Movement (NCM) was the first systemic attempt by Congress
to launch a mass struggle. It included various tools like Hartal, Strike, Mass agitations
etc.
- The Gandhian way of protest was not practiced so far. He took up the old ways
(Swadeshi, Boycott etc) and blended them together with his own principles (Ahimsa,
Fasting etc) significantly well to expand their reach and effectiveness.
- The success of the mass struggle lies in the support it can gather. NCM was first all
India movement to gather support and agitations were held at all the parts.
- The National Education goal resulted in formation of various education Institutions
that thrive even today
- Factories were established with the zeal of Indian ownership of factories. (Ex: Bengal
Chemical Factory by P C Ray)
After the suspension of Non co- operation movement by the Ganhdhiji, the
disillusionment and demoralization prevailed in the Indian National Congress. Two main
groups were emerged in Congress named No Changers and Swarajajists. Let us see the
difference between these two groups.
No Changers Swarajits
These leaders advocated These leaders put forward a radical
concentration on the Gandhian justification for the proposal of
constructive rural work. council entry.
Leaders – Rajendra Prasad, Leaders – Mtilal Nehru, Vithabai
VallabhBahi Patel etc. Patel, Hakim Ajmal etc.
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After Gandhiji suspended Non Co- operation movement, many of his followers and
the Congress went on to the path of ‘Constructive Work’. There was a mainstream
political void in the country. Few leaders like CRD as and Motilal Nehru were of the
opinion that Congress should contests the election for legislative council (formed
under 1919 Act) and weaken the government within. These ideological differences
are known as ‘Pro – changers’(i.e. those for council entry) and ‘No – changers’(i.e.
those opposed to Council entry)
A compromise was set in after a new ‘Swaraj Party’ was formed under Motilal Nehru.
The political atmosphere was partially warning and then British government with the
obligation under 1919 Act, decided to send a statutory commission. It was headed by
Sir John Simon and there was no India member in it.
India National Congress decided to boycott eh commission in 1927 Madras Session.
Agitations were held in all parts of the country.
In the following developments, Lord Birkenhead, challenged Indians to form their
own Constitution. The challenge was taken and a committee under Motilal Nehru was
set up to form the constitution. This committee gave its report in August 1928. One of
the key recommendations of Nehru report was to accept the demand of Dominion
status in one year. That time lapsed in 1929 and Congress now decided to Fight
British government head on. Congress in 1929 session at Lahore passed the
Resolution on ‘Poorna Swaraj’, implying Complete Independence would be the goal
of freedom struggle. Authority was given to Gandhiji to launch the movement.
The Resolution decided to,
Adopt January 26, 1930 to be celebrated as ‘Poorna Swaraj Diwas’.
Boycott elections and Legislative Councils
Civil Disobedience Movement
Gandhiji decide to inaugurate the movement in the most innovative way. He decided
to travel from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi to protest the Salt tax. Viceroy thought it as
joke, even Gandhiji’s followers was skeptical of it.
But as he started with the march, political fervor reached pinnacle.
In North- West Frontier Provinces, Khan Abdul Gaffarkhan, (popularly known as
frontier Gandhi) launched the Movement. The movement reached extreme corners of
the country
British reaction followed with mass imprisonment, censorship and heavy repression
in usual British way.
Meanwhile in Britain announcement was made of the Round Table Conference of
Indian leadership from all the sections (which British deemed fit) to discuss the
report of Simon Commission. Congress at first boycotted the Conference and
naturally it remained fruitless. On the negotiating side, British now decided to extend
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some favors to Congress including release of Political prisoners. This was an attempt
to bring Congress to Round Table Conference. So the Congress suspended
movement and Gandhiji went to London to participate in it.
Soon, disillusioned with British attempts to increase divide and disunity among
Indians, he decided to come back. He relaunched the movement and the Indian
government under Lord Willingdon decided to repress the movement. Gandhiji and
others were put into prison and the movement. Worst brutalities were committed by
British government to suppress the movement and to their success the agitations and
movement came to standstill in lated 1930s. Congress officially withdrew movement
in 1934.
Looking at the objectives set and results achieved, CDM was not success, moreover it
was a failure. But that should not be the final assessment of the movement. For every
mass movement in human history has seldom achieved the goals which it set.
For the first time after British Conquest, a non violent mass struggle and Congress
aimed for ‘Complete Independence’. Though Revolutionary freedom struggle aimed
for the same, they were clearly not the mainstream political force in the country. It
was Congress, and this was a great shift from early congress demands.
CDM was important for it brought in larger masses of people in mainstream political
situation. Huge mass public gatherings, increased Congress membership and
Common people and particularly students and Women were the significant
protestors.
The Movement for the first time offered the Congress equal position at negotiating
table. This gave the Congress legitimate right and hegemony to proclaim its position
with respect to British government and in the eyes of common people. Congress
used this ‘elevated status’ well in negotiating the Transfer of Power.
Gandhiji’s novel feature of Dandi March was a successful political tool to be used
henceforth in India. And it continues to be used today.
The Poona Pact between Gandhi and Ambedkar after separate electorates influences
Indian politics even today.
This act was a significant towards the completely responsible government in India.
Let us discuss some of the important features of this act
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Establishment of All –India Federation which would include all the provinces and the
various Princely states.
The division of powers by the inclusion of three lists viz. federal list, Provincial list
and the Concurrent list. But the princely states refused to join it that’s why this
federation never came in the existence
This act introduced ‘provincial autonomy’ by abolishing diarchy in the provinces.
The act provided diarchy at centre.
In six provinces the act introduced bicameralism. The principle of communal
representation was extended to women, labours by providing separate electorate for
them.
Establishment of Federal public service commission along with Provincial Public
Service commission and Joint Public service commission.
Establishment of Federal Court.
as per act of 1935, Congress got majority in five provinces and formed coalition government
in two provinces. In Madras, Bombay Central province, Orrissa, Bihar and UP Congress
formed ministries. Subhash Chadra Bose.
In the INC session at Haripura (Gujarat) S.C. Bose as President unanimously elected as
president. it indicated popularity of radical, socialist groups on Congress.
In march 1939 at Tripura’s session of INC, Subhash Chndra Bose defeated Pattbhi
sitaramayya (Gandhiji’s Supported candidate) for the post of President. Factionalism in INC
makes S.C.Bose functioning impossible and S.C.Bose quits from INC to form ‘Forward Bloc’.
In March 1970 at the annual session of congress at Lahore the Muslim League propounded
the theory that Muslims are not a minority but a nation so they must have separate nation.
August Offer
During 2nd world War Gandhiji wrote’ we do not seek our independence out of British Ruin’.
INC offered the co – operation with Britain in the war efforts if at least provincial national
government was constituted in the centre and Great Britain acknowledged right of India to
complete independence. On 8th august 1940 Britain responded in statement known as
“August Offer”. INC rejected August offer.
‘Cripps Mission’ under Sir Stafford Cripps comes in India in 1942, offers dominion status
and constituent assembly after war ends. Gandhiji describes it as post dated cheque on a
failing bank”.
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Prime Minister Attlee decleared Cabinet mission to visti and find agreement on the
issue of interim government and constitution making. Cabinet mission consisted of Lord
Pathick Lawrence (Secretary of the State), Sir Stafford Cripps and AV Alexander. It
suggested division of provinces into 3 groups ------Group A, B, C were made as per
population of the Hinus and Muslims in that state. And constitution was to be formed by a
Union constituent Assembly, the members of which to be elected on a communal basis by
provincial assemblies. Though this plan did not satisfy INC, it was accepted as last resort to
avoid partition. The Congress decided to join proposed constituent assembly.
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In July 1946, members of various legislative Assemblies elected the members of constituent
Assembly. Jinnah described the majority got by congress as ‘Brute majority.’ Expressing its
determination Muslim league withdrew its assent to the Cabinet Plan.
Even though Muslim League refused to co – operate interim Government was formed
and Nehru took oath for the office of Vice – President. But later on after discussions with
Viceroy Muslim league decided to join the government.
C. Rajgopalchari Education
Constituent Assembly
On 9th December 1946 the newly elected constituent assembly met for the first time. Muslim
League boycotted the assembly but the members of other parties and communities met.
Pandit Nehru moved ‘Objective Resolution’ on 13th December 1946.
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Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the President of constituent assembly. All the ideas and issues
related with the drafting of constituent assembly. All the ideas and issues related with the
drafting of constifution were discussed.
Attlee’s Announcement
On 20th Feb 1947 Prime minister Attlee declared in his famous speechin British Parliament
the decision of British to quit India. 30th June, 1948 was the date decided y the British for their
withdrawal from India. Lord Mountbatten became new viceroy of India.
Mountbatten Plan
Lord mountbatten suggested the plan which was also known as ‘Plan Balkan’, suggesting
Balkanization of India that is partition on communal lines to form Pakistan (East and West)
and India and to withdraw from India. Plan accepted by all parties by 2nd June. 1947.
In June 1947 British Parliament passed Indian Act as per Mountbatten Plan and setup two
boundary commissions to draw oundary lines between India East and West Pakistan, both
jointly headed by Radcliffe.
Independence and Partition, followed by integration of principal states, first Indo- Pak war of
1948 and enforcement of constitution of India from 26th January 1950.
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Viceroys
Lord Canning (1856 -1858 as Governor General, 1858 – 1862 as viceroy) :
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1) Imperial Darbar in 1877 to mark the assumption of the title of Empress of India by
Queen Victoria.
2) Proposed to constitute Imperial Privy Council comprising of princes.
3) Vernacular Act passed in 1878, Arms Act 1878 repealed and Factory Act was
finalized.
4) Second Anglo – Afghan war in 1878.
5) The Provincial Government was given the control of the expenditure upon all
ordinary provincial services including land revenue, excise, stamps, law and justice
and general administration.
6) The British parliament passed the Royal Titles Act investing Queen Victoria with the
title of Kaiser- I –hind or Queen Empress of India.
7) Introduced the gold standard into the monetary system .
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1) Bengal Tenancy Act and Bengal Local Self – Government Act. (1885)
2) Third Anglo – Burmese War started in 1885.
3) In 1886 Upper Burma was annexed and delimitation of Afghan Northern boundary
took place.
4) Aitchison Committee.
5) Number of new taxes were introduced such as salt tax and petroleum tax.
5) In 1901 death of Queen Victoria and Habibullah became the Amir of Afghanistan.
6) Indian University Act was passed in 1904.
7) Bengal partition took place in 1905.
8) A famine Commission was appointed under the chairmanship of Sir Colin Scott
Moncrieff to investigate into the whole question of irrigation.
9) Thomas Robertson was invited to restructure railways.
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10) Montague – Chemsford Reforms in 1919 introduced Diarchy in the Provinces and
increased the powers of the centre.
1) 1st December 1931 Ramsay Macdonald announces the decision to constitute NWFP
into a governor’s province and Sindh ws made a separate province.
2) In 1932 Poona pact was signed between Gandhiji and Ambedkar.
3) 7th November to 24th December 1932 the third Round Table Conference took place.
4) Government of India Act signed in 1935.
5) Orssa, Sindh and Bihar were made new states in 1935.
6) Foundation of Congress Socialist Party by Acharya Narendra Dev and Jai Prakash
Narayan.
7) Formation of All Indian Kisan Sabha in 1936.
8) Gandhiji starts Harijan Seva (depressed and untouchables classes) in 1934.
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AD
78 – Kanishka’s accession and the beginning of the Shaka era
3 rd century – Decline of th eKushanas
3 rd century – Decline of the Satvahanas
319 – 320 – Accession of Chandragupta I and establishment of the Gupta dynasy
335- 375 – Samudragupta
375 – 415 – chandragupta II
405 – 411 – Visit of Fa – Hien
450- The first Huma attack on the Gupta Empire
560- 903 – The Pallavas establish their kingdom
543- 755 – The rise of Chalukyas of Vatapi
606- 647 – Reign of Harshavardhan
630 – 643 – Hieun Tsang in India
609 – 642 – Reign of Pulakesin II, the Chalukya king
622 – Beginning of the Hijri era
712 – Arab conquest of Sind
750 – Pala dynasty founded by Gopala in estern Inida
753 – Rise of the Rashtrakuta Empire
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800- Shankaracharya
840 – Rise of the Pratiharas under Bhoja
907 – Prantka I establishes Chola power in south India
973 – 1192 – Foundetion of the kingodom of th elater chalukyas is laid
985 – 1014 – Reign of Rajaraja Chola
1014 – 1044 – Reign of Rajendra Chola
100- 1027 – Invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni
1030 – Alberuni in India: Death of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni
1191 – I st battle of Tarain
1192 – Second battle of Tarain, defeat of Prithviraj III by Muhammad Ghori
1206 – Death of Muhammad Ghori
1206 – Qutub – ud – din Aibak founds the Slave dynasty
1210 – Death of Qutub – ud – din Aibak
1210 – Accession of Iltutmish
1236 – Death of I ltutmish and accession of Raziya
1265 – 1285 – Reign of Balban
1288 – 1295 – Marco Polo visits south India
1290 – Khilji dynasty founded
1296 – 1316 – Reign of ala – ud – din Khilji
1302 – 1311 – Malik Kapur’s campaign in south india
1320 – Tuglaq dynasty founded
1325 – 1351 – Reign of Muhammad – bin – Tughlaq; Ibn Batuta in India
1336 – Foundation of Vijaynagar kingdom is laid
1347 – Foundation of the Bahamani kingdom is laid
1351 – 1388 – Reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq
1398 – Timur’s invasion
1414 – 1451 – Reign of thd Sayyid dynasty
1451 – 1526 – Reign of the Lodi dynasty
1440 -1518 – Kabir
1469 -1539 – Nanak
1482 – 1518 – Dissolution of the Bahamani emergence of five new kingdoms – Bijapur,
Golconda, Ahmednagar, Bihar, and Berar
1498 –Arrival of Vasco – de – Gama in India
1509- 1530 – Reign of Krishnadevraya
1526 – First battle of Panipat, Babar defeat Ibrahim Lodi, Mughal Empire founded in
India
1527 – Battle of Khanwa, Babar defeats Rana Sanga
1530 – Death of Babar and accession of Humayun at Chausa
1545 – Death of Shar Shah
1556 – Death of Humayun and accession of Akbar
1556 – Second Battle of Panipa, Akabar defeats Hemu
1565 – Battle of Talikota
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1568-1595 – Akbar captures Chittor, Ranth – ambor, Gajrat, Bengal, Kashmir, Sind,
Orissa, central India and Qandh
1600 – Queen Elizabeth grants Charter to the company of merchants in London to
trade with the east
1605- Death of Akbar and Accession of Jahangir
1616 – Sir Thomas Role received by Jahangir
1627 – Death of Jahangir
1628 – Shah Jahan proclaimed Emperor
1630 – Birth of Shivaji
1658 – Accession of Aurangzeb
1674- Shivaji assumes Royal title
1680 – Death of Shivaji
1686 – Annexation of Golconda
1707- Death of Aurangzeb
1707 – 1712 – Reign of Bahadur Shah
1717 – Farrukhsiyar grants firman to the English India Company exempting their
trade in Bengal from payment of duties in return of lumpsum payment of Rs. 3000 per
annum
1739 – Nadir Shah occupies Delhi
1744 – 1748 - First Anglo – French Carnatic War
1748 – 1754 – Second Anglo – French Carnatic War
1757 – 1763 – Third Anglo – French Carnatic War
1747 – 1761 – Invasion of Ahmed Shah Abdali
1757 – Battle of Plassey. The British establish control over the rich provinces of Bihar,
Bengal and Orissa
1760 – Battle of Wandiwash. French are decisively defeated by British and the French
dream of an Empire in India comes to an end.
1761 – Third Battle of Panipat – Abdail defeats the Marathas
1764 – 1765 – The Battle of Buxar. Introduction of dual system of Government of
Bengal
1767 – 1769 – First Anglo – Mysore War
1770 –The great Famine in Bengal
1772 – End of dual government in Bengal. The Company starts direct administration
of Bengal. Warren Hastings assumes office as governor
1773 - The Regulating Act
1775 – 1782 – First Anglo – Maratha War
1780- 1784 – Second Anglo – Mysore War
1784 – Pitt’s India Act
1790 – Third Anglo – Mysore War
1793 – Third Anglo – Mysore War
1793 – Permanent Settlement introduced in Bengal
1798 – 1805 – Wellsley is Governor General of Bengal
1799 – Fourth Anglo Mysore War. Death of Tipu Sultan, Ranjit Singh captures Lahore
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1920- First meeting of All – India trade Union Congress. Foundation of Aligarh Muslim
University laid. Hunter Commission Report on Jallianwala Bagh massarce published.
First Non – cooperation Movement launched by Gandhi
1922, February – Violent incidents at Chauri Chaura. Gandhi calls of Non –
cooperation movement
1925 – Communist Party of India organised a Kanpur
1927 – Appointment of Simon commission
1928 – Nehru report
1929 – Congress adopts the goal of complete independence for India
1930, February 14 – congress passes Civil Disobedience Movement resolution
193o, March 12 – Gandhibegins Dandi March to manufacture illegal salt. First round
table conference held in London
1931 – Gandhi – Irwin Pact. Civil Disobedience movement suspended. Second round
table conference held
1932 – R macDonald announces communal award (modified by the Poona Pact,
Sptember 24)
1935 – Congress ministries formed in provinces
1938 – All – India Kisan Sabha formed
1939 – Subhash Chandra Bose resigns as president of Conress. Second World War
begins. Resignationof congress ministries in provinces
1940 – Muslim League adopts the Pakistan resolution. Congress starts individual civil
disobedience movement
1941 – Death of Rabindranath Tagore (1861- 1941)
1942, February – Japanese bombardment of Rangoon Singapore fails
1942, March – April – Cripps Mission visits India
1942, August – September – Quit India Movement launched
1945 – Simpla Conference held
1945, 26 th Jule – Labour government comes into power in Britain
1945, December – January – General Election in India
1946, February – Mutiny of naval ratings at Bombay and Karachi
1946, March – A three member cabinet mission comes to India
1946, 16 th May – Cabinet Mission announces its constitutional scheme
1946 – Jule – Elections held in the provinces. Congress wins massively in the general
constituencies. League’s success in the Muslim League decides on ‘Direct Action’ For
winning Pakistan.
1946, August – The Muslim League decides on ‘Direct Action’for winnings Pakistan
1946, 16 th August – Violence breaks out between Hindus- Sikhs and Muslims in
Calcutta and Noakhali
1946, 2 nd September – Congress forms Interim Government with Nehru decides to
join the Interim Government
1946, 13 th October – Muslim League decides to join the Interim Government
1946, 3 -6 December – British Prime Minister, Attlee, meets some Indian leaders;
talks fail
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