Adaptation by Natural Selection

WHAT IS NATURAL SELECTION?

 the process whereby
organisms better
adapted to their
environment tend to
survive and produce
more offspring. The
theory of its action was
first fully expounded by
Charles Darwin and is
now believed to be the
main process that
brings about
EVOLUTION.
ADAPTATION BY NATURAL SELECTION
Each species can be considered as a unique integration of
adaptations. Adaptations can be categorized into five general
types:
1. Adaptations for coping with abiotic factors
2. Adaptations for obtaining water and food or In case of
plants, energy and nutrients
3. Adaptations for escaping from or protection against
predators
4. Adaptations for finding or attracting mates or pollinators in
plants and accomplishing reproduction
5. Adaptations for migration or dispersal
Even the earliest naturalists noted the “marvellous”
adaptations of each species, which exactly suit it to its
particular place in nature. However, the question of how
species became so adapted remained open until the mid 19th
century. There are people who believe that adaptations of
CHANGE THROUGH NATURAL SELECTION
In 1858, Charles Darwin in his book The Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection, presented massive evidence that adaptations are the
result of a process that he called natural selection. Since Darwin’s time,
evidence in support to his basic ideas has continued to accumulate until
now his theory of evolution by natural selection is one of the best
documented theories in all science.
In brief, Darwin observed that there is excess reproduction in every
species-that is, every species produces far more offspring than are
necessary to just replace the parents when they die. Even a slowly
reproducing species such as the elephant would flood the earth over the
course of time if all offspring survive reproduced to their full capacity.
Insect species reproduced more rapidly: a pair of fruit flies can produce
some 200 offspring in about 15 days. If all these offspring and the
successive generations survived and reproduced in turn, a mass of flies
the size of the earth would be produced in about 7 months. Since this
obviously does not and cannot happen we must conclude that not all
offspring survive and reproduced. Many, in fact, most of the offspring fall
victim to predators, competitors, adverse environmental conditions,
starvation, disease, and so on.
Here, Darwin made a second crucial observation: there is variation among
individual members of all species. This is obvious in humans. We come in
a wide range of different sizes, shapes, and colors and these variations
may occur in any combinations; it is what permits us to recognize each
other. Similar variation exists among rabbits, elephant, oak trees,
houseflies, and all other species. We tend to think that all houseflies, for
example, are identical. However as Darwin pointed out, this is only
because we do not examine them closely. If we did, we would soon begin
to see differences between individuals, slight differences in size, color,
number of bristles, and so forth. Further, the differences that are visible
are only part of the picture. As in humans, individual organisms exhibit
different levels of physical ability. These differences, Darwin noted,
inevitably mean that some individuals are better adapted for survival in a
given environment than others.
Combining these two concepts, we see that organisms produce more
offspring than can possibly survive and among these offspring some are
better adapted for survival than others. As Darwin pointed out, one can
hardly escape the conclusion that those least well adapted for the given
environment are most likely to perish, and those best adapted are those
most likely to survive and reproduce. Consequently, there is a natural
Darwin described natural selection as "survival of the fittest".
The fittest is the organism best adapted to survive and
reproduce.
Reproduction is as significant as survival itself. The genes
carried by a healthy robust individual who does not reproduce
are eliminated from the population as surely as if the
individual did not survive at all.
Many examples of natural selection at work can be cited.
Treatment of disease with penicillin killed those organisms
that were sensitive to penicillin, while those organisms that
are resistance survived and reproduced. Gradually
populations of disease organisms have become more and
more resistant to penicillin.
Although Darwin was unable to generalize that variation was
present in all species, he could explain neither its origin nor
why it persisted even under continued selection. However,
modem research has shown that both chemical and physical
EVOLUTION
 The process by which different kinds of living organisms are
thought to have developed and diversified from earlier forms during
the history of the earth.
 The gradual development of something(Mainly a living creature) ,
especially from a simple to a more complex form.
EVOLUTION
ADAPTATION OR EXTINCTION
Natural selection results in each species becoming adapted both
to abiotic factors and to other organisms with which it interacts. In
response to changing conditions, species must do one of three
things:
1. They migrate to similar conditions in another area.
2. They may undergo readaptation by natural selection to the new
conditions
3. Failing both to (1) and (2), they will become extinct.
The fossil record is also replete of examples of species that have
faded into extinction, apparently unable to cope with changing
factors in their environment. We presently see on earth many rare
species that are highly adapted and hence restricted to a very
specific niche in a localized area. Such species, in evolutionary
terms of millions of years, are headed towards extinction because
their specialized nature will make readaptation in response to
change extremely difficult. Almost any change in local area where
they exist will result in their extinction. By contrast, widespread
 The central ideas of evolution
are
 that life has a history
 it has changed over time
 And that different species share common ancestors.
The Family Tree
 The process of evolution produces a pattern of relationships
between species. As lineages evolve and split and modifications
are inherited, their evolutionary paths diverge. This produces a
branching pattern of evolutionary relationships.
 By studying inherited species' characteristics and other historical
evidence, we can reconstruct evolutionary relationships and
represent them on a "family tree," called a PHYLOGENY.
A PHYLOGENY
 This tree, like all
phylogenetic trees, is
a hypothesis about the
relationships among
organisms. It illustrates the
idea that all of life is related
and can be divided into
three major clades, often
referred to as the three
domains.
Eukaryota
Archaea
Bacteria
Animalia
Vertebrata
SPECIATION
 The formation of new species as a result of geographi
c, physiological,anatomical, or behavioral factors that
prevent previously interbreeding
populations from breeding with each other.
 The evolutionary development of a biological species,
as by
geographical isolation of a group of individuals from th
e main stock
SPECIATION
Where do species come from? Adaptations benefiting survival
and reproduction of a population are always related to the
particular environment in which the population exists. For
instance, adaptations for obtaining food depend upon the
kinds of food available; adaptations for defence or escape
from natural enemies depend upon the kinds of natural
enemies present; adaptations for abiotic factors depend upon
the range of abiotic factors that exists. The process of natural
selection favours those variations that adapt the species to a
particular niche.
Ex. Why is the cock so handsome (evolve to attract mate)
If populations continue to interbreed, the resulting genetic
mixing will preserve them as one species. However, if they
are separated in such a way that interbreeding does not
occur, natural selection may eventually produce differences
great enough that the populations become different species.
This is the process of speciation.
Sample of Speciation
EVOLUTION
ADAPTATION
EXTINCTION
EVOLUTION OF ECOSYSTEM
It is important to recognize that all the species in an ecosystem
are simultaneously undergoing natural selection and adaptation
with respect to both each other and the biotic environment.
The principles of balance that occur in predator-prey
relationships are similar in all ecosystems. However,
ecosystems that have developed in isolation from one another,
as on separate continents or on remote islands, are very
different even the abiotic factors may be similar. This ¡s
because the ecosystem started with different species and the
variations in the genes of each species are random,
Examples:
1 The kangaroos are the native herbivores of the Australian
grasslands.
2. The Bison (American Buffalo) are the native herbivores of
the North American grasslands.
3. A variety of animals fill the African grasslands.
Balanced relationships between organisms are
not automatic. It should be clear now that the
balanced relationships develop through mutual
adaptations occurring over millions of years.
Thus, when an organism is transferred from one
ecosystem to another, it is most unlikely that its
adaptations developed in the old ecosystem will
be suitable with respect to species in the new
ecosystem. Frequently the introduced species
cannot survive in the new ecosystem and no
harm is done. However, in too many cases, the
introduced species survives too well; there is
nothing in the new ecosystem to keep ¡t balance
and the result is that it proliferates at the expense
of the other species. The evolutionary process
HUMANKIND IN RELATION TO BIOSPHERE
From the viewpoint of evolutionary succession, humankind spreading over the earth
can be looked at as a natural process, the latest of many wave of change that have
occurred throughout evolutionary history, In our positions as humans, however, we
would like to see this latest wave as permanent or at least long lasting.
Unfortunately, there ¡s nothing in ecological or evolutionary theory to support an
assumption that humans will be the last or even a long lasting wave. In fact, there
are many indications that the human wave, at least that of humans, in a
technological society, may be relatively short lived. Why is this so?
1. The rate and degree of many changes being brought about by humans are
extreme. The rapidity of change we are causing leaves no time for development of
new species to fill the places left vacant. Changes in the biosphere are occurring so
rapidly that we have no way of accurately predicting the outcome.
2. There is danger in the simplicity of the human ecosystem. A stable human
ecosystem will require and depend upon harmonious relationships and balances
with numerous other species in the biosphere.
3. There are many indications that present human expansion is occurring at the
expense of overgrazing. Overgrazing of livestock around the world is converting
millions of hectares of rangeland into worthless deserts. Also, growth and
sustenance of our technological society is based on increasing used of oil and
natural gas, which, clearly are limited non-renewable resources. This is the
overgrazing in the figurative sense.
There is no way that humans can avoid facing ultimate checks and balances that
EVOLUTIONARY SUCCESSION
The process of adaptive change, extinction, and speciation together
constitute the process of evolutionary succession.
Philippinne Endangered Species
Philippine Eagle : Pag-asa turns 25 years old
Natural Resources
1. What are the Earth’s Natural
Resources?
• Mineral Resources
• Energy Resources
• Living Resources
• Air
• Water
• Sunlight
• Soil
2. Resources are limited and are either
Renewable or Non renewable
3. What are Renewable Resources?
• Renewable Resources
can be replaced by
nature at a rate close to
the rate at which they are
used.
What are examples of
Renewable Resources?
• Vegetation
(Crops &
Forests)
• Sunlight
• Air
• Soil
• Geothermal
• Water
• Ice
 4. What are Nonrenewable
Resources?

• Resources that
exist in a fixed
amount
• Nonrenewable
are renewed very
slowly or not at
all.
What are examples of
Nonrenewable Resources?

•Graphite
• Coal
•Sulphur
• Oil
•Gypsum
• Natural Gas
• Petroleum
•Uranium
• Sand, Stone, & •Phosphate
Gravel Rock, Potash,
• Salt & Nitrates
• Talc •And other
Minerals
 Examples of Nonrenewable
Natural Resources
• Talc

• Graphite
What is an Ore Mineral?

• The metallic element or valuable mineral

part of the rock is known as the Ore
Mineral
• The remaining part of the rock is called
the Gangue
Natural Resources

• Copper ore

• Iron ore
What is a Mineral Reserve?

• The known deposits of a mineral

in ores that are worth mining
Natural Resources
5. Nonrenewable
Energy Resources
• A. Fossil Fuels are nonrenewable and may
cause pollution
• They are relatively cheap and easy to
extract and use. (Examples include: Coal,
Oil, Petroleum, and Natural Gas)

• B. Nuclear power: energy is created by

atomic fission. It produces very little air
pollution, but it does produce toxic waste
that takes millions of years to decompose.
It uses the radioactive mineral Uranium,
which is nonrenewable.
6. Renewable Energy Resources
• Water
Have less of an impact on • Wind
the environment and
• Sun
promote sustainability
(the ability for future • Geothermal
generations to have the Energy
same resources that we do)
How does the way in which some
resources are extracted and used affect
the Earth’s environment?

• Can lead to pollution of

land, water, and air
• May contribute to global
warming
• Destruction of landscape
may occur
Resources
• A resource is anything that is used to satisfy human needs. Typically
resources are materials, energy, services, staff, knowledge, or other
assets that are transformed to produce benefit and in the process
may be consumed or made unavailable.
RESOURCES
A resource is any material which is needed or used to sustain life and
livelihood.
Examples:
1. Air to breathe
2. Water to drink
3. Land to live on
4. Forests for timber, paper, and wood
5. Ores for iron, aluminum, copper, and other metals
6. Oil, natural gas, and coal for energy
There is nothing humans used or touch which does not draw upon resources.
The human population is making ever-increasing demands upon the Earth’s
resources.
Basic reasons to use the Earth’s resources:
1. Increasing population
2. Change in the standard of living
• In biology and ecology a resource is defined as
a substance that is required by a living
organism for normal growth, maintenance,
and reproduction. Resources, such as food,
water, or nesting sites, can be consumed by an
organism and, as a result, become unavailable
to other organisms.

QUESTION:
“How long can the Earth’s resources sustain
the growing demand?”
ANSWER: ????????????
 The Club of Rome and sustainable
development
The first report of the Club of Rome
was the famous The limits to growth,
brought out in 1972 by an MIT
research team coordinated by Dennis
and Donella Meadows. It caused a
great sensation because of its clear
message.

The club developed computer models to portray various aspects of resource consumption.
Their conclusion presented in “The Limits to Growth”, is that if present trends continue,
we will not only run out of resources but will do so with extreme suddenness in the next
20 years (from now). Thus, our entire technological society could collapse in the relatively
near future, starved as it were, for critical resources. There is no guarantee that past
trends will continue in the future. There is no question that we are using up resources, and
since the earth is a finite sphere with finite amounts of resources, limits will be reached.
• At the time it was published the international
monetary system was shaky, the economy was in a
depression, the new environmental movement was
gaining ground, and society was being stirred up by
student protests. The conclusions of the report were
dramatic.
• Briefly these were that in a basically closed
system like the Earth it is impossible for the
population, food production, industrialization,
the exploitation of natural resources and
pollution of the environment to continue to
experience exponential growth without
sooner or later collapsing.
OBJECTION TO LIMITS TO GROWTH (optimist)
The Club of Rome does not give adequate credit to the potential of
technological development. In a sense, resources depend on
technology as much as technology depends on resources. Other
advances in technology have permitted the exploitation of lower grade
ores, and so on. Over the course of history, technology, far from
exhausting resources, has actually served to expand the resource
base.

And so the argument continues. Much of the problems in

deciding between these alternatives lies ¡n the fact that
resources are many different things and the answers differ
depending on which resource is being discussed. Our objective is
to examine various types of resources and the factors which
govern their availability. We shall be in better position to
understand what, if any, accommodations and/or restraints need
to be applied in order to avoid a future collapse due to resource
shortages.
• The report forecast this to occur around the
second half of the twenty-first century. The
report concluded that to prevent this disaster,
a collective commitment would be needed to
curb the indiscriminate growth of the
economy and achieve global equilibrium.
• A year and a half after the report came out,
the first oil crisis exploded in concomitance
with the Yom Kippur war between Egypt and
Israel in October 1973. This seemed to
confirm that the excessive exploitation of non-
renewable sources was triggering serious
problems.
• There was considerable anxiety from 1973 to
the early 1980s (later proved to be excessive)
about the inadequate supply of energy,
mineral and food resources. But around the
middle of the 1980s it became clear that the
real limit to growth was not the imminent
depletion of natural resources, it was the risk
that production, consumption and pollution
would reach the threshold of Earth’s inherent
resilience.
• Sustainable development, therefore, means reconciling
the need to extract resources from the environment
with the equally important need to preserve a rich
environment that can continue to supply what is
required without sacrificing future generations.
MAXIMUM SUSTAINABLE YIELD (MSY)

"How many trees, or

lobsters, or sardines,
or salmons, should
we 'harvest' each year
for a maximum
yield?"
“What’s
the maximum
sustainable yield for
this population?"
 The tragedy of the commons
• an economic problem in which every individual tries to reap the greatest benefit from
a given resource. As the demand for the resource overwhelms the supply, every
individual who consumes an additional unit directly harms others who can no longer
enjoy the benefits.