354 CH AP TE R 6 Electrical and Electromechanical Systems

Note that if the applied voltage vi is constant, the system will reach a steady-state in which
the pointer comes to rest. At steady-state, θ˙ = di /dt = 0, and equation (4) gives
vi
i=
R
and equation (3) gives
n B Lr i n B Lr vi
θ= =
kT Rk T
This equation can be used to calibrate the device by relating the pointer displacement θ to either
the measured current i or the measured voltage vi .

6.5.3 DC MOTORS
There are many types of electric motors, but the two main categories are direct current
(dc) motors and alternating current (ac) motors. Within the dc motor category there
are the armature-controlled motor and the field-controlled motor.
The basic elements of a motor, like that shown in Figure 6.5.3, are the stator, the
rotor, the armature, and the commutator. The stator is stationary and provides the mag-
netic field. The rotor is an iron core that is supported by bearings and is free to rotate.
The coils are attached to the rotor, and the combined unit is called the armature. A
dc motor operates on the same principles as a D’Arsonval meter, but the design of a
practical dc motor requires the solution of the problems caused by the fact that the coils
must be free to rotate continually. As a coil rotates through 180 ◦ the torque will reverse
direction unless the current can be made to reverse direction also. In addition, a means
must be found to maintain electrical contact between the rotating coil and the power
supply leads. A solution is provided by the commutator, which is a pair of electrically
conducting, spring-loaded carbon sticks (called brushes) that slide on the armature and
transfer power to the coil contacts.
The stator may be a permanent magnet or an electromagnet with its own separate
power supply, which creates additional cost. It is now possible to manufacture perma-
nent magnets of high field intensity and armatures of low inertia so that permanent-
magnet motors with a high torque-to-inertia ratio are now available.

6.5.4 MODEL OF AN ARMATURE-CONTROLLED DC MOTOR

We now develop a model for the armature-controlled motor shown in Figure 6.5.4. The
armature voltage va is the input, and the armature current i a and motor speed ω are the
outputs.

Figure 6.5.3 Cutaway view of Stator (magnet)

a permanent magnet motor.
Armature winding

Power Bearing
supply

Brush
Commutator Rotor
 6. 5 Electric Motors 355

Field circuit Figure 6.5.4 Diagram of an

armature-controlled dc motor.
if Rf
Lf

Ra La
TL
1 1
va vb I
c
2 ia 2
T
Armature circuit

The electrical subsystems of the motor can be represented by the armature circuit
and the field circuit in Figure 6.5.4. In a permanent-magnet motor, the field circuit is
replaced by the magnet. The mechanical subsystem consists of the inertia I and the
damping c. The inertia is due to the load inertia as well as the armature inertia. Damping
can be present because of shaft bearings or load damping, such as with a fan or pump.
The external torque TL represents an additional torque acting on the load, other than
the damping torque. The load torque TL opposes the motor torque in most applications,
so we have shown it acting in the direction opposite that of T . However, sometimes
the load torque assists the motor. For example, if the load is the wheel of a vehicle,
then TL could be the torque produced by gravity as the vehicle ascends or descends a
hill. When descending, the load torque assists the motor, and in such a case we would
reverse the direction of TL shown in Figure 6.5.4.
The motor produces a torque T that is proportional to the armature current i a . This
relation can be derived by noting that the force on the armature due to the magnetic field
is, from (6.5.1), f = n B Li a , where n is the number of armature coils. If the armature
radius is r , then the torque on the armature is
T = (n B Li a )r = (n B Lr )ia = K T i a (6.5.3)
where K T = n B Lr is the motor’s torque constant. This relation can be used by motor
designers to determine the effect of changing the number of coils, the field strength, or
the armature geometry. The user of such motors (as opposed to the motor’s designer)
can obtain values of K T for a specific motor from the manufacturer’s literature.
As we have seen, the motion of a current-carrying conductor in a field produces
a voltage in the conductor that opposes the current. This voltage in the armature is
called the back emf (for electromotive force, an older term for voltage). Its magnitude
is proportional to the speed. The coils’ linear velocity v is related to their angular
velocity by v = rω. Thus, from (6.5.2),
vb = n B Lv = (n B Lr )ω = K b ω (6.5.4)
where K b = n B Lr is the motor’s back emf constant, and is sometimes called the
voltage constant. Note that the expressions for K T and K b are identical and thus, K T
and K b have the same numerical value if expressed in the same units. For this reason,
motor manufacturers usually do not give values for K b .
The back emf is a voltage drop in the armature circuit. Thus, Kirchhoff’s voltage
law gives
di a
va − Ra i a − L a − Kbω = 0 (6.5.5)
dt
356 CH AP TE R 6 Electrical and Electromechanical Systems

Figure 6.5.5 Block diagram TL(s)

of an armature-controlled dc
motor. Va(s) 1 1 Ia(s) T(s) 1 2 1 V(s)
KT
L as 1 R a Is 1 c
2

Kb

From Newton’s law applied to the inertia I ,

dω
I= T − cω − TL = K T i a − cω − TL (6.5.6)
dt
Equations (6.5.5) and (6.5.6) constitute the system model.
Motor Block Diagram Figure 6.5.5 is a block diagram of an armature-controlled
motor, with motor speed as the output. The equations used to obtain the diagram can
be obtained by transforming the motor equations using zero initial conditions. Solving
(6.5.5) for Ia (s),
1
Ia (s) = [Va (s) − K b (s)] (6.5.7)
L a s + Ra
This equation is the basis for the left-half of the diagram. Now solve (6.5.6) for (s):
1
(s) = [K T Ia (s) − TL (s)] (6.5.8)
Is + c
This equation is the basis for the right-half of the diagram.
The diagram shows how the back emf acts as a negative feedback loop to slow
down the motor’s speed. It also shows that the dynamics of the motor are affected
by the dynamics of the armature circuit, whose time constant is L a /Ra , and by the
dynamics of the mechanical subsystem, whose time constant is I /c.
Motor Transfer Functions Normally we are interested in both the motor speed ω
and the current i a . The two inputs are the applied voltage va and the load torque TL .
Thus there are four transfer functions for the motor, one transfer function for each
input-output pair. We can obtain these transfer functions either by reducing the block
diagram shown in Figure 6.5.5, or by solving (6.5.7) and (6.5.8) for Ia (s) and (s).
The result for the output Ia (s) is
Ia (s) Is + c
= 2
(6.5.9)
Va (s) L a I s + (Ra I + cL a ) s + cRa + K b K T
Ia (s) Kb
= 2
(6.5.10)
TL (s) L a I s + (Ra I + cL a ) s + cRa + K b K T
For the output (s),
(s) KT
= 2
(6.5.11)
Va (s) L a I s + (Ra I + cL a ) s + cRa + K b K T
(s) L a s + Ra
=− (6.5.12)
TL (s) L a I s 2 + (Ra I + cL a ) s + cRa + K b K T
 6. 5 Electric Motors 357

The denominator is the same in each of the motor’s four transfer functions. It is
the characteristic polynomial and it gives the characteristic equation:

L a I s 2 + (Ra I + cL a ) s + cRa + K b K T = 0 (6.5.13)

Note that Ia (s)/ Va (s) and (s)/ TL (s) have numerator dynamics. This can cause
a large overshoot in i a if va is a step function, and a large overshoot in ω if TL is a step
function.

State-Variable Form of the Motor Model Equations (6.5.5) and (6.5.6) can be put
into state variable form by isolating the derivatives of the state variables i a and ω. The
state equations thus obtained are the following.
di a 1
= (va − Ra i a − K b ω) (6.5.14)
dt La
dω 1
= (K T i a − cω − TL ) (6.5.15)
dt I
Note that these state variables describe the energies Li a2 /2 and I ω2 /2 stored in the
system.
Letting x 1 = i a and x 2 = ω, the state equations become
dx 1 1 Ra Kb x1 1 va
= (va − Ra x 1 − K b x 2 ) = − − + 0
dt La La La x2 La TL
dx 2 1 KT c x1 1 va
= (K T x 1 − cx 2 − TL ) = − + 0 −
dt I I I x2 I TL
To handle models having multiple inputs, the general vector-matrix form of the state
equations allows for a column vector of inputs, usually denoted u. A column vector—
called the input vector u—is then formed from the two inputs va and TL , in any order.
Define u as
va
u=
TL
Then the vector-matrix form is
ẋ = Ax + Bu (6.5.16)
where x is defined as before, and A and B are now defined as
⎡ ⎤
Ra Kb
⎢− L − ⎥
La ⎥
⎢ a
A=⎢ ⎥
⎣ KT c⎦
−
I I
⎡ ⎤
1
⎢ La 0⎥
B=⎢ ⎣
⎥
1⎦
0 −
I
The equation for dx 1 /dt contains the first rows of the matrices A and B, and the equation
for dx 2 /dt contains the second rows.
358 CH AP TE R 6 Electrical and Electromechanical Systems

Figure 6.5.6 Diagram of a Field circuit

field-controlled dc motor.
1 if
vf Rf
2 Lf

Ra La
TL
1
ia vb I
c
2
T
Armature circuit

6.5.5 FIELD-CONTROLLED MOTORS

Another way to control a dc motor is to keep the armature current constant while
adjusting the voltage applied to the field windings to vary the intensity of the magnetic
field surrounding the armature (see Figure 6.5.6). Thus, unlike permanent-magnet mo-
tors, field-controlled motors require two power supplies, one for the armature circuit
and one for the field circuit. They also require a control circuit to maintain a constant
armature current in the presence of the back emf, which varies with motor speed and
field strength.
In general, the field strength B is a nonlinear function of the field current i f and can
be expressed as B(i f ). Thus, if the armature radius is r , the torque on the armature is

T = n B(i f )Li a r = (nLr i a )B(i f ) = T (i f )

and we see that the motor torque is also a nonlinear function of i f . Often the linear
approximation T −Tr = K T (i f −i f r ) is used, where Tr and i f r are the torque and current
values at a reference operating equilibrium, and the torque constant K T is the slope of the
T (i f ) curve at the reference condition. In the rest of our development, we will assume
that Tr = i f r = 0 to simplify the discussion. Thus we will use the relation T = K T i f .

E X AM P L E 6.5.2 Model of a Field-Controlled dc Motor

■ Problem
Develop a model of the field-controlled motor shown in Figure 6.5.6.
■ Solution
The voltage v f is applied to the field circuit, whose inductance and resistance are L f and R f .
No back emf exists in the field circuit, and Kirchhoff’s voltage law applied to the field circuit
gives
di f
vf = Rfif + L f (1)
dt
For the inertia I ,
dω
I = T − cω − TL = K T i f − cω − TL (2)
dt
where TL is the load torque. These two equations form the motor model.
 6. 5 Electric Motors 359

TL(s) Figure 6.5.7 Block diagram

of a field-controlled dc motor.
Vf (s) 1 If (s) T(s) 1 2 1 V(s)
KT
Lf s 1 Rf Is 1 c

The block diagram of a field-controlled motor is shown in Figure 6.5.7. To see how
it was obtained, take the transform of equation (1) of Example 6.5.2 with zero initial
conditions, and solve for I f (s) to obtain
1
I f (s) = V f (s) (6.5.17)
L fs + Rf
This equation was used to obtain the left side of the block diagram. Take the transform
of (2) of Example 6.5.2 with zero initial conditions, and solve for (s) to obtain
1
(s) = [K T I f (s) − TL (s)]
Is + c
This equation was used to obtain the right side of the block diagram. Note that this
motor has no feedback loop because it does not have back emf.
Dynamic Response of a Field-Controlled Motor From (6.5.17) we see that the transfer
function for the field current is
I f (s) 1
= (6.5.18)
V f (s) L fs + Rf
The characteristic root is s = −R f /L f and the time constant is L f /R f . Thus, if v f (t) is
a step function, the field current will take approximately 4L f /R f to reach the constant
value of i f = v f /R f . Note that, unlike the armature-controlled motor, the current in
the field-controlled motor is not affected by the load torque TL , because there is no
feedback loop due to back emf.
From the block diagram, we can easily obtain the transfer functions for the speed.
Setting TL (s) = 0 temporarily, and using the series law for diagram reduction, we find
that
(s) K T /R f c
= (6.5.19)
V f (s) [(L f /R f )s + 1][(I /c)s + 1]
The characteristic roots are s = −R f /L f and s = −c/I , which are real. So the speed ω
will not oscillate if the applied voltage v f is a step function. Its response time is governed
by the larger of the two time constants, I /c and L f /R f , which are due to the mechanical
and electrical subsystems, respectively. In most cases, the largest time constant is I /c.
The real roots are due to the fact that the current equation (1) of Example 6.5.2 does not
contain the speed ω, and thus is not coupled to the speed equation (2) of that example.
Setting V f (s) = 0 in the block diagram, we obtain
(s) 1
=− (6.5.20)
TL (s) Is + c
The time constant is I /c. Note that the minus sign on the right side indicates that the
speed will decrease for a positive torque. This is because of the chosen direction of
positive load torque in Figure 6.5.7.
If the time constant of the electrical subsystem is small compared to that of the
mechanical subsystem, the speed response can be approximately described by the first-
order model
(s) K T /R f c K T /R f Lf I
= = , (6.5.21)
V f (s) (I /c)s + 1 Is + c Rf c
360 CH AP TE R 6 Electrical and Electromechanical Systems

where the motor torque is now given approximately by

KT
T (s) = V f (s) (6.5.22)
Rf

6.6 ANALYSIS OF MOTOR PERFORMANCE

We now use the transfer function model of an armature-controlled dc motor to inves-
tigate the performance of such motors. The transfer functions given by (6.5.9) through
(6.5.12) are repeated here.
Ia (s) Is + c
= 2
(6.6.1)
Va (s) L a I s + (Ra I + cL a ) s + cRa + K b K T
Ia (s) Kb
= 2
(6.6.2)
TL (s) L a I s + (Ra I + cL a ) s + cRa + K b K T
(s) KT
= 2
(6.6.3)
Va (s) L a I s + (Ra I + cL a ) s + cRa + K b K T
(s) L a s + Ra
=− 2
(6.6.4)
TL (s) L a I s + (Ra I + cL a ) s + cRa + K b K T

STEADY-STATE MOTOR RESPONSE

The steady-state operating conditions can be obtained by applying the final value the-
orem to the transfer functions. If va and TL are step functions of magnitude Va and TL ,
respectively, then the steady-state current and speed are
cVa + K b TL
ia = (6.6.5)
cRa + K b K T
K T Va − Ra TL
ω= (6.6.6)
cRa + K b K T
Thus an increased load torque leads to an increased current and a decreased speed, as
would be expected. From equation (6.6.6) the steady-state speed is often plotted versus
TL for different values of the applied voltage Va . This plot is known as the load-speed
curve of the motor. For a given value of Va , it gives the maximum load torque the motor
can handle at a specified speed.
The no-load speed is the motor speed when the load torque is zero. Setting TL = 0
in (6.6.6) gives ω = K T Va /(cRa + K b K T ). This is the highest motor speed for a given
applied voltage. The corresponding no-load current required can be found by setting
TL = 0 in (6.6.5). It is i a = cVa /(cRa + K b K T ).
The stall torque is the value of the load torque that produces zero motor speed.
Setting ω = 0 in (6.6.6) gives the stall torque: TL = K T Va /Ra . The corresponding stall
current can be found by substituting this value into (6.6.5).

E X AM P L E 6.6.1 No-Load Speed and Stall Torque

■ Problem
The parameter values for a certain motor are
K T = K b = 0.05 N · m/A
c = 10−4 N · m · s/rad Ra = 0.5
 6. 6 Analysis of Motor Performance 361

The manufacturer’s data states that the motor’s maximum speed is 3000 rpm, and the maximum
armature current it can withstand without demagnetizing is 30 A.
Compute the no-load speed, the no-load current, and the stall torque. Determine whether
the motor can be used with an applied voltage of va = 10 V.
■ Solution
For va = 10 V, (6.6.5) and (6.6.6) give
i a = 0.392 + 19.61TL A ω = 196.1 − 196.1TL rad/s
The no-load speed is found from the second equation with TL = 0. It is 196.1 rad/s, or 1872 rpm,
which is less than the maximum speed of 3000 rpm. The corresponding no-load current is
i a = 0.392 A, which is less than the maximum allowable current of 30 A. The no-load current is
required to provide a motor torque K T i a to cancel the damping torque cω.
The stall torque is found by setting ω = 0. It is TL = 1 N · m. The corresponding stall current
is i a = 20 A, which is less than the maximum allowable current.

6.6.1 MOTOR DYNAMIC RESPONSE

The steady-state relations are often used because they are algebraic relations and thus
are easier to use than the motor differential equations. However, they can be misleading.
Because Ia (s)/ Va (s) and (s)/ TL (s) have numerator dynamics, the actual maximum
current required and the actual maximum speed attained might be quite different than
their steady-state values. Example 6.6.2 illustrates this effect.

Response of an Armature-Controlled dc Motor E X A M P L E 6.6.2

■ Problem
The parameter values for a certain motor are

K T = K b = 0.05 N · m/A
c = 10−4 N · m · s/rad Ra = 0.5
L a = 2 × 10−3 H I = 9 × 10−5 kg · m2

where I includes the inertia of the armature and that of the load. The load torque TL is zero.
Obtain the step response of i a (t) and ω(t) if the applied voltage is va = 10 V.
■ Solution
Substituting the given parameter values into (6.6.1) and (6.6.3), gives
Ia (s) 9 × 10−5 s + 10−4
=
Va (s) 18 × 10−8 s 2 + 4.52 × 10−5 s + 2.55 × 10−3
(s) 0.05
=
Va (s) 18 × 10−8 s 2 + 4.52 × 10−5 s + 2.55 × 10−3
If va is a step function of magnitude 10 V,
5 × 103 s + 5.555 × 104 C1 C2 C3
Ia (s) = = + +
s(s + 165.52)(s + 85.59) s s + 165.52 s + 85.59

2.777 × 106 D1 D2 D3
(s) = = + +
s(s + 165.52)(s + 85.59) s s + 165.52 s + 85.59
362 CH AP TE R 6 Electrical and Electromechanical Systems

Figure 6.6.1 Step response 20

of an armature-controlled dc
motor. 15

ia(t) (A)
10

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
t(s)

200
(t ) (rad/s)

150

100

50

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
t(s)

Evaluating the partial-fraction coefficients by hand or with MATLAB, as described in

Chapter 2, we obtain

i a (t) = 0.39 − 61e−165.52t + 61.74e−85.59t

ω(t) = 196.1 + 210−165.52t − 406e−85.59t
The plots are shown in Figure 6.6.1. Note the large overshoot in i a , which is caused by the
numerator dynamics. The plot shows that the steady-state calculation of i a = 0.39 A greatly
underestimates the maximum required current, which is approximately 15 A.
In practice, of course, a pure step input is impossible, and thus the required current will not
be as high as 15 A. The real input would take some time to reach 10 V. The response to such
an input is more easily investigated by computer simulation, so we will return to this topic in
Section 6.7.

6.6.2 THE EFFECT OF ARMATURE INDUCTANCE

If we set L a = 0, the second-order motor model reduces to a first-order model, which
is easier to use. For this reason, even though L a must be nonzero for physical reasons,
you often see L a treated as negligible. Another reason L a is sometimes neglected is
that it is difficult to calculate or to measure. The following discussion shows why you
must be careful in using this approximation.
Consider the motor of Example 6.6.2. Suppose the combined inertia of the armature
and load is I = 3×10−5 kg · m2 . The roots of the characteristic equation are the complex
pair s = −126.7 ± 162.3 j, which correspond to an oscillatory response that reaches
steady state after approximately 4/126.7 = 0.032 s. If we neglect the inductance and set
L a = 0 in (6.5.13), we obtain the first-order equation 1.5 × 10−5 s + 0.00255 = 0, which
has the single root s = −170. Thus, the L a = 0 approximation incorrectly predicts a
nonoscillatory response that reaches steady state after approximately 4/170 = 0.024 s,
which differs by 25% from the correct value.
 6. 6 Analysis of Motor Performance 363

If instead the inertia is larger, say I = 9 × 10−5 , (6.5.13) gives the real roots
s = −165.5 and −85.6, which corresponds to a nonoscillatory response that reaches
steady state after approximately 4/85.6 = 0.047 s. Setting L a = 0 in (6.5.13) gives the
single root s = −56.7, which correctly predicts a nonoscillatory response but implies
that steady state is reached after approximately 4/56.7 = 0.071 s, which differs by 51%
from the correct value.
We conclude from this example that you should be careful in using the approx-
imation L a = 0, although one sees it in common use. With L a = 0 the characteristic
equation and the motor differential equations are still only second order and thus are
manageable. So this approximation really is not needed here. However, models of some
types of control systems are third order or higher if the L a = 0 approximation is not
used, as we will see in Chapter 10. In such cases the mathematics becomes much more
difficult, and so the approximation is used to reduce the order of the equations. In such
cases, the correct, nonzero value of L a is used in computer simulation studies to assess
accuracy of the predictions obtained from the lower-order model.

6.6.3 DETERMINING MOTOR PARAMETERS

Motor parameter values can often be obtained from the manufacturer. If not, they
must be either calculated or measured. Calculating K T and K b for an existing motor
from the formula n B Lr is not always practical because the value of the magnetic field
parameter B might be difficult to determine. An approximate value of the armature
inertia Ia can be calculated from the formula for the inertia of a cylinder using the
density of iron, assuming that the length and radius are available. The inertia can
be measured by suspending it with a metal wire and measuring the torsional oscillation
frequency f n Hz as the armature twists on the wire. The inertia can be calculated from
Ia = k T /(2π f n )2 , where k T is the torsional spring constant of the wire.
Some parameters can be measured with static (steady-state) tests. By slowly
increasing the load torque TL until the motor stalls and measuring the resulting stall
current, we can compute K T from K T = TL /i a . Knowing the voltage Va , we can com-
pute the armature resistance from Ra = Va / i a . By measuring the no-load speed ω and
the resulting current i a , and knowing Va , Ra , and K T , we can compute c from the
steady-state relations (6.6.5) and (6.6.6) with TL = 0.
Much of the viscous damping in the motor is due to air drag as the armature
rotates. Drag force is a nonlinear function of speed, and so the linear relation cω is an
approximation. Therefore the value of c might be different at lower speeds. However,
most of the damping in a given application might be due to whatever load the motor
is driving (examples include pumps and fans), and so the motor’s damping might be
small enough to be ignored. Then the damping constant c will need to be measured at
the load or calculated from a model of the load.
Because c is difficult to determine precisely, its value is rarely reported by motor
manufacturers. However, in motors with good bearings the damping can be slight and
is often taken to be zero (perhaps this is why its value is rarely reported!).
The inductance L a can be difficult to determine because it involves the rate di a /dt
and thus requires a dynamic test. Special instruments such as an impedance meter can
be used to measure L a . As we have discussed, the inductance L a is often assumed
to be very small and therefore is often taken to be zero. This is sometimes a good
approximation, but not always.