Energy, Environmental Pollution,

and the Impact of Power Electronics

BIMAL K. BOSE

E
nergy and environment, particularly the global warming problem due to
man-made greenhouse gases (GHGs), appear to be such a serious concern
in our society that almost everybody in the world today is talking about it.
The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to the United Nations–Intergovern-
mental Panel of Climate Change (IPCC) along with the former U.S. Vice Presi-
dent Al Gore for their contributions to global warming. There is no doubt
that energy has been the lifeblood in the evolution of our industrial civiliza-
tion, and per capita energy consumption has been the barometer of a nation’s prosperity.
In the old days of the preindustrial revolution era, as indicated in Figure 1, mankind was
mainly dependent on animal and manual labor. In this muscle age, our life style was very
simple and unsophisticated, and the environment was clean. In 1785, James Watt of

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MIE.2010.935860

6 IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE n MARCH 2010 1932-4529/10/$26.00&2010IEEE

Scotland invented the steam engine
that ushered in the Industrial Revolu-
tion, and we were brought into the
mechanical age or age of machines.
The Industrial Revolution gained
momentum by the invention of inter-
nal combustion engine in the late
19th century. The wave of the Indus-
trial Revolution gradually spread
from Europe to the United States, and
then to the rest of the world. The
electrical revolution or electrical age
started by the commercial availabil-
ity of electricity in the mid-1880s,
when at the same time, the commer-
cial induction motor was invented
(1888) by Nickola Tesla. The commer-
cial dc motor was introduced at a
slightly earlier date (1873), and then
the synchronous motor arrived at a
slightly later date (1891). The elec-
tronics revolution or the age of mod-
ern solid-state electronics was ushered
in by the invention of the transistor in
1948 by Bardeen, Brattain, and Shock-
ley of Bell Laboratories. Bell Laborato-
ries also invented the thyristor (called
Animal and Manual Labor
Muscle Age
–1785
Industrial Revolution
Invention of Steam and Heat Engines Mechanical Age
1785–1888
Electrical Revolution
Invention of Electrical Machines Electrical Age
1888–1948
Electronics Revolution
Power Electronics
Integrated Circuits
Computers Electronics Age
Communication
Robotics
1948–
FIGURE 1 – Evolution of industrial civilization.
the PNPN triggering transistor) in introduced by General Electric (GE) in
1956, and then the thyristor (or silicon 1958. This brought us to the modern
controlled rectifier) was commercially age of solid-state power electronics.
We often say that invention of the
transistor brought in the first electron-
ics revolution, whereas the invention
of the thyristor brought in the second
electronics revolution. Gradually, the
eras of integrated circuits, computers,
communication, and robotics arrived.
We now live in an Internet age that
shrank the world into a global village.
Human society is now more interde-
pendent than ever. During the me-
chanical, electrical, and electronics
ages, the energy consumption in the
world has grown by leaps and bounds
to cater the need of growing world
population and improvement of our
standard of living. So far, we have
hardly paid much attention to the
© NOAA/OAR/OER/NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC
adverse effect of energy consumption,
i.e., environmental pollution.
ADMINISTRATION/DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
Global Energy Scenario
Figure 2 shows the global energy gen-
eration scenario and the U.S. energy
generation in the same perspective
[1]–[4]. Globally, around 87% of our
total energy is generated by fossil
fuels, of which 28% comes from coal,
21% comes from natural gas, and the
remaining 38% comes from oil. About
MARCH 2010 n IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE 7

The global warming problem is solvable
by the united effort of humanity.
6% of our total energy is generated in
nuclear plants, and the remaining 7%
comes from renewable resources,
such as hydro (a major part), wind,
solar, geothermal and biofuels. U.S.
energy generation essentially follows
the same pattern. About 41% of U.S.
energy comes from oil that is mainly
used in automobile transportation. It
is interesting to note that about 70%
of U.S. oil is imported from outside
(draining the staggering cost of about
US$500 billion/year). A bulk of im-
ported oil comes from the Middle
East, and this is the possible reason
for so much turmoil there. It is inter-
esting to note that per capita energy
consumption in the world is highest
in the United States. With nearly 5%
of world population (300 million out
of 6.5 billion), the United States
Nuclear
Coal
6%
28%
consumes nearly 25% of global en-
ergy, and this reflects a very high
standard of living (Switzerland has
now the highest standard of living). In
comparison, Japan, the world’s sec-
ond largest economy, with 2% of
world population, consumes nearly
5% of the total energy. On the other
hand, China and India together with
35% of world population, consumes
nearly 3% of total energy. Of course,
this scenario is changing fast because
of rapid industrialization of these
countries in recent years.
Unfortunately, the world has lim-
ited fossil and nuclear energy re-
sources. Figure 3 shows the idealized
energy-depletion curves [5], consid-
ering the present availability and the
current rate of consumption. Note
that the renewable energy resources
are not included in the figure for
simplicity. The nature of the curves
are typically Gaussian in nature.
Among all the fossil fuels, the world
has an enormous reserve of coal. At
the present rate, coal consumption is
expected to peak by 2070 and is ex-
pected to last for 200 years. In compari-
son, the natural gas reserve is small
and will last around 150 years. Looking
at the oil-depletion curve, it appears to
be near the peak point now and is
expected to last for approximately 100
years. With the increasing demand,
but at dwindling supply, the current
trend of oil price rise is only natural.
Natural uranium (U235) has the lowest
reserve of all the fuels and is expected
to remain for nearly 50 years.
How will we fly our airplanes and
run our automobiles when oil is totally
exhausted? Will the wheels of our civili-
zation will come to a screeching hault
when we run out of all the energy
resources? Of course, some fossil fuels
can be converted from one form to
another. With conservation, the deple-
tion curves in Figure 3 can be flattened
to last longer. Discovery of new fuel
resources is possible near offshore
areas. The Arctic Ocean is believed to
contain 25% of world’s oil and gas
reserves, which will be discussed later.
Of course, exploration of these resour-
ces will be expensive. Note that Figure
3 does not include renewable energy
resources, such as hydro, wind, solar,

38% 1,500
Oil
21%
Coal
1,250
7% Natural
Gas
Production (1018 J)

Renewable 1,000
(a)
Nuclear 750
8%
Coal
500
23%

41% 250
Uranium Oil
Oil Gas
23%
0
1,900 2,000 2,100 2,200 2,300
5% Natural 50 Years
Gas
Renewable 100 Years
(b) 150 Years
200 Years

FIGURE 2 – (a) Global and (b) U.S. energy

generation scenario. FIGURE 3 – Idealized energy-depletion curves of the world.

8 IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE n MARCH 2010

biofuels (such as ethanol and biodie-
sel), geothermal, and tidal powers, Coal 55%
United Oil 4%
which theoretically can extend the Gas 12%
States Nuclear 20%
depletion curves to infinity. It is no 9%
Renew
wonder that, because of competitive
costs, extensive availability and envi- Coal 25%
ronmentally clean in nature, renewable Oil 10%
Japan Gas 23%
sources are now getting increased Nuclear 31%
Renew 11%
emphasis all over the world. Fusion
energy does not show yet any practical
Coal 74%
promise despite expensive R&D over a Oil 8%
long period of time. Recently, we are China Gas 0%
Nuclear 2%
talking about hydrogen economy, Renew 16%
where our abundant renewable energy
resources will be used to generate Coal 73%
Oil 8%
hydrogen gas by electrolysis of water India Gas 1%
Nuclear 3%
and to store as a clean fuel for future Renew 15%
energy source.
Figure 4 shows electricity genera- FIGURE 4 – Electricity generation by fuel types for selected countries.
tion by different fuel types for a few
selected countries (the United States,
Japan, China, and India) [2]. In the against radiation hazard is of serious GHGs [6]–[8]. Although CO2 is the
United States, 40% of total energy is concern. In the past, there have been main cause, methane (and some other
consumed in electrical form, of which several serious nuclear plant accidents. gases) is also listed as a GHG. Meth-
55% comes from coal, 4% from oil, 20% Another problem with nuclear power ane is considered 20 times more harm-
from nuclear plants, and the remaining is that the nuclear waste remains radio- ful than CO2, but its concentration in
9% comes from renewables (mainly active for thousands of years, and we the atmosphere is low and migrates
hydro). Japan does not have many do not know how to safely dispose off to the upper atmosphere because of
indigenous energy resources, and it nuclear waste. It is possible that, in the its lower density than air. All of our
has to import most of them. This is the future, this waste will cause extensive energy on the earth comes from the
reason for its dominance in nuclear damage to our society. sun. Some of it is absorbed, and some
energy. It is interesting to note that the Figure 5 summarizes different gen- is reflected, and a heat balance is
world’s two fastest developing econo- eration and absorption agents for maintained that stabilizes the earth’s
mies, i.e., China and India, generate
most of the electricity by burning coal.

Stratosphere
Environmental Pollution: 55 km
Global Warming Problem
Unfortunately, burning of fossil fuels Natural Balance CO
2
(coal, oil, and natural gas) generates Photosynthesis
Troposphere
pollutant gases, such as SO2, CO, NOX, –76 km CO2 Deforestation CO
HC, and CO2, that cause environmen- CO CH4 and Succession
Respiration
tal pollution problems. For example, Fossil Fuel CO2
Agricultural
acid rain that destroys vegetation is Emissions +CO2 Conversion CO2 CH4
CH4 CO CH4
caused by SO2 and NOX, and urban CO2
CO2
pollution is caused mainly by automo-
bile exhaust gases (CO, NOX, and HC).
The more dominant effect of fossil Animals
fuel burning is the global warming CaHCO3/2 Dead Organic
problem that is mainly caused by CO2 Mixed Photosynthesis Ca2 Matter
Layer Buffer – Organic C
(called GHG), which traps the solar CO3
–75 m Effect
Upwelling GHGs
heat in the atmosphere (called the
Downwelling Respiration CaCO3 • CO2
greenhouse effect). Deep Peat
It may be mentioned here that Ocean Coal • Methane (CH4)
Deposition
–3,700 m Oil and • Others
nuclear power does not have the
Gas
traditional environmental pollution
problem, but safety of nuclear plant FIGURE 5 – How greenhouse GHGs are generated. (Taken from [6].)

MARCH 2010 n IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE 9


HEVs are finding increasing acceptance
because of the rising price of gasoline.
temperature. The major amount of
CO2 emission in the atmosphere is
caused by burning fossil fuels. In
2007, the IPCC of United Nations
established (with 90% certainty) that
man-made generation of CO2 is the
principal cause of global warming
problem [9], [10]. Note that human
beings and other animals exhale GHG,
but the trees absorb CO2 by photo-
synthesis (called carbon fertilization
effect). A considerable amount of CO2
is washed away by rain and dissolve
as carbonic acid in the ocean. In nor-
mal conditions, different natural sour-
ces and sinks of GHG maintain an
ecological balance that maintains the
stable atmospheric temperature. A
secondary cause of global warming is
due to the increasing world popula-
tion and large-scale deforestation that
upset the natural ecological balance.
It should be noted, however, that a
significant amount of greenhouse ef-
fect (not shown in Figure 5) is caused
by water vapor and cloud that act as
bias and helps to sustain plant and
animal life on the earth.
Global Warming Effect
As mentioned earlier, higher concen-
tration of GHGs in the atmosphere
400
The Industrial Revolution has
350 caused a dramatic rise in CO2.
300
1000 1200 1400
Year (AD)
400 300 200
Thousands of Years Ago
FIGURE 6 – CO2 variations in atmosphere thousands of years ago.
10 IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE n MARCH 2010
accumulates solar heat and raises
the atmospheric temperature. The
past measurements and future pre-
diction by the climate scientists indi-
cate that the rise in temperature is
typically a few degrees every 100 years.
However, the long-term effect of global
warming is very serious, which can be
summarized as follows:
n The gradual melting of the world’s
glaciers and polar ice caps will
inundate low-lying areas of the
earth. This effect is a serious con-
cern because 100 million people
of the world population live within
3 ft of sea water level [11].
n Severe droughts in tropical coun-
tries near the equator, such as
Africa and India, will cause dam-
age to vegetation and agriculture
and will create the problem of
fresh water supply.
n The circulation of more air with
heavy moisture will cause more
hurricanes, tornados, heavy rains,
and floods.
n A tropical climate with more
moisture will induce the spread
of diseases.
n Some animal species (such as
polar bears, penguins, and corals)
will gradually become extinct [16].
400
CO2 Concentration (ppmv)
350
1600 1800 2000
300
Ice Age
Cycles
250
200
100 0 CO2 emission per person (in tons). It
n Gulf Stream warm water in the
ocean water conveyor belt can
be interrupted, inducing freezing
weather in some parts of the
world [12].
Another harmful effect is the
increased acidity of sea water due to
carbonic acid (by dissolved CO2),
which threatens the marine life in the
long run. Systematic scientific study
has begun on this aspect.
Carbon Emission Curves
Scientists have studied carbon (or
CO2) concentration variation in atmos-
phere over a long period of time by ice
core studies, which will be described
later. Figure 6 shows CO2 concentra-
tion curves in the atmosphere over
thousands of years [8], [13].
The cause for cyclic variation of
CO2 (ice age cycles) in the atmos-
phere is not exactly known. There is
one theory of periodic large methane
bursts from the ocean floor or earth,
but it is not certain. However, one
thing we are sure of is that in the past
1,000 years (including the postindus-
trial revolution), the CO2 concentra-
tion has increased dramatically (see
upper curve), which is much larger
than the upper limit of normal cyclic
variation. Scientists believe that this
peaking is due to man-made burning
of fossil fuels and it is irreversible,
and, therefore, the consequences are
serious. Figure 7 shows the global
carbon emission curves over the last
200 years (postindustrial revolution
era) due to the burning of different
fossil fuels [8].
It has been estimated that 80% of
atmospheric CO2 (i.e., 8,000 million
metric tons of carbon/year) is gener-
ated by man-made fossil fuel burning,
of which typically 50% is due to elec-
tric power generation and 40% is due
to oil-based transportation. Figure 8
shows per capita CO2 emission versus
population of some selected countries
[8], [13]. The horizontal axis shows
the population (in millions) of the
countries, and the vertical axis shows
is interesting to note that the United
States has the highest per capita emis-
sion in the world (because of highest
per capita energy consumption), and
Canada’s emission is very close to
that in the United States. Australia
comes in somewhat below Canada.
The European nations as well as Rus-
sia and Japan are typically less than
50% of that of the United States.
Although Switzerland has the highest
standard of living in the world (above
the United States), its emission level is
moderate. The total emission in a
country, given by the area of the
rectangle, is very important. The stan-
dard of living in China is much lower
than that of the United States, and its
per capita emission is very low
(four instead of 20.3). However,
because of a large population
(1.3 billion instead of 300 mil-
A secondary cause of global warming
is due to the increasing world population
and large-scale deforestation that tend to upset
the natural ecological balance.
energy sources consist of nuclear
and renewable sources, as indicated
in the figure. The corresponding gen-
eration of CO2 was typically 7.0 bil-
lion tons/year. The world energy
8,000
consumption is expected to grow typi-
cally 60% during the 28 years, and the
corresponding CO2 will rise by 62%
(11.3 billion tons/year) due to increased
sharing of the fossil fuels. Evidently, as
a result, the global warming ef-
fect will be significant.
Temperature and

Million Metric Tons Of Carbon/Year

lion), the total emission in Total Sea-Level Rise
7,000
Petroleum
China is large. In fact, in 2006, Coal The United Nations IPCC esti-
6,000
the total emission in China Natural Gas mates that atmospheric temper-
Cement Production 5,000
exceeded that of the United ature will rise typically between
States. Former U.S. President 4,000 1.1 and 6.4 °C in the next 100
George W. Bush refused to years due to GHGs if no reme-
3,000
accept mandatory emission dial actions are taken. Various
control for the United States, 2,000 climate research organizations
unless China took adequate 1,000 in the world (summarized in Fig-
remedial action. China blames ure 10) have attempted to gener-
the United States and other 1800 1850 1900 1950 2004 ate climate models of the world
industrialized nations for creat- and make extensive simulation
ing this mess and is not willing FIGURE 7 – Global fossil fuel CO2 emissions. studies in supercomputers and
to sacrifice its growing stan-
dard of living by reducing en-
ergy consumption. Brazil has a good
standard of living, but low per capita 21 United States
emission. In Brazil, typically 95% of Canada
energy (in electrical form) comes 18
from hydro, it has large CO2 sinking
Australia
Amazon rain forest, and 50% of its
CO2 Emission/Person (Ton)

automobiles runs on renewable 15

biofuel (sugarcane-based ethanol). Bio-
fuels are said to have carbon neutrali- 12
Russia
zation effect, because they absorb Japan, United Kingdom, Denmark
CO2 during plant growth but emit CO2 Austria
9
at burning. Italy, New Zealand
At the present rate of growth of France
world energy consumption (if no 6 Switzerland
remedial actions are taken), the po- Mexico China
tential CO2 rise between 2002 and 3
2030 is given in Figure 9 [10], [14]. Brazil India Africa
In 2002, the total energy consump-
0
tion in the world was typically 410 0 700 1,400 2,100 2,800 3,500 4,200 4,900 5,600 6,300
24
quadrillion Btu (1 quadrillion ¼ 10 Population (Millions)
units), of which the share between (Not to Scale)
fossil fuels and alternative energy
sources is shown. The alternative FIGURE 8 – Per capita CO2 emission versus population of some selected countries (2004).

MARCH 2010 n IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE 11


The energy consumption in the world
has grown by leaps and bounds to cater the need
of growing world population and improvement
of our standard of living.
World Energy Consumption (Quadrilion Btu)
FIGURE 9 – Potential CO2 rise during 2002–2030.
have come up with global warming pro-
jections, as shown in Figure 10 [8]. The
initial part of the curves for past 100
years (1900–2000) shows that the
temperature, in fact, rose between 0.6
and 1.0 °C. The worst case temperature
rise projection for the next 100 years is
5 °C, whereas the most optimistic pro-
jection is 2 °C. Similar studies
have been made by U.S. National
Academy of Sciences. The large
error in the projection is due to
inaccuracy of climate model,
which is extremely complex, and
will possibly take long time to
correct. None of the studies dis-
agree that there will not be any
global warming.
How do we get atmospheric
temperature data and the re-
1900
lated information for the past?
The ice core studies in Antarc-
tica by U.S. National Science FIGURE 10 – Global warming projections by different
Foundation (NSF), shown in research agencies.
12 IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE n MARCH 2010
(such as CO 2 ) of the atmosphere,
2) dust particle composition, 3) air
temperature, 4) any unusual event
(such as volcanic eruptions), and
5) nuclear radiation leaks. The ice age
CO2 variations in Figure 6 were ob-
tained by the ice core study.
As mentioned earlier, one of the
harmful effects of global warming is
droughts, which will be particularly
654 serious in tropical countries near the
equator, such as Africa. Droughts will
600 cause loss of agricultural production,
60% Rise damage of vegetation, reduction of
CO2
4.2 Billion Ton/Year fresh water supply, and thus will tend
to induce famines. The studies of
droughts are being made in different
parts of the world. An example of
Fossil Fuels
410 62% Rise
drought is Lake Chad (one of the larg-
CO2 est lakes in the world) in central
300 2.6 Billion Ton/Year
Africa, which has been studied exten-
sively by National Aeronautics and
Fossil Fuels
Alternative
Space Administration (NASA) satel-
Energy
Sources lites [9]. It is a shallow lake that sup-
Nuclear
plies water to 20 million people in the
Hydroelectric four neighboring countries of Chad,
Wind Solar Cameroon, Niger, and Nigeria. The
Biomass lake shrank from 10,000 mi2 to
Geothermal
0 839 mi2 (less than one tenth the size)
2002 2030
in the last 35 years. Similar observa-
tions have been made in other lakes
around the world. In the areas of agri-
culture and vegetation, the drought
Figure 11, provide invaluable data of problems in tropical countries near
past weather conditions for thousands the equator are equally serious. For
of years [7]. The steel tubes are example, the Peterson Economical In-
inserted deep in the ice for miles to stitute has conducted studies that, by
extract samples for thousands of 2080, India’s agricultural production
years. Layer by layer, these ice cores will decrease by 38%; however, the
keep finger print of weather condi- CO2 fertilization effect will offset it by
tions, such as 1) chemical composition 9% [15]. There are similar projections
for other equatorial countries.
The more serious effect of
5 global warming is the melting
Temperature Anomaly (°C)
CCSR/NIES CCCma ice in the Arctic, the Antarctic,
CSIRO Hadley Center 4
Greenland, the Himalayas, and
GFDL MPIM
NCAR PCM NCAR CSM 3 thousands of glaciers around
2 the world. In fact, the actual
melting is much faster than the
1
prediction, which is baffling to
0 scientists.
–1 Arctic ice shrank by 500,000
mi2 in 2006 alone, which was
1950 2000 2050 2100
Global Warming Projections three times faster than the orig-
inal prediction by the climate
scientists. It is now being pre-
dicted that the Arctic regions
will be virtually free from ice by the
summer of 2070. Similar melting is
occurring in Greenland, Antarctica
[8], and other glaciers. Although Ant-
arctica shows an overall warming
trend, the region of East Antarctica,
which includes the South Pole, is at a
much higher elevation and shows a
cooling trend. This contradicts the
computer climate models and is
baffling to climate scientists. It is be-
lieved that the ozone hole in Antarc-
tica due to chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
gases is the reason for this cooling.
Scientists believe that the ozone hole
will eventually heal, and then the
warming trend will start. The melting
of ice is raising the sea level with the
potential to flood the low-lying areas
of the world. Ninety percent of solar
incident heat is absorbed by water,
whereas ice absorbs only 10% heat.
This gives a positive feedback
effect in the accelerated melt-
ing of polar ice cap. Also, the
floating ice in the Arctic Ocean
does not cause any rise in the
sea level, because ice shrinks
while melting. However, the
sea level rises by a small
amount due to thermal expan-
sion of water. Melting of Arctic
ice is removing the habitats of
polar bears and penguins with
the expected extinction of these
species. These animals also
need to swim for longer distan-
ces to find their food for sur- FIGURE 12 – Sea-level rise over a decade due to global
warming (NASA/JPL TOPEX/Poseidon data).
vival. The highly sensitive corals
in the sea are dying because of
higher water temperature and
acidity of dissolved CO2 [16].
The NASA/Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (JPL) of the United
States recently made extensive
studies on rise of ocean surface
topography by satellites. Fig-
ure 12 shows the average sea-
level rise during the ten-year
period (1992–2002) by the
TOPEX/Poseidon project of
NASA/JPL [13]. It indicates that
the rise of 24 mm, i.e., approxi-
mately 1.0 in by the U.S. Na-
tional Academy of Engineering,
has made the measurement of
sea level to rise by 6 in during FIGURE 13 – Sea-level rise projection over 100 years.
the period 1950–2000. Figure 13
shows the projection of sea-level rise
in 100 years [11], [13]. The worst case
scenario is a 3.0-ft rise in 2100 with
the corresponding atmospheric CO2
concentration of 971 ppm (the cur-
rent figure is around 380 ppm as
shown in Figure 6), whereas the best
case scenario is 3 in with CO2 concen-
tration of 478 ppm. The results vary
widely because of the inaccuracy of
the models and complexity of the
studies. As mentioned earlier, about
100 million people that live within 3 ft
of sea level will experience flooding of
their habitats.
It has been estimated that, if all the
ice in Greenland and Antarctica melts,
the sea level will rise by 200 ft. In the
FIGURE 11 – Ice core studies in Antarctica. United States, Manhattan of New York
(Taken from [6].) City will be under 200 ft of water if all
the ice in two polar ice caps melt [13].
With the projected rise of sea
level, it is estimated that 50% of
15
Bangladesh will be under water
10 in 300 years, which will displace
75 million people. Several island
5
nations in the Pacific Ocean
AMSL (mm)
0 (such as Tuvalu) will be under
–5 water within 100 years, and they
have already applied to the
–10 United Nations for help. In fact,
–15 if fossil fuel burning is com-
pletely stopped today; theoreti-
–20
1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 cally, the sea level will rise by
Year 4.6 ft in the next 1,000 years until
the ecological equilibrium con-
dition of CO2 is reached in the
atmosphere. Again, the melt-
ing of the Arctic ice cap and
glaciers will dump huge quan-
tities of fresh water in the
Rise Above 1990 Sea Level (Global Average)
warm water of the Gulf Stream
3 Feet
Worst-Case in the north Atlantic Ocean.
Scenario Over a long period of time, this
CO2 at
may break the conveyor belt
2 971 ppm
of ocean currents and bring
frigid weather to some parts of
Best-Case
Scenario the world [12]. This phenom-
1
CO2 at ena are not well understood
478 ppm and requires extensive study.
0
There is no doubt that global
warming effect will bring tre-
2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100
mendous unrest and instability
in the world. Fortunately, these
effects are very slow over a long
period of time, and human
MARCH 2010 n IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE 13

The power electronic apparatus
gives higher efficiency than by using
traditional methods such as motor-generator sets
and rheostatic control.
beings have tremendous capability for
adaptation.
Among all the grim effects of
global warming, there are, however, a
few beneficial sides. As indicated
earlier, CO2 absorption by photosyn-
thesis helps nutrition of agriculture
and plants (carbon fertilization ef-
fect) that will promote growth of agri-
culture but will be offset by droughts.
Melting of polar ice caps opens new
and shorter navigation routes (in
summer only). For example, shrink-
ing of Arctic ice from 1.5 million mi2
to 1.0 million mi in 2006 alone, has
opened a new shipping route in the
Arctic Ocean that has reduced navi-
gation distance between London and
Tokyo by 48% (13,000–8,100 mi). It is
estimated that around 25% of the
world’s oil and gas reserves are
below the Arctic Ocean, which will be
available soon for exploration [13].
However, this exploration will be
expensive. Besides, melting of ice will
recover new lands that will be avail-
able for habitation and agriculture.
Canada, Russia, and Greenland are
beaming with joy with these new
expectations. In addition, warming of
weather in cold climates will reduce
the heating bills.
The Kyoto Treaty
and Carbon Emission Control
Considering the serious consequen-
ces, the United Nations called a series
of international meetings to discuss
the challenges posed by global tem-
perature and climate change. Finally,
as a result, Kyoto Protocol (an inter-
national agreement) emerged in 1997
[7]. According to this treaty, by 2012,
many industrialized nations must re-
duce GHG emissions 5–8% below the
1990 levels. For example, countries in
the European Union should make an
14 IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE n MARCH 2010
8% reduction (varies among the mem-
ber nations), whereas the United
States should make 7% reduction. The
United States and Australia refused to
participate in this mandatory reduc-
tion formula (however, Australia re-
cently joined the treaty). For Russia,
no further growth of emission was
permitted. Since China and India were
developing economies, no emission
curbing was mandated for 2008–2012.
As mentioned earlier, per capita
emission in these countries is low,
although the total emission is signifi-
cant because of their large population.
The Kyoto Protocol went into effect in
2005. Now (at the time of this writing),
it has 187 member countries, covering
nearly 62% of global GHG emission.
As mentioned earlier, according
to the terms of the treaty, each mem-
ber country is assigned a cap or
quota (in tons of CO2) for emission,
and emission must be limited within
the quota. Otherwise, a country with
higher emission can purchase credits
from a country that has lower than
the assigned quota of emission
(called the cap-and-trade policy). For
example, the United Kingdom, with
higher than quota emission, can pur-
chase credits from Brazil, which has
emission below its quota. Within a
country, a quota is assigned to each
industry that can buy or sell credits
from another industry to satisfy the
quota. The same principle is also
applicable to individual persons or
families. There are trading organiza-
tions that control buying and selling
of credits similar to share transac-
tions. It is difficult to monitor and
enforce the cap-and-trade policy.
Alternatively, carbon tax can be im-
posed on individuals or industries. In
1990, the United States Clean Air Act,
similar to the cap-and-trade policy,
was enforced successfully for auto-
and power-plant acid rain emis-
sions, which is now a US$3 billion
industry. European countries have
taken a leadership position in en-
forcing the cap-and-trade policy, but
in the United States, it is considered
favorable, although the Congress
has not yet approved the mandatory
emission control policy. The repre-
sentatives from 170 countries met at
the Climate Conference of Copenha-
gen, Denmark, in December 2009
to formulate climate control policy
beyond 2012.
How Can We Solve or Mitigate
the Global Warming Problem?
The first step we can take to solve this
problem is to promote all of our en-
ergy consumption in electrical form.
Instead of distributed consumption of
fossil fuels, centralized fossil fuel-
based power generating stations can
use advanced emission control stan-
dards. As emission control technolo-
gies advance, it is somewhat easy to
apply such technologies in central
power stations. As mentioned earlier,
coal is the most abundant fossil fuel
on earth, but it is also the dirtiest fuel
for environmental pollution. Some
people are demanding the end of
coal-based power generation alto-
gether, but practically, that may not
happen easily. Coal power stations, at
present, have very poor efficiency,
which can be improved significantly
to reduce pollution. Currently, there
is ongoing research on clean coal
technologies, which can be classified
as carbon capture and sequestration
(CCS) and integrated gasification
combined cycle (IGCC). In the CCS
technology, CO2 is captured from the
power station chimney, compressed,
transported, and then stored under-
ground. In the IGCC process, coal is
pulverized, gasified with the help of
steam, and then impurities are sepa-
rated. Neither of these technologies
have been successful commercially.
Nuclear power is claimed to be
environmentally clean, and currently,
there is demand for increasing nu-
clear power generation. Since trees
absorb CO2, the tropical rain forests
(such as the Amazon rain forest) can
be preserved, or widespread foresta-
tion can be promoted to mitigate the
global warming problem. Some coun-
tries are actively promoting tree
plantation as new housing estates are
being developed. Controlling the
human and animal population to
reduce GHG is not easy. Since human
beings exhale CO2 as well as demand
energy for standard of living, popula-
tion control gives benefit in two
dimensions. A substantial portion of
global energy demand can be met by
promoting environmentally clean re-
newable energy sources (hydro, wind,
solar, geothermal, and fuel cells), and
the current trend in the world is to
explore them vigorously. Fuel cells
can be defined as clean if clean energy
is used to produce hydrogen fuel.
Recent studies [38] have indicated
that hydro, wind, and solar technolo-
gies (possibly with adequate storage)
can provide 100% of the world’s
energy, eliminating all fossil fuels.
Internal combustion engine vehicles
(ICEVs) can be replaced by electric
vehicles (EVs) (with the interim phase
of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) pos-
sibly with biofuels), and if electricity is
generated by clean sources, GHG pol-
lution will be mitigated. Promoting
mass transportation, particularly by
railways, as in Japan and Europe, will
mitigate global warming problem. Con-
siderable amount of energy can be
saved by improving efficiency in gen-
eration, transmission, distribution, and
utilization of electrical energy.
It should be mentioned here that
power electronics plays significant
roles in renewable energy generation,
EVs, mass railway transportation,
and energy efficiency, which will be
discussed later.
Unfortunately, a considerable
amount of energy is simply wasted
because of bad consumer habits or
affluence of a segment of the world
population. For example, it has been
estimated that 33% of the total energy
in the United States is simply wasted
[19]. Saving the wasted energy (i.e.,
promoting conservation) in different
countries can play a significant role in
curbing the global warming problem.
Droughts will cause loss
of agricultural production, damage of vegetation,
reduction of fresh water supply, and thus will tend
to induce famines.
Impact of Power Electronics
Now, let us fall back to power elec-
tronics and discuss its importance in
solving or mitigation global warming
problems [17]–[24].
Why Is Power Electronics
so Important Today?
Power electronics [25]–[29] deals
with conversion and control of electri-
cal power with the help of power semi-
conductor devices that operate in
switching mode, and therefore, the
efficiency of power electronic appara-
tus may approach as high as 98–99%.
Power electronics is a very important
element in modern high-efficiency
energy processing systems, such as
high-voltage dc (HVDC), static VAR
compensator (SVC), universal power
flow control (UPFC), uninterruptible
power supply (UPS), and industrial
process control with variable fre-
quency drives for improving produc-
tivity and quality of products. With
advancing technology, as the cost of
power electronics decreases, the size
gets smaller and reliability is im-
proved with longer life and perform-
ance improvement, hence power
electronics is being applied exten-
sively in industrial, commercial, res-
idential, aerospace, military, and
transportation systems. Our environ-
mentally clean renewable energy sour-
ces [wind, photovoltaic (PV), and fuel
cells] that do not cause any global
warming are heavily dependent on
power electronics. The world has
enormous resources of wind energy,
and according to the estimate of Euro-
pean Wind Energy Association, tapping
only 10% of it can supply all the electric-
ity needs of the world. Currently, the
cost of wind power is very close to that
of fossil fuel power. This has been pos-
sible by technology advances in power
MARCH 2010 n IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE 15
electronics, variable speed drives, and
wind turbines. Currently, the United
States is the world leader (close to that
of Germany) in wind energy in terms of
installed capacity (25 GW) and total
energy generation, but in terms of
percentage energy, Denmark is the
leader (20%). Wind energy exploration
rate is now dramatically increasing in
the United States. With the current
share of only 1% of electrical energy, it
is expected to increase dramatically to
20% by 2030 [30]–[34]. The PV energy
consumption also constitutes green
power and is abundantly available.
Recently, the cost of PV panels
has decreased substantially. How-
ever, PV power is still expensive (typ-
ically three times more than wind
power). Vigorous R&D is expected to
decrease the cost of PV substantially
in the near future and the growth of
its application. Both wind and PV
sources are intermittent in nature,
and therefore, requires energy stor-
age, or backup support. All the bulk
electricity storage techniques (bat-
tery, flywheel, superconductive ener-
gy storage (SMES), ultracapacitor,
and pumped hydro) are again heavily
dependent on power electronics.
They are still very expensive and
require extensive research. The EVs
and HEVs are also heavily dependent
on power electronics. They are ener-
gy efficient compared with ICEVs and
mitigate global warming problem if
electricity for charging the battery is
generated from renewable sources
(or nuclear power). Unfortunately,
limitation of battery technology makes
these vehicles still expensive. Cur-
rently, HEVs are finding increasing ac-
ceptance because of the rising price of
gasoline. However, it appears that EVs
will eventually replace the HEVs at the
advent of the economical battery.

Power electronics will play a very important role
in clean energy generation, bulk storage of
electricity, and efficient energy utilization.
There is now a tremendous em-
phasis for development of fuel-cell-
and Li-ion-based EVs at an economical
price. As mentioned earlier, fuel cells
are environmentally clean if hydrogen
fuel is generated from renewable en-
ergy sources (or nuclear power) [35].
The current study indicates that, with
the present technology, Li-ion-based
EVs are more economical than fuel-
cell-based EVs [38], and mass-pro-
duced battery EVs life-cycle cost (with
battery replacement cost) is compara-
ble with that of ICEVs with gasoline
price higher than US$2.00/Gal [39].
Power Electronics
in Energy Saving
Recently, the increasing importance of
power electronics has been realized
for energy saving [25], [27]. The high
efficiency of power electronics-based
energy systems is discussed earlier.
Saving of energy gives the financial
benefit directly, particularly where the
energy cost is high. The extra cost of
power electronics can be recovered
within a reasonable period depending
on the cost of electricity. In addition,
reduced consumption means reduced
generation that indirectly mitigates
the environmental pollution or global
warming problem.
The power electronic apparatus
gives higher efficiency than by using
traditional methods such as motor-
generator sets and rheostatic con-
trol. For example, many subway
drives in the world still use rheo-
static speed control of dc drives. Sim-
ply replacing a rheostat by a chopper
or inverter can highly improve ener-
gy efficiency. According to the Elec-
tric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
of the United States, roughly 60–65%
of grid-generated energy in the Unit-
ed States is consumed by electrical
machine drives, and 75% of these
are pump, fan, and compressor-type
drives. The majority of the pumps
16 IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE n MARCH 2010
and fans are used in industrial envi-
ronment for control of fluid flow. In
such applications, the traditional
method of flow control is by variable
throttle or damper opening, where an
induction motor coupled to the fan,
runs at constant speed. This method
causes a lot of energy wastage by
fluid vortex. In such applications,
variable frequency motor speed con-
trol with fully open throttle can save
up to 30% energy at light load. Again,
converter-machine efficiency in var-
iable frequency drive can be improved
further by machine flux programming
at light load.
Power electronics-based load-pro-
portional speed control of air-condi-
tioner/heat pump can save energy by
up to 20%. For example, the cost of
electricity is high in Japan. For this
reason, most Japanese homes (94%)
use variable speed air conditioning to
save energy. The additional cost of
power electronics (say 20%) is recov-
ered in a short period. One popular
application of power electronics in
recent years is multimegawatt vari-
able frequency drive in diesel-electric
ship propulsion, which can save a
considerable amount of fuel com-
pared with the traditional diesel-
turbine drive. It has been estimated
that 20% of the grid energy in the
United States is consumed by lighting.
Power electronics-based compact
fluorescent lamp (CFLs) are typically
four times more efficient than incan-
descent lamps, besides having longer
(ten times) life. For this reason, the
incandescent lamps are being re-
placed by CFLs. For example, Australia
has already banned incandescent
lamps, and in the Unites States, it will
be banned in next ten years. Currently,
the emerging solid-state light-emitting
diode (LED) lamps consume 50% less
energy than CFLs and have five times
longer life. The high-frequency induc-
tion heating and microwaves also save
a lot of energy. The smart or intelligent
power grid of tomorrow will use
power electronics extensively and
help improving energy efficiency in
generation, transmission, and distri-
bution [36].
Conclusions
Global energy consumption is dra-
matically increasing due to our quest
for a higher standard of living and the
increasing world population. Most of
our energy comes from fossil fuels,
and burning these fuels causes envi-
ronmental problems, and in particu-
lar, the global warming problem.
Global warming raises the sea level;
brings drought in tropical regions
near the equator; increases hurri-
canes, tornadoes, and floods; and
causes the spread of diseases. The
consequences are serious and have
the potential to bring tremendous
unrest in the world. Various measures
to solve or mitigate the global warm-
ing problem have been outlined in this
article. This article particularly high-
lights the impact of power electronics
in solving this problem. Power elec-
tronics will play a very important role
in clean energy generation, bulk stor-
age of electricity, and efficient energy
utilization, and eventually, it will be a
key element in the energy policies of
nations. It has been estimated that the
widespread energy efficiency improve-
ment by power electronics and other
methods with the existing technolo-
gies can save 20% of the global energy
demand, and another 20% can be
saved by preventing waste, i.e., by
various conservation methods. Final-
ly, the global warming problem is solva-
ble by the united effort of humanity.
Author’s Note
The facts and figures presented in the
article are changing continuously
because the sciences related to global
warming are evolutionary in nature.
At the end of this writing, the litera-
ture indicates that permafrost (frozen
ground near polar regions) emission
of CO2 and methane is also a threat
in global warming. As the ambient
temperature rises due to global warm-
ing, the permafrost, which holds a
large amount of GHG from long-dead
plants, thaws and causes outgassing
that can accelerate global warming by
feedback effect.
Biography
Bimal K. Bose (bbose@utk.edu)
has held the Condra Chair of Excel-
lence (endowed chair) in power elec-
tronics at the University of Tennessee,
Knoxville since 1987, where he has
been responsible for teaching and
research program in power electron-
ics and motor drives. Concurrently,
he served as a distinguished scientist
(1989–2000) and chief scientist (1987–
1989) of EPRI-Power Electronics Appli-
cations Center, Knoxville, Tennessee.
Prior to this, he was a research engi-
neer with General Electric Corporate
R&D Center (now GE Global Research
Center), Schenectady, New York (1976–
1987), an associate professor of elec-
trical engineering, Rensselaer Poly-
technic Institute, Troy (1971–1976),
and a faculty member at Bengal Engi-
neering and Science University (1960–
1971). He is specialized in power
electronics and motor drives.
He has authored more than 200
papers, holds 21 U.S. patents, and has
authored/edited seven books in power
electronics. Currently, he serves as a
member of the IEEE Awards Board,
IEEE Power Engineering Medal Com-
mittee, and IEEE USA Energy Policy
Committee. He has received a number
of awards, including the IEEE Power
Electronics Society Newell Award
(2005), IEEE Millennium Medal (2000),
IEEE Meritorious Achievement Award
in Continuing Education (1997), IEEE
Lamme Gold Medal (1996), IEEE-IES
Eugene Mittelmann Award (for life-
time achievement in power electron-
ics and motor drives) (1994), IEEE
Region 3 Outstanding Engineer Award
(1994), IEEE-IAS Outstanding Achieve-
ment Award (1993), Calcutta Univer-
sity Mouat Gold Medal (1970), GE
Silver Patent Medal (1986), GE Publi-
cation Award (1985), and a number of
IEEE Prize Paper Awards. He also
received the Distinguished Alumnus
Award (2006) from Bengal Engineer-
ing and Science University. IEEE
Power electronics-based load-proportional
speed control of air-conditioner/heat pump can
save energy by up to 20%.
Industrial Electronics Magazine hon-
ored Bimal K. Bose by publishing a
special issue (June 2009) ‘‘Honoring
Dr. Bimal Bose and Celebrating His
Contributions in Power Electronics.’’
He is a Life Fellow of the IEEE.
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