Answer the following question thoroughly.

1. What are the different requirements for bacterial growth. (10pts. Each)
bacteria require optimum nutrient and physical conditions for their growth. Nutritional requirements of
bacteria include adequate supply of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, inorganic ions and growth
factors.
2. Enumerate the different nutritional requirement of bacteria(10pts. each) was
Carbon- makes up the structure backbone or skeleton of all organic molecules. Based on their carbon
sources, microorganisms may be classified into autotrophs (lithotrophs) and heterotrophs
(organitrophs)
Nitrogen, Sulfur, Phosphorus- there are necessary for the synthesis of cellular materials like proteins and
nucleic acid. Nitrogen and sulfur are required for the synthesis of proteins. Nitrogen and phosphorus are
essential for the synthesis of nucleic acids and ATP. Approximately 14% of the dry weight of a bacterial
cell is nitrogen and about 4% is sulfur and phosphorus.
Inorganic Ions- These include magnesium, calcium, irons, and trace elements (manganese, zinc, copper,
cobalt). Magnesium stabilizes ribosomes, cell membranes, and nucleic acids. It also serves as a co-factor
in the activity of many enzymes. Potassium is required for the normal functioning and integrity of
ribosomes and participates in certain enzymatic activities of the cell.
Growth Factor- Are essential to promote the growth and development of the bacterial cell. These
include vitamin B complex and amino acids.
3. Discuss the Normal flora of the Human body (10pts. each)
Normal or indigenous flora refers to organisms that inhabit the body of a normal healthy individual.
Resident flora, also known as normal flora, refers to microorganisms that are regularly found in a given
area at a given age.Transient flora are those organisms that inhabit the skin and mucous membrane
temporarily for a few hours, days, or weeks. They do not establish themselves permanently in the body
tissues.
4. Differentiate Medical asepsis with surgical asepsis (10pts. each)
Medical asepsis- is aimed at reducing the number of diseases-producing organisms to prevent its spread
from healthcare workers to the patients and vice versa.
Surgical asepsis- is aimed at total elimination of disease-producing organisms particilarly in areas in the
body where surgical procedures will be performed as well as the location where the surgical procedure
will be carried out.
5. Discuss the Bacterialgrowth curve(10pts. each)
Bacterial growth curve- illustrates the phases in the growth if the population of bacteria when they are
grown in a culture of fixed volume. It reflects the different stages in the growth of the organism and is
divided into four phases: Lag phase, log phase, stationary phase, and death or decline phase
6. Define sterilization. What are the Physical methods of sterilization? (10pts. each)

Sterilization- The process of killing or removing all microbial forms, including spores.
Physical Methods of Sterilization- Heating is the most common physical method of sterilization. The rate
of killing is expressed in thermal death time, the minimum time required to kill a suspension of an
organism ay a predetermined temperature and environment. The mechanisms of action of heating
include: (1) formation of single-strand breaks in the bacterial DNA (2) coagulation and denaturation of
proteins (3) accumulation of toxic levels of electrolytes (4) alteration of cell membrane structure.
Several factors can affect the process of sterilization though heating.
7. Discuss the Chemical Method of sterilization and differentiate it to Physical Method. (10pts.
each)
Chemical Methods of Sterilization- Chemicals can inhibit the growth of pathogenic organisms, either
temporarily or permanently.
Concentration and potency of the chemical agent- in general, a higher concentration is bactericidal
where as a lower concentration may only be bacteriostatic.
Duration of exposure- the longer the time of exposure to the chemical agent, the better the killing
action m
Temperature- a higher temperature speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction and thus accelerates
killing action.
Nature of the surrounding medium- the pH of the medium and the presence of extraneous materials like
pus or blood decreases the efficiency of the chemical agent.
Nature of the organism- this refers to the innate resistance of the microorganism to disinfectants.
Number of organisms/Size of inoculum- the larger the number of microorganism present, the more time
needed for a disinfectant to destroy all of them.
Physical Methods of Sterilization- Heating is the most common physical method of sterilization.
Nature of the heat- moist heat greater killing action than dry heat
Temperature and time- as temperature increases, the time taken to sterilize decreases.
Number of microorganisms- the more microorganisms there are. The higher the temperature and the
longer the duration of the process required to destroy all of them
Nature of microorganisms- spore-forming microorganisms are more difficult to destroy than non-spore-
forming ones.
Type of material- the temperature required to sterilize materials depend on the sensitivity of the
material to heat. Heat-sensitive materials will require lower temperature than heat-resistant materials.
Presence of organic material- the presence of organic materials such as fats, proteins and sugars may
necessitate higher temperatures.
8. Enumerate and discuss the characteristic of a good antimicrobial agent. (10pts. each)
8. Antibiotics are mainly used in the treatment of infectious diseases. An ideal antimicrobial agent must
possess the following characteristics;
1. It should be able to kill the microbial agent or inhibit it's growth
2. It must have a broad spectrum of activity
3. It should not cause any damage or adverse effect to the patient
4. It should remain stable when stored in either a solid or liquid form
5. It should be able to remain in specific body tissues long enough for it to be effective
6. It should be able to kill the organims ot inhibit its growth before it has a chance to mutate and
develop resistance
7. It must exhibit selective toxicity. It must be toxic to the microbial cell but not to be the host's cells.
9. Explain antimicrobial agent according to spectrum of activity (10pts. Each)
Antimicrobes are substance that may be acquired from natural sources or are synthetically produced in
laboratories. These agents are designed ti either kill the target bacteria (bactericidal) or inhibit its
growth (bacteriostatic)
An ideal antimicrobial agent must have a broad spectrum of activity, be stable when stored in either
solid or liquid forms, remain in target tissues for a specified amount of time, destroy the target organism
before it has a chance to produce disease, and not cause damage or harmful effects on the hosy.
10. Provide example of the applicability of sterilization and anti microbial agent to nursing practice.
(10pts. each)
As a medical practitioner sterilization is very important in a surgical procedure as a nurse its very
important to sterilize the things need for a surgery.
11. Define Infection. discuss its effects to humans (10pts. each)
Infection is invasion of the body by pathogenic microorganisms. Many of the people have symptoms
that make a person suffer during an infection.
 12. What is immunity in relation health and well being What are the bodies line of defenses. discuss
and differentiate each (10pts. each)
The Immune System- is composed of molecular and cellular components that are derived from the
central (primary) and peripheral (secondary) lymphoid organs. The central lymphoid organs are the
primary sites for differentiation and maturation of the important cells that play an importany role in
adaptive immunity which are the T lymphocytes (or T cells) and the B lymphocytes (or B cells).
Peripheral lymphoid organs consist of the lymph nodes, spleen, and the mucosa-associated lymphoid
tissues (MALT) which include the tonsils, adenoids, peyers patches in the ileum and the aloendix.
13. Discuss innate immunity, its importance and application (10pts. each)
Innate Immunity is also knows as natural immunity. This immunity is already active from the time of
birth, prior to exposure to an antigen. Innate immunity is non-specific. The importance of innate
immunity is that it warding off the bacterial and viral infections presenting to the mucousal cell surface.
The innate immune system plays an important role systemically and locally in infectious and
inflammatory diseases. Vaccines, vaccine adjuvants and anti-inflammatory drugs were developed by
understanding mechanisms of the innate immune system and causative factors of infection and
inflammatory diseases
14. Discuss Humoral and cell-mediate immunity, its importance and application(10pts. each)
Cell-mediated immunity- has four basic functions, namely (1) provide resistance and aid in recovery
from infection due to intracellular organisms (viruses) (2) important defense against fungi, parasites and
bacteria (3) involved in transplant and graft rejection and (4) main defense against tumor cells.
15. Define vaccination, its importance, components, programs and application (10pts. each)
Vaccination is an injection that kills microbes in order to stimulate the immune system of the body
againts harmful microbes thereby preventing disease.
16. Koch's postulate (15pts. each)
Robert Koch was a german physician who made significant contributions to the field of microbiology.
One of his greatest and most well-known contribution was proving that certain microorganisms caused
specific diseases. Together with some of his colleagues, he developed a scientific experimental
procedure to prove this relationship. This experimental procedure was published in 1884 and came to
be known as koch's postulates.
17. How organism produce diseases (15pts. each)
Organisms can produce disease by directly damaging tissues or body surfaces. This involves invasion of
the epithelial surface and pentration into deeper tissues. Invasiveness emcompasses three important
steps —— colonization, ability to evade host immune defenses, and production if extracellular
substances that can promote invasion. Colonization involves the ability of the invading organism to
enter the susceptible host and establish itself in the portal of entry. This can be facilitated by substances
produced by the organism that facilitate adhesins.
18. Classification of infectious disease in relation to its
a. Abilitiy to spread (10pts. each)
A disease that is spread from one host to another, either directly or indirectly is called a "communicable
disease"If the disease is easily and rapidly spread from one person to another, then it is classified as
"contagious disease" If the infection results in the death of the patient over a short period of time, it is
called "fulminant infection". The one that is not spread from one person to another is called "non-
communicable disease"
b. Source of infection (10pts. each)
An infection is said to be "exogenous" if the source of the infections agent is from outside the body.
While "endogenous" infection is one where the source of the causative organism is from the inside of
the body.
 c. Occurrence (10pts. each)
A disease that occurs occasionally is called "sporadic disease".
If the disease is constantly present in a population at low levels, then it is called an "endemic disease"
d. Presence in the host and producs in the blood (10pts. Each)
A portal and exist is a rour by which an infectious againt exist is host it is usually the site where a.
Infectious agent is commonly located for example the blood the schistonoma haematibium which
prefematially infect the uninary bladder e
e. Severity/duration (10pts. each)
An "acute disease" is one that develops rapidly but lasts for only a short periof of time.If the disease
develops more slowly and occurs for long periods of time, it is called a "chronic disease" "Latent
disease" is one in which the causative organism remains inactive for a time but can become active again
and produce symptoms of the disease.
f. Extent of host involvement (10pts. each)
A "localized infection" is one which the invading organism are limited to a relatively small are of the
body.A "systemic or generalized infection" is one where the causative organisms or their products are
spread throughout the body through blood or lymph
In some cases, the causative agents of a localize infection may enter a blood or lymphatic vessel, spread
to specific parts of the body and become confined to specific areas, this is called "focal infection"
g. Reservoirs of infection (10pts. each)
Animal Reservoir is called zoonatic infections
Human Reservoir these organisms maybe directly transmitted form individual to another
Environment Reservoir water, soil , plants can harbors infectious organisms.