Empirical Formulas for Ballistic

ROGER R. BATE 1
Re-Entry Trajectories ROGER W. JOHNSON 2
Department of Astronautics
U.S. Air Force Academy, Colo.

An empirical method is presented for determining the range, time of flight, and maximum de-
celeration associated with t h e re-entry of a ballistic nose cone. Simple equations are presented
which permit calculation of actual range and actual time of flight compared to the range and time
of flight under conditions of no atmosphere. Coefficients are plotted which relate range and time
of flight to the initial re-entry conditions and ballistic coefficient W/Cz>A. These coefficients were
determined from a series of trajectories obtained on a digital computer for various initial conditions.

T H E equations of motion of a body entering Earth's to H, and the magnitude of H is given by

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atmosphere can be integrated numerically on high speed

digital computers, but for preliminary design it is more con- H = -(A/2m)pCDvH [4]
venient to have available approximate methods that the de-
Since f and rv are the radial and circumferential components
signer can use at his desk. The methods described in this
of v
paper are based on a large number of numerical integrations
of the equations of motion covering a wide variation in the r2 + {ri,Y = f2 + (H2/r2)
initial conditions and characteristics of the re-entering body.
and therefore
E q u a t i o n s o f M o t i o n of R e - E n t e r i n g B o d y ±(v2 - H2/r2\ [5]
In writing the equations of motion of the re-entering body, Eqs. [2, 4, and 5] form a system of three simultaneous first-
the following simplifying assumptions were made: 1) Earth order differential equations in the variables r, v, and H which
and its gravitational field are spherically symmetric; 2) the may be numerically integrated by the Runge-Kutta method
atmosphere is stationary in inertial space; and 3) there is no (l). 3 - 4
lift force acting on the body at any time. In order to compute the range, Eq. [6] may be integrated
Under these assumptions, the equation of motion of the re- simultaneously with Eqs. [2, 4, and 5]:
entering body can be written (see Fig. 1):
v = H/r2 [6]
3
raf = -Gum/r )r - %P(h) CD(M) Aw [1]
where N u m e r i c a l I n t e g r a t i o n of E q u a t i o n s of M o t i o n
p(h) = atmospheric density at altitude h Near the maximum deceleration point, a very small in-
CD(M) = drag coefficient at Mach number M tegration time interval must be used to maintain a small
M = v/aifi) = Mach number truncation error. At the same time, if this time interval is
a(h) = speed of sound at altitude h continued throughout the trajectory, the number of integra-
tion intervals will be excessive, and the error in computer
Eq. [1] can be put in a form convenient for numerical in- roundoff will be exorbitant, making solution time on each
tegration by the following manipulation. Dividing Eq. run unnecessarily long. By introducing a new independent
[1 ] by m and dot multiplying by velocity gives variable r in the four simultaneous differential ballistic re-
f .f = -Gu/r 8 )(f-r) - (A/2m)PCDv(V'V) entry equations, the integration time interval is made small
during high deceleration and large at all other times; r is
which may be simplified to defined by
vv — — {n/r2)r — (A/2m)p CDV3 dt/dr = 1/(1 + d) [7]
or 2
where d is the drag deceleration = (Cz>A/m) (py /2</0) (in
v = _( M / r 2 ) ( y/t,) - (A/2m)P CDv2 [2] Earth surface gf's); t then becomes the fifth dependent vari-
able.
Dividing Eq. [1 ] by m and cross-multiplying by r gives Multiplying Eqs. [2, 4, 6, and 5], respectively, by Eq.
rXf= -(/xA 3 )(r X r) - (A/2m)P CDv(r X v) [7] gives the transformed ballistic re-entry equations. Also,
let Wo be the force of gravity acting on the mass m at sea level
Noting that the specific angular momentum H = r X v, so that WQ = mgo. Then
this equation becomes
do (CDA\ pv2 go ji^ dr
H = -{A/2m)pCDvH [8]
[3] IT 2(1 + d) " vr2 dr
From Eq. [3], it is obvious that the direction of H is con-
\wj
dH pvr2 g0 dv
stant, and, therefore, the motion is in a plane perpendicular [9]
dr = (CDA
\ 2 IT
Received
1
November 17, 1961; revised May 24, 1962.
3
Major, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army; also Associate Pro- 4
Numbers in parentheses indicate References at end of paper.
fessor
2
of Astronautics. Milne's classic predictor-corrector five-point integration
Captain, U.S. Air Force; also Assistant Professor of Astro- method was initially tried so that truncation errors could be
nautics. Member ARS. monitored, but an unstable solution was obtained (2).
1882 ARS JOURNAL
 ACTUAL TRAJECTORY-
NO DRAG TRAJECTORY

Fig. 1 Geometry of forces acting on re-entry vehicle

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dv Fig. 2 Geometry of empirical equations and initial condition

[10]
IT r2 \1 + d) transfer

dr ±(v2 - i?2A2)"2
Jr [11]
(1 +d)
An initial re-entry altitude h0 is assumed to be 106 ft (well
above the sensible atmosphere) for this ballistic re-entry
trajectory analysis (point o in Fig. 2).
If initial conditions are given at some other altitude, which
is still above the sensible atmosphere, the necessary values of
v and <p at 106 ft can be computed from the free-flight equa-
tions of motion.
It is convenient to introduce a parameter Q defined as
Q == v2/v2cs = v2r/fi [12]
where vcs is the speed of a circular satellite at a radius r, and
H is the product of the universal gravitational constant and
the mass of Earth, i.e., (/* = Gme) = 14.075 X 1015 ft 3 /sec 2 .
This parameter will be used in the remainder of this paper.
It is not a constant of motion for a trajectory. The equations
used in the transfer of initial conditions are
Qo — Qre + To)/a [13]
COS<p0 = (rreQre/nQo)1/2 COS <pre [14]
a = r/(2 - Q) [15]
where a is the semimajor axis of the Keplerian ellipse.
Three quantities were varied during this analysis, the re-entry
angle <po, re-entry Q0, and the ballistic coefficient B = Wo/
CQ(*>)A (depends on the characteristics of the re-entry ve-
hicle). They will vary through the following ranges: 1) nine
values of sin <po from — 0.225 to — 0.825 equally spaced at inter-
A n a l y s i s of R e s u l t s
Figs. 4 and 5 are plots of drag deceleration and speed ratio
vs altitude for three typical ballistic coefficients. Incor-
porated also on the graphs, in dashed lines, are the respective
straight-line approximation (5) profiles for these same trajec-
tories. The deviation between the straight-line approxima-
tion and the actual drag deceleration seems great enough to
warrant further investigation.
Maximum Deceleration and Height a t Maximum
Deceleration
The four curves Figs. 6a-d show maximum drag decelera-
tion values plotted against sin(— <p0) for four values of Qo.
The dashed line on all of the plots represents the straight-line
approximation to the maximum deceleration as proposed by
Allen and Eggers (5) which assumed an exponential at-
mosphere and constant CD and neglected gravity. This
straight-line approximation is in some instances 30% low.
An empirical correction based on these plots gives the follow-
ing approximate (within 8%) equation for maximum drag
A N OTE: ANGLE OF ATTACK a = 0
C* = CQ/CD = DRAG COEFFICIENT
NORMALIZED WITH

vals in the sin of 0.075 {<po from approximately —13.0° to \ RESPECT TO C

— 55.6°); 2) seven values of Qo from 0.3 to 1.5 equally spaced at

intervals of 0.2 in Q (vo from approximately 13,900 to 31,080
= DRAG COEFFICIENT
fps); and 3) seven values of W0/CDA from 200 to 1400 psf
equally spaced at intervals of 200 in WQ/CDA, the ballistic = DRAG COEFFICIENT AT
coefficient. This analysis then covers 441 ballistic re-entry " HYPERSONIC SPEED
( M »> 1 )
trajectories covering ballistic missile ranges from 850 to 18,600
naut miles and using ballistic coefficients ranging from the
very blunt, heat sink type to the extremely sharp ablating
type.
The drag coefficient as a function of Mach number (Fig. 3)
and the atmospheric density and speed of sound as a function
of altitude (3) were inserted into the computer in tabular
" 0
I
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II
MACH NUMBER,M
...
12 13 14 15 16

form. The drag coefficient curve (4) is a composite curve of Fig. 3 Normalized drag coefficient vs Mach number (from
typical ballistic re-entry vehicle nose cones. Ref. 4)
DECEMBER 1962 1883
 1.0
/
/
0.9 I
Q =0.5 I
1400 w 200
0.8 'km ycnA~
STRAIGHT-LINE 1/
APPROXIMATION \
0.7 v'///
/ ///
1
1
l
0.6 I ///
I /
/ J.
1 1
J 0.5
1 Iff
z 1
1
«Q4 1
1
1
1
0.3
1 J
1 J
0.2 /
/
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 /
DRAG DECELERATION (IN G's) /
//
0.1
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Fig. 4 Drag deceleration vs altitude profile /

/
f
0
"0 20 40 60 80 100 120
MAXIMUM DECELERATION (IN G's )

deceleration (in g's): Fig. 6a Maximum drag deceleration vs sin^o for <2o = 0,S;
~/W sin(— <p0)' initial conditions shown for h0 = 106 ft
dm + 20(1.3
goe <W+206 [161
A least squares fit using orthogonal polynomials (1) was
Note that, since <po is negative, sin(— <^0) is always positive. applied to each of the variables in turn, in the order listed.
Initial conditions are for ho = 106 ft, the analysis point, where The empirical equations obtained are relatively simple to use
13 = 1/24,000 ft and K0 = f(B,Q0) (given in Fig. 7). and yet sufficiently accurate for a ballistic missile design engi-
The height at which maximum deceleration occurs is neer. A first-order fit on sin(— <p0), a first-order fit on Q0, and
plotted in Figs. 8a-c. This parameter does not differ greatly a fourth-order fit on the ballistic coefficient limit the range
from the straight-line approximation, except for high ballistic error (1 a) to less than 1 naut mile and the time error (1 a) to
coefficients. less than 4 sec.
The resulting equations for re-entry range and time of flight
Empirical Solution of Re-Entry Range and Time of Flight are

From preliminary plotting of the recorded data, it was In (2ND — 2r6) = loo + hiQo — [Iio +
decided that convenient forms for re-entry range and time of hi Qo] s i n ( - <p0) [19]
flight equations are
In (Tre - TND) = (2.50 + / „ ) + Joi Qo -
ln(Siyrz) - S„) = 0[sin(- <pQ), Qo, B] [17] [Jio + Jn Qo] s i n ( - <pQ) [20]
ln(7V, - TND) = A[sin(- **), Qo, B] . [18]
where /
/
= actual re-entry range, naut miles Q0=0.7 /
= no-drag re-entry range, naut miles
1460 r200
%
= actual re-entry time of flight, sec // 000 /
STRA IGHT-LI NE / I
TND = no-drag re-entry time of flight, sec (see Fig. 2) APPF 0X1 MAT ON "^ V
/
/ ///
/ //
/
/ /
/ / / f/
/ I /

/
/ //
/
/
/ /
/ /
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
//
/
/
/
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
MAXIMUM DECELERATION (IN G's)

Fig. 6b Maximum drag deceleration vs sin<p0 for Q0 = 0.7;

Fig. 5 Speed ratio vs altitude profile initial conditions shown for hQ = 106 ft

1884 ARS JOURNAL

 1.0
/ 1
/I
Q0-0.9
' 1000
\
n R
/
If0/1/1 \
///
200 \
0.7
/
// /
/ / / /, \
STRAIGHT-LINE
APPROXIMATION \ \
> / / // \ ^_ _w - = I 4 0 0 _
0.5
/ / //^ CDA

/ / X
-—idoo
/ /^ 600
~~~ 200
7

/
/
/ / , 1
/ / X
1.0
0.2
/ Fig. 7 Deceleration coefficient K0 vs Q0; correction factor for
0.1
/ / computation of maximum deceleration
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//
/ where
0 L
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
MAXIMUM DECELERATION (IN G's) (rn + r.+ f)
cosy
2a
Fig. 6c Maximum drag deceleration vs sin<p0 for Q0 = 0.9;
initial conditions shown for hQ = 106 ft fry. + r. - / )
cos<5 1 -
2a
where / a n d J are functions of B plotted in Figs. 9 a n d 10. f = [he2 + 2rerre (sinSivz) tan %2ND) ] 1/2
T h e free-flight no-drag re-entry range 2ND is given b y :

Qre(rre/re)cos2 Pre — 1 2 - Qre

2ND = Kcos
e
For typical ballistic missiles, both vre and ve, described by the
Qre COS52 <Pre ~ - 11
cos €
}* [21] inverse trigonometric functions in Eq. [21], are located in
the third quadrant as shown in Fig. 2 (as measured counter-
where re is t h e radius of E a r t h = 20.8555 X 106 ft = 10,800/x clockwise from the perigee point of ellipse). As Qre is in-
n a u t miles. creased, a possibility exists that one or both may shift to the
T h e eccentricity e of t h e free-flight orbit can be calculated fourth quadrant. The ambiguity in the quadrant of y and 8
from in Eq. [22] can be resolved as described in Ref. 7. For re-
entry trajectories, 0 < y < ir and 0 < 8 < ir.
e2 = (Qre2 - 2Qre)cos2 <pre + 1 [21a]

L a m b e r t ' s theorem (6) gives t h e free-flight time between t h e D e m o n s t r a t i o n of Empirical S o l u t i o n of Ballistic

re-entry point t o t h e i m p a c t point as R e - E n t r y Trajectories
3 1/2
TND = (a /M) [(7 - sin7) - (5 - sin5j] [22] T o illustrate t h e procedure for t h e calculation of t h e re-
e n t r y range, t i m e of flight, a n d m a x i m u m deceleration, t w o
example problems will be solved. T h e first will be for a
/ typical I C B M , t h e second for a supersatellite ballistic re-
// e n t r y case. T h e exact digital solution was r u n for b o t h cases
14 0 0
/ in order t o show t h e resulting errors. Examining t h e full
Q = 1.3
00 // range of trajectories, it is found t h a t t h e larger errors in range
w =20 0 a n d time of flight are concentrated a t low depression angle
,<?. V a n d high velocity initial conditions. T h e typical errors ex-
STR;UGHT- J N E _
APPF*0XIMA TION
<Vs pected a t depression angles of from —13° t o —17° a n d v e -
0.6 locities of 28,000 t o 31,000 fps are 3 n a u t miles a n d 12 sec.
/
#0.5
V T h e errors for t h e remaining cases are well below t h e criteria
of 1 n a u t mile a n d 4 sec. This t r e n d can be observed in t h e
// following example problems.
"0.4

Example P r o b l e m 1
0.3
T h e re-entry conditions are
0.2 /
/ hre = ho = 1,000,000 ft
/
/ vrt = v0 = 24,075 fps

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Qre = Co = 0.9

MAXIMUM DECELERATION (IN G's)
<Pre = <P0 — — 2 2 . 0 2
Fig. 6d Maximum drag deceleration vs sin<p0 for Q0 = 1.3;
initial conditions shown for ho = 106 ft It is not necessary to transfer initial conditions, as the re-

D E C E M B E R 1962 1885
 entry point coincides with the analysis point. The ballistic Using deceleration coefficient from Fig. 7, dmax is calculated
coefficient is 200 psf. from Eq. [16] to be 64.39 gQ} which differs from the computer
2ND is calculated from Eq. [21] to be 392.24 naut miles. result of 59.34 gQ by 8%.
Using range coefficients from Fig. 9 for B = 200 psf, 2ND — This unique system of calculating the ballistic re-entry
2re is calculated from Eq. [19] to be 13.95 naut miles. Thus range, time of flight, and maximum deceleration represents a
2re is 378.3 naut miles, which differs from the computer result simple method for ballistic re-entry trajectory calculations,
of 378.11 naut miles by only 0.05%. one that the ballistic or space vehicle design engineer can
TND is calculated from Eq. [22] to be 106.64 sec. Using use without the aid of a digital computer and obtain results
time of flight coefficients from Fig. 10 for B = 200 psf, Tre — that truly represent the solution of the ballistic re-entry prob-
TND is calculated from Eq. [20] to be 87.66 sec. Thus Tre is lem at hand.
194.3 sec, which differs from the computer result of 196.07 sec
by only 0.9%.
Using deceleration coefficient from Fig. 7, dmax is calculated Free-Flight Equations
from Eq. [16] to be 64.89 gQ) which differs from the computer The following relationships for Keplerian orbits are used in
result of 66.39^0 by 2.3%. this paper. They can be derived from formulas given in
Ref. 7:
Example Problem 2 r/(2- Q) [23]
This example problem illustrates the method of transferring 2
Qcos
re-entry initial conditions to an altitude of 106 ft. [24]
The initial conditions of the re-entry point are
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- 2Q) cos2 <p + 1 [25]

hre = 400,000 ft
vr. = - 1 5 ° Acknowledgments
vre = 29,340.02 fps The Remington-Rand 1103A digital computer used in the
Qre = L3 trajectory integration and curve fitting programs was located
at Holloman Air Force Base, N. Mex. The authors express
B = 400 psf particular thanks to Daniel K. Arita of the Holloman Air
Force Base computing facility for his assistance in running
From Eq. [15], a = 30.365 X 106 ft; from Eq. [13], Qo =
these programs.
1.28025; and from Eq. [14], cpQ = - 1 6 ° 17'.
2ND is calculated from Eq. [21] to be 252.3 naut miles.
Using range coefficients from Fig. 9 for B = 400 psf, 2ND — Nomenclature
2re is calculated from Eq. [19] to be 23.29 naut miles. Thus
2r is 229.0 naut miles, which differs from the computer result a = semimajor axis of the Keplerian ellipse
of 231.99 naut miles by 1.29%. A = reference area
TND is calculated from Eq. [22] to be 53.99 sec. Using a(h) = speed of sound at altitude h
time of flight coefficients from Fig. 10 fori? = 400 psf, Tre — B,Wo/CDA, WO/CD(°°)A = ballistic coefficient
TND is calculated from Eq. [20] to be 73.21 sec. Thus Tr. CD(M),CD = drag coefficient at Mach number M
is 127.2 sec, which differs from the computer result of 122.4 d = drag deceleration
sec by 4%. e = base of the natural logarithm
FD = drag force
1.0
\ 1 1 \\
\ STRAIGHT-LINE \ STRAIGHT-LINE
0.9 Y ^~ APPROXIMATION
: APF ROXIMA T I 0 N _
0.9
\ \
\ \
0.8 \ \\ 0.8
M\ - \
07 \\\ 0.7 \
\
06
\\ 0.6

^0.5
V\\
V\\ ^0.5 \ \
z \\\\
\ \\ v 2
\
w
0.4 n
0.4
\ A w
\ \ \ \\
0.3 0.3 \ \^
<v\N V\ \
9 s s 1.3
02 0.5 O 0.2
Q 0-9 13N \
N 0 =0.5
\
200
O.I ^ = 600
O.I cV
c

^D

ni
10 20 30 40 50 20 30 40 50 60 70 50 60 70 80 90 100
HEIGHT AT MAXIMUM DECELERATION HEIGHT AT MAXIMUM DECELERATION HEIGHT AT MAXIMUM DECELERATION
(IN THOUSANDS OF FEET) (IN THOUSANDS OF FEET) (IN THOUSANDS OF FEET)
Fig. 8a Height at maximum drag de- Fig. 8b Height at maximum de- Fig. 8c Height at maximum decelera-
celeration vs sin^o for W0/CDA = celeration vs sin^o for WQ/CDA = 600; tion vs sin<p0 for WO/CDA = 200;
1400; initial conditions shown for h0 = initial conditions shown for hQ = 106 ft initial conditions shown for 106 ft
10« ft
1886 ARS JOURNAL
 2.9

2.8 /
2.7
J„ /
2.6 // \\ /
\ I
\/
5.7

/
/
\
2.5
\
io —
7
1 /
2.4

5.3 1 V J
.o
2.3 \ / /
\\ //
5.1 / 2.2 V ^-, 00
/ /
/ 2.1
\ / // ^JIC

/1 2.0
\\ / /
4.5 / \ / ,/
4.3 / \\ /
s
4.1 / / ^-1,
1.7
\ \
3.9 /// 1.6
\
3.7 // 1.5 \
^J0I
// S 1.4 \ /
// o N\L
\ ho:' //
EH 1.3
u. Y
/ /\vY
UJ
/
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3.1 O |.2
K s. 1
o
1 I.I / \
2.7 / // \
2.5 -^ 0 t
"~^ ^ 0 1
/ // \
0.9

2.3 V \ / \
0.8
/ // // / /
J
I0^
\ 0.7 \
V { y/ / ^ \
A7 \ J
1.9 0I
-i, 0.6
/ \\ /
0.5
/A - -I01
V
\
\ V10 0
0.4|

0.3
Jll
Ai/ •~-Joo

\ \ 0.2 \
0.9 \ \
/ \\ /
05
\ i \
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 13001400 1500 1600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 13001400 1500
Wo 7
BALLISTIC COEFFICIENT,^ (IN LBS/FT 2 ) BALLISTIC COEFFICIENT, = - ^ ( IN LBS/FT )

Fig. 9 Range coefficients vs ballistic coefficient Fig. 10 Time of flight coefficients vs ballistic coefficient

<7o = gravitational acceleration at Earth's mean surface a = standard deviation

h = altitude above surface of Earth Sre = actual re-entry range
H = specific angular momentum 2JVZ> = no-drag re-entry range
/ = range coefficients r = independent variable used in integration scheme
J = time of flight coefficients <p = angle from velocity vector to local horizontal (measured
KQ = deceleration coefficient, a function of B and Qo positive counterclockwise)
m = mass
M ~ Mach number
Q = v2r/fji = v2/vcs2 References
r = radius (distance from center of E a r t h to point on
trajectory) 1 Nielson, K. L., Methods in Numerical Analysis (Macmillan Co., New
York, 1956), pp. 232-234, 282-287.
t = time 2 Ralston, A. and Wilf, H. S., Mathematical Methods for Digital Com-
Tr6 = actual re-entry time of flight puters (John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York and London, 1960), pp. 103-
TND = no-drag re-entry time of flight 105.
3 Minzner, R. A., Champion, K. S. W., and Pond, H. L., "The ARDC
v = velocity model atmosphere, 1959," Air Force Surveys in Geophys. Rept. 115, AFCRC-
vcs = circular satellite speed at radius r TR-59-267, Air Force Cambridge Research Center, Bedford, Mass. (August
Wo = mgQ 1959).
4 Berry, R. P., "Ballistic missile re-entry trajectory parameters as func-
a = angle of attack tions of altitude," STL/TN-60-0000-09019, Space Technology Labs., Los
0 = constant equal to 1/24,000 f t ' 1 Angeles, Calif. (February 4, 1960).
e = eccentricity of the free-flight orbit (no drag) 5 Allen, H. J. and Eggers, A. J., Jr., "A study of the motion and aero-
dynamic heating of ballistic missiles entering the earth's atmosphere at high
ix = gravitational parameter (/x = G me), where G is supersonic speeds," NACA Rept. 1381, Ames Aeronaut. Lab., Moffett Field,
universal gravitational constant and mt is the Calif., pp. 1-5(1958).
mass of E a r t h 6 Plummer, H. C , An Introductory Treatise on Dynamical Astronomy
(Dover Publications, New York, 1960), pp. 50-52.
v = true anomaly 7 Jensen, J., Townsend, G. E., Kraft, J. D., and Kork, J., Design Guide
p(h),p = atmospheric density at altitude h to Orbital Flight (McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York, 1962), Chap. II.

DECEMBER 1962 1887