29

B
BINS (Storing of Granular and Powdered Products) ~ Vinually all refineries, synthetic fuels, plams,
and minerals processing operations store solids in bins. There is a wide variety of solids srored in bins
ranging from 200-foot high concrete silos for loading coal trains at mines to relatively modest size steel
bins for storing catalysts at refineries.

Solids can exhibit wide divergences in properties, such as particle size, moisture content and
abrasiveness, and are withdrawn at varying rates, as set by process requirements. These parameters
require careful consideration for each new bin application. The most important operating requirement
is th<~t every bin design provide continuous flow at the design discharge rate. In the following
discussion, the subjects of storing and discharging particulate and powder~like materials are covered.
References are provided at the end of the discussion for further information.

There are three solids flows that are encountered: funnel~flow, mass~flow, and expanded-
flow. Associated with each flow pattern is a bin configuration. The three flow patterns are shown in
Figure 1.

,~
\ . ,I
. • I ',
'' D • \ I I • i
•0 •
0
0
. '
·'\·"-·/t
,. '/_ p.,• 1·.
• ,0
• 'I '
•• •.
I • •~II...
' .
.I
. ' '•• ~~.,·t,·
I •• ' •
•' •

FUNNEL FLOW MASS FLOW EXPANDED FLOW

Figure I. The three common bin flow patterns encountered.

30

0:'
Ooo 0 ::~
0 0 00
oooo ..
' - - - - COARSE
o o0 3° · ' SOLIDS
oo 0 0 ....
'~).li/-- FINE
SOLIDS

Figure 2. Material segregation by particle size in bins.

Funnel-flow occurs when the solids flow toward the outlet of a bin in a channel formed
within the solids itself. The solids outside of the channel are at rest. The flow channel tends to assume
the shape of a vertical, circular cone or funneL When the bin's discharge rate is greater than the filling
rate, the level of the solids within the flow channel drops, causing layers to slough-off the top of the
stagnant material and fall into the channel. The funnel-flow pattern has several characteristics which
may pose problems. The first is that if the funnel-flow bin is fed with material which has a range of
particle sizes, the size distribution of the material withdrawn from the bin will vary, depending on
whether the level of material in the bin is rising or faUing. This may be detrimental to downstream
prepar8tion steps or processes which are sensitive to variations in the feed solid size distribution. As
the material is charged into a bin, it segregates by size; that is, the fine material will tend to collect
along the trajectory of the material while the coarse rolls to the outside (refer to Figure 2). As a result,
the bin discharges a higher percentage of flnes when the level of material in the bin is rising and a
higher percentage of coarse material when the level is falling. This is illustrated in Figure 3. When the
rate of withdrawal is the same as the feed rate, the level remains steady, little segreg<:tion takes place,
and the bin acts as a chute. A second drawback offunnel-flow is that when an empty funnel-flow bin
is filled, the material which is first-in will be last-out. This could pose a problem if the material to be
stored deteriorates with time. Also, materials that tend to pack will gain strength while left
undisturbed in the bin. 1ltis type of material may be very difficult to remove from the bin once it has
gained the extra strength.
 31

Charge

Level Rising, Level Falling, Level Steady,

Draws Mostly Draws Mostly Draws Same
Fines Coarse As Charge
Figure 3. Funnel flow bin's material segregation during discharge.

A third potencial problem of funnel-flow bins is that they may not be satisfactory for storing
fine material which can become aerated. This problem may arise because of the characteristic
sloughing off or surging of material as it flows into and down the flow channel. The falling fine
material may become aerated and acquire fluid properties which may cause flooding of the feeder
underneath the bin.

A fourch limitation is that funnel-flow bins are not suitable for situations where the bin must
act as a gas seaL This limitation is caused by the irregularities of the flow within the flow channel.
Finally, funnel-flow bins usually require larger openings than mass~ flow bins. This in turn means a
funnel-flow panern will require a larger size feeder than a mass-flow panern.

The funnel-flow pattern and associated bin have two characteristics which are
advantageous. The first, which is very significant, is that funnel~flow bins generally require less height
for a given storage capacity then do the mass~flow bins. There are, normally, significant investment
savings associated with the reduced height of the bin. The reduced height results from the slope of the
funnel-flow hopper being generally less than the slope of a mass~ flow hopper. The second advantage
of funnel~flow bins is that there is little wear of the hopper walls because the material does not
normally slide along the walls. This is particularly advantageous when storing hard, abrasive, lumpy
solids. In general, the funnel~flow pattern and associated bin is suitable for storing coarse, free-flowing,
non-degrading solids, when segregation will either not occur or is unimportant.
32

A. Mass-Flow: Mass-flow occurs when the flowing channel in the bin coincides with the
wall of the bin. In perfect mass-flow, all of the material in the bin is in motion whenever any of the
material is withdrawn from the bin. M<>ss-flow bins alleviate many of the drawbacks of funnel-How
bins. Mass-flow has the following properties:

A first-in, first-out flow pattern. 1l1is property is useful when storing material which
deteriorates with time.
Non-segregating storage. Segregation still takes place during the charging of the material
into the bin, but significant re-mixing occurs as the material flows toward the outlet. The
re-mixing is from the first-in, first-out flow pattern.
No dead regions within the bin. Therefore, the potential problems associated with the
packing or time consolidation of material is lessened.
Relatively low solids pressure along the bin walls. This results in low wear along the mass-
flow bm walls, although there is more wear than in funnel-flow bins.
Relatively uniform pressures across any horizontal cross-section of the hopper. Therefore, the
permeability of the solids is uniform, which is important if the bin is to be med for a gas seal.
Uniform and steady flow within the bin, as compared to the surging, sometimes erratic flow in
funnel-flow bins. Therefore, analysis based on steady flow can be applied to the mass-flow bin.

In general, the mass-flow pattern and associated bin should be used where segregation must
be minimized and/or where steady uniform flow is required.

B. Expanded-Flow; The expanded-flow bin has both a funnel-flow region and a mass-flow
regton. The expanded-flow bin is essentially a funnel-flow bin with a relatively small mass-flow hopper
:1t the outlet. Ths bin configuration has several characteristics which may be useful. These are:

The size of the feeder can be considerably smaller than the feeder that would be required
for a funnel-flow bin.
The flow of solids from the bin will be more uniform and less erratic than that which would
occur in a funnel-flow bin.
The bin height for a given storage capacity will generally be less than that required for a
mass-flow bin.

C. Solids Flo<tt.• Through Bins: As granular or powdery solid flows through a bin, the
material is subjected to varying pressures. Solid deposited at the top of the bin is unconsolidated but
as the solid flows down through the bin, it becomes consolidated under a varying pressure. At first, the
pressure increases with depth, then levels off in the straight-sided portion of the bin. At the transition
to the hopper, there may be an abrupt increase or decrease of pressure. After the transition, the
pressure decreases toward zero at the vertex. The pressure [)tofile described is typical for bins; however,
the exact shape and magnitude of the pressure profile depends on many variables including the type
of bin, i.e., either funnel-flow or mass-flow, the type of solids handled, the type of wall rnaterial, the
slope of the hopper, the number of outlets, and the size of the bin. The strength of the solid as it flows
down through the bin is affected by the varying pressures in the bin. An unconsolidated solid, that is,
a solid that has not been acted on by pressure, has little strength. But, as the solid flows down through
the flow channel. the pressure increases and causes the solid to gain strength. The solid gains strength
in the presence of any wetting liquid because some air is forced out and the particles move' closer
causing molecular forces to develop. The higher the pressure, the greater the consolidation and the
 33

strength of a given solid. All solids do not gain the same strength under equal pressure. Dry gravel and
sand are cohesionless and gain practically no strength within the range of pressures which act in bins.
However, the majority of solids exhibit some cohesion and also gain significant strength as pressure
is applied to them. In addition to consolidation pressure, the strength a given material develops is
influenced by its moisture content, temperature, and the amount of time the material has been
subjected to the consolidation pressure.

It is generally accepted that there are two major obstructions to flow, arching (refer co
Figure 4) and ratholing (refer to Figure 5). These obstructions occur near the outlet of the bin. The
span of an arch or the diameter of a rathole that can form in a bin is a function of the strength of the
material, i.e., the "stronger" the material, the larger the arch or rathole the material can support.

Dr. Andrew W. Jenike developed the theories and procedures used in the design of bins in
the 1950s at the University of Utah. Jenike's theories and design procedures are widely accepted and
extensively used by industry. Numerous applications have confirmed the validity of the theories. The
basis for Jenike's theories and bin design procedures is that gravity flow of a solid in a bin will take
place provided the yield strength of the solid is insufficient to support an obstruction to flow. The
material yield strength is a function of the consolidating pressure which in turn is a function of the
material position within the bin. Jenike's bin design procedures are based on predicting the yield
strength of the material as the solid flows through a bin. Jenike, incorporating work of others,
developed the theory and equations for predicting the pressure profile in a bin. Jenike also developed
a laboratory test procedure for determining the strength of the material as a function of consolidating
pressures. Considering both the consolidating pressure (and thus material strength) versus bin position
relationship and the obstruction (i.e., arch or rathole) size versus material strength relationship, it is
possible to choose bin outlet dimensions such that the strength of the material near the outlet is
insufficient to support an obstruction. Masdlow occurs when the material adjacent to the wall slides
along the wall. In order for flow to occur along the wall, the forces due to gravity must be greater than
the frictional resistance between the solid and hopper wall. The frictional force is a function of the
pressure within the bin and the frictional properties of the wall materiaL The frictional resistance of
the wall material can be determined by a laboratory test procedure developed by Jenike. For a
complete discussion of Jenike's theory, see references 1 through 3.

D. Laboratory Tests Used in Detennining Bin Configuration: There are two laboratory
tests which are used in determining the configuration of a bin. The tests were designed by Jenike to
determine the effective angle of internal friction, the unconfined yield strength of the solid, and the
kinematic angle of friction between the solid and the wall material. The tests are briefly described
below.

a. Effective Angle of Internal Friction: The effective angle of internal friction, 0 (delta),
is used to determine the strength the solid develops under flowing conditions; that is under continuous
deformation and pressure. Angle 0 is a property of the material, which Jenike and others defined. It
is different from the angle of internal friction, 4> (phi) , which is used in soil mechanics. Experiments
on bulk solids have shown that steady flow occurs only for certain stress conditions in the solids. For
a given material. angle 0 has been found to vary within a few degrees for the range of pressures which
occur in gravity flow bins.
34
 35

...

~~
......
01!!
!I!<
......
0::

z
i
a;
i5
(.)
l~
i
..9 -a
a;
...0E l~
z
.!!..s
..
,.., i
t

...[II
ID

c:
ii:
"'
c:
'S
8
-'
t.
..,
II)

..9
...
8
m
36

To determine the angle 0, Jenike developed the Direct Shear Tester which is shown
schematically in Figure 6. This tester is essentially a modified shear cell which is used in soil mechanics
to measure soil strengths. An outline of the test procedure follows:

1. Samples of the solid are first preconsolidated with a normal load (N) which would exist
within the bin. The preconsolidated samples are then presheared to create a shear plane in
the material until a constant shear load (S) is attained.
2. The normal load (N) is removed and replaced with a lower load (N 1). TI1c presheared
sample is then sheared again until a peak value of the shear load (S 1) is reached. This
process is repeated with at least two ather similarly prepared, presheared s<1mples, using
different normal loads which are less than the preconsolidation load. The loads N <~nd Scan
be convertecl to normal pressures (ON) and she <Iring stresses ("t") by dividing by the area (A)
of the she<~r cell.

By plotting the corresponding p<~ir of values, ON and 1:", the yield locus can be determined
(see Figure 7).ln general, the yield locus is a curve, but is very often approximated by a straight-line
characterized by its intercept {point C in Figure 7) on the 1:" axis, called the cohesion of the material,
<~nd the slope angle (~)of the yield locus which is c<~lled the angle of internal friction.

The effective angle of internal friction (6) is found by plotting the preconsolidation pressure
and the preshear stress (ON, "t") and constructing a Mohr's circle through (ON, 1:") which is tangent to
the yield locus (refer to Figure 8). The effective angle of internal friction is defined as the slope of the
line which is tangent to Mohr's circle and passes through the origin. l11is line is called the effective
yield locus.

Yield Locus (YL)

"''<{
II
....

t NORMAL PRESSURE

Figure 7. Graphical representation of shear test data.

 37

<~>I<
,...
II Effective
Yield Locus
(EYL)

NORMAL PRESSURE

Figure 8. Construction ofMohr's circle from shear test data.

Angle 0 has been measured at between 30° and 70o for various solids. In general, free·
flowing, dry solids have low values of 0, while cohesive, wet solids have large values. For free-flowing
materials like dry gravel and sand, angle 0 is usually equal to angle ~·

b. Unconfined Yield Strength: In order to ensure steady gravity flow of a solid in a bin, it
is necessary that the yield strength of the solid which results from the consolidating pressures be
insufficient to support an obstruction to flow. Specifically, the unconfined yield strength (() of the
material must be incapable of supporting an obstruction. The unconfined yield strength is the strength
of the material at a free surface such as the surface of an arch or rathole. The unconfined yield
strength of the material could be determined by consolidating the material in a cylinder with
frictionless walls under the major consolidating pressure (see Figure 9). The cylinder would then be
removed and the cylindrical sample loaded without any lateral support. The pressure necessary to
fracture the sample,(, is equal to the surface strength of the sample for a given state of consolidation.
This test would be repeated for several values of a 1, and corresponding values of(, would be obtained.
Points (a 1, () would be plotted, see Figure 10, and a smooth line drawn through the points. The
relation between a 1 and f, is called the flow-function (FF) of the solid. The flow function is defined
by FF = a,! f,.
The compression test described above serves only as an illustration and is not practical for
a number of reasons; for instance, a mold cannot be made frictionless and it is difficult to obtain
uniform consolidation of a solid in a relatively tall cylinder.
JH

a, X A fc X A

;>:

r:;~ •••
!
..• •..
o· • •
0 •: 0
•
I
a. o·:o
•
~ • .0
~ ~0 : ~ PO_: ·o·:.c.-.::' .
·.0.
~ .o 0 . ·. 0

Consolidation
~
0 .o. o: .
o_~·
Failure ·. .~·i/~::~.
r:; Q
.0·
•. · Q .. ·
o; . ~:
z /:
Figure 9. Determination of unconfined yield strength.

Instead, the values of ( and the corresponding consolidation pressures (0 1) can be

determined from the yield locus diagram as shown in hgure 11. The stress conditions in the bulk
material during shearing failure are represented by Mohr circles tangent to the yield locus. At a free
surface the stress normal to the surface as well as the shear stress in the surface arc zero; therefore, fc
is given by the Mohr circle which is tangent to the yield locus and passes through the origin. The
corresponding value of 0 1 is given by the Mohr circle through the end point of thr yield locus. The
construction of this particular Mohr circle was di.<cusscd in conjunction with Figure 8.

c. Kinematic Angle of the Friction betu'een the Solid and the Hopper Wall: To determin('
the kinematic angle of friction between the solid and hopper wall,¢' (phi-prime) , the same Direct
Shear Tester used to determine the angle 0 can be applied (see Figure 12(a)) . The shear stresses
nrcrss<~ry to movr the sample- of the solid over the sample of the wall m.aterialunder different normal
loads are measured. The normrtlloads applied are representative of those expected on the solid in the
bin. Plotting ON versus T, a wall yield locus is obtained, which is usually approximated as a straight line
through the orig:n (see Figure 12(b)). Angle cl>' is the angle between the ON axis and the wall yield
locus. Low values of cl>' correspond to low valurs of friction he tween the solids and bin material.

d. Test Sample Considerations: lt is very important that the solid and hopper wall materials
tested are representative of what is expected in the large scale facility. The values for 0, FF, and cl>'
are very dependent on the condition of the samples. For most applications, the variables which
significantly affect the properties of the solid are surface moisrure content, the length of time the solid
is subjected to the consolidation pressures, and particle size distribution. For a funnel-flow bin, or a
mass-flow bin in which the solid would remain at rest for a relatively long time, abo•Jt eight hours or
longer, the effect of timl' consolidation should be measured. That is, the shear tests for de-termining
material strength should he run with samples that haw heen preconsolidated for a period of time.
 39

Figure 10. Plot of unconfined yield strength data.

r
Yield Locus (YL)

Figure 11. Yield locus diagram.

Generally, solids do not gain significant additional strength beyond three days of consoli-
dation. The size distribution of the solid may also have a significant affect on material strength. As a
general rule, solids which do not contain particles smaller than about 60 mesh are free-flowing. Jenike
states that a solid which contains a range of sizes is invariably governed by the flow properties of the
finer fractions. He explains this by the fact that during flow, the shearing takes place through the fines.
Jenike's laboratory tests to determine the yield loci of a solid with a wide range of sizes use only the
minus 8 mesh fraction of the materiaL This permits the use of a relatively small (3.5 inches in
diameter) shear cell. There are many other variables which can affect the strength of a solid. These
include temperature, reduction in the amount of entrained gas, external vibrations, evaporation of free
water resulting in the precipitation of dissolved salts which could "cement" the particles, changes in
the surface of the particles, e.g., crystallization and fermentation, and composition of solid, e.g.,
percent of clay;type material in the sample.
40

Plane Of Shear
Of Area A

Sample Of
Wall Material

Figure 12. Determination of kinetic angle offriction between the solid and the wall material.

The most significant variable which influences the frictional properties of the l1opper wall
material is smoothness. Consideration should be given to the effect of time and wear on the properties
of the wall material. That is, will it rust and form a rough scale, will it tend to polish as material flows
«Cross it, or will the material wear and gouge so that the surface deteriorates and becomes rough?

e. Angle of Repose: When an unconsolidated solid is deposited on a horizontal surface so

as to form a pile, the particles of the solid roll down the pile and the slope of the pile forms an angle
of repose with the horizontal (see Figure 13). The angle of repose is not used in the analysis of the
flowability of a solid. It is used only in the determination of the contour at the top ol the bin and thus
the net capacity of a bin. When the solid drops onto a pile from some height, the fines along the
trajectory pack under the impact of the larger particles, gain strength, and form a slope angle steeper
than the "normal" angle of repose.
 41

Trajectory

Angle Of Repose

Figure 13. Illustrates the angle of repose.

E. Segregation of Particulates in Bin Flow: In the design of solids handling systems and,
in particular, the design of bins, attention must sometimes be given to avoiding particle segregation.
Segregation occurs in granular material and causes unwanted variations in concentration of particles
of differing size or chemical composition. This can plug a storage bin or adversely affect the
downstream process. There are several mechanisms of segregation. Each is discussed briefly below.

a. Sifting of Fines: When a mixture of various particle sizes is being handled, the fine
material tends to sift through the voids of the larger particles. For this to occur, there must be
interparticle motion. This can occur on moving conveyor belts as the belt moves over the idlers or as
the material flows down the side of a pile.

b. Angle of Repose: When a material is composed of materials which have different angles
of repose, significant segregation can occur during piling. Fines usually have a higher angle of repose
then the coarse panicles of the same material.

c. Trajectory Effect: When material has segregated on a conveyor such that the fines have
sifted to the bonom and the coarse to the top, the fines may stick to the conveyor. This adhesion
reduces their horizontal velocity compared with the coarse particles, causing the fines and the coarse
to have different trajectories upon leaving the conveyor. A similar thing can happen as material slides
down a chute. The fines along the chute move slower than the coarse on top and this results in
different trajectories as the material is discharged from the chute. One of the most significant
advantages of mass,flow bins is that they provide non,segregating storage. As material is centrally
charged into a bin, the material segregates by size; that is, the coarse material concentrates at the walls
and the fine material tends to remain in the center of the bin. Because all of the material in a mass,
flow bin is in motion, re,mixing takes place in the hopper and a non,segregated material is discharged.
In order for near perfect re-mixing to occur in simple single cone mass,flow bins, the level of material
42

above the intersection of the straight wall section of the bin and sloping hopper needs to be at least
one-half times the diameter of the straight wall section, If the above requirement is met, the material
in the straight portion of the bin will flow towards the oudet at a uniform velocity and this results in
ne<Jr perfect re-mixing. If, however, the level of material drops below the one-half times the diameter
level, the velocity profile of the material is not uniform as there is a higher velocity in the center of the
bin than along the walls. The ratio of the velocity in the center to the velocity along the walls could
be- as great as 2 :o 1. In this situation some segregation will occur as there is not ideal re-mixing.

In cone-in-cone mass-flow bins, there is no minimum level requirement to prevem

segregation, as the velocity profile is not significantly influenced by level. Very significant segregation
can take place in multiple outlet bins, especially if one outlet is loc-ned directly below the charging
point, as this outlet will receive the majority of the fines. Multiple outlets should be equal distance
from a cemral charging point and arranged in a symmetric pattern. However, for the symmetric outlet
pattern to work properly, the material must be deposited in the bin with symmetric segregation. In
order to insure a symmetric segregation pattern, a mixer may be required.

F. Bin Construction: Bins (including silos) are constructed of reinforced concrete and/or
steel. Smaller bins, i.e., less than 1000-1500 tons in capacity, are normally constructed of steel and
larger bins, i.e., silos, are normally constructed of reinforced concrete. Generally, it is less costly to use
reinforced concrete construction when the bin diameter is greater than 20 to 30 feet.

Reinforced concrete silos are cast-in-place. Concrete silos are built using slip forms or jump
forms. In slip forming, a continuous concrete pour is made using customized forms which are raised
on automatically controlled jacks and rods. In jump form construction, pre-engineered steel forms are
used in a non-continuous operation. It is generally less expensive to use jump-form construction for
sllos less than 40-foot in diameter. It is usually not practical to build 70-foot diameter silos using jump
forms. The limit on slip form construction is approximately 100 feet in diameter. T:1ere are two ways
in which the hopper can br- installed within the hollow concrete cylinder. Generally, for silos over 45
feet in diameter, an elevated floor is used (see Figure 14). For silos less than 45 feec in diameter, it is
gr-neral\y more economic to suspend the hopper (see Figure 15). Silos of any diameter which have
multiple oudets generally require elevated floor construction, as the intersection point of the hopper
and w<1ll requires a complex connection. The following are some general design considerations for bin
cm1figurations:

a. Diameter: Because slip forms are usL:ally custom built of wood for each silo, there are no
panicub.r or more economic sizes that should be used; although there may be preconstructed forms
available because of the large number of silos already in existence in an area. Jump forming uses pre-
engineered steel forms, there are usually only certain diameters for which forms exist.

b. Height to Diameter Ration: Reinforced concrete silos are generally constructed with
height to diameter ratios of 2:1 to 3:1. Cost of foundation and the seismic classification zone can
determine the most economic ratio. Generally, where the soils are good and the seismic activity low,
;1.n economic height to diameter ratio is 3:1.
 43

H--CON'CRITI CYLINDER

f+-1+--sUPPORT COLUMN

Figure 14. Elevated floor design for a hopper installation in silos.

Figure 15. Suspended hopper design for installation in silos.

c. Hopper Liner Materials: The selection of the type of hopper liner is dependent on many
factors, including: type of flow pattern required, flowability of the solid, corrosivity of the solid,
abrasiveness of the solid, flowrate through the bin, and temperature of the solid. The liner materials
most commonly used are abrasion-resistant carbon steels and stainless steels. Abrasion resistant steel
is a high-hardness carbon steel. The advantage of carbon steel is that it is less expensive chan stainless
steel. The advantage of stainless steel is that it can be purchased with a very smooth surface finish
which stays smooth and does not rust.
44

H
•
H

PLANE-FLOW HOPPER CONICAL-FLOW HOI'PIR

Figure 16. Mass-flow hopper confixurations.

FUNNEL-FLOW
HOPPER ANGLE

FUNNEL-FLOW DIAMETER l'TRE

PORTION CRlTICAL
RATHOLE
DIAMETER
MASS-FLOW
PORTION MASS-FLOW HOPPER
ANGLE

OUTLET SIZED AS MASS-FLOW

HOPPER OUTLET

Figure /7. An expanded-flow bin.

A 304 stainless steel with a 2B finish is the stainless steel liner most often specifled. A 2B
finish is a general~purpose cold-rolled finish whose final light cold-rolling pass is performed with
polished rolls. Oftentimes, using aSS hopper bottom in a silo will decrease the silo's overall cost. This
is because of the reduced hopper slope required for flow<~bility. Clad steel is sometimes used to hne
hoppers and is composE'd of a layer of stainless steel pennanemly bonded to a base of cmbon steel.
Cbd steel may be specified for suspended hoppers where the thickne~s of stainless steel required to
 45

resist abrasion can be bonded w the less expensive carbon steel whose thickness satisfies the remainder
of the structural strength requirement. Hopper liners usually range in thickness from 3/16" to 3/4",
depending on the liner material and the solid's properties. Ultra~high molecular weight (UHMW)
polymer sheets are also used in hopper service.

Abrasion tests for hopper liner materials may be necessary for some installations. Jenike &
Johanson have a test device that abrades based on a rotating disk of the liner material with a
continuous fresh supply of solids. The differential wear observed on the samples of alternative liner
material will aid in liner selection.

Figures 16 and 17 provide schematics of the configurations of common hoppers. Figure 16

shows the configuration of a mass flow hopper (plane flow and conical flow type). Figure 17 illustrates
the configuration of an expanded flow bin. The reader may refer to the following references for more
detailed information.

References and Suggested Readings

1. Jenike, A. W., Elsey, P. J., Woolley, R. H., "Flow Properties of Bulk Solids," University of Utah,
Engineering Exp. Station, Bulletin No. 95, 1959.
2. Jenike, A. W., "Gravity Flow of Solids," University of Utah, Engineering Exp. Station, Bulletin No.
108, 1961.
3.Jenike, A. W., "Storage and Flow of Solids," UniversityofUtah, Engineering Exp. Station, Bulletin
No. 123, 1976.
4. Johanson, J. R., "Method for Calculating Rate of Discharge from Hoppers and Bins," SME
Transactions, September 1965.
5. Zenz, F. A., "Use Fluid Data for Solids Flow Rates," Hydrocarbon Processing and Petroleum Refiner,
February 1962.
6. Johanson, J. R., "Effect of Initial Pressures on Flowability of Bins," Journal of Engineering for Industry,
May 1969.

BLOWDOWN DRUMS .. The purpose of a blowdown drum in a refinery or chemical plant process
operation is to disengage closed safety valve releases and various drainage, blowdown and diverted
materials into liquid and vapor streams which can be safely disposed of to appropriate storage and
flaring facilities, respectively. Entrainment of liquid hydrocarbons into a flare stack is not acceptable,
since the potential exists for burning liquid falling onto the ground or adjacem facilities. For this
reason, a blowdown drum is required. It is important to note that even if the blowdown is effective in
disengaging liquid and vapor, further condensation could occur d-ownstream especially if the vented
vapor exits the drum at a temperature above ambiem conditions. A proportion of such condensible
materials in the blowdown drum vapor release may condense as a result of cooling in the flare header
and contact with seal water, and then disengage in the flare seal drum; while condensible vapors which
are not condensed out at this stage may condense in the flare stack or its inlet line, thus creating the
potential for hazardous fallout of burning liquid from the flare. Condensed hydrocarbon in the seal
drum can be entrained out with the effluent seal water, which is normally routed to the sewer, and
may result in pollution, toxicity or separator overload problems. If the extent of hydrocarbon
condensation downstream of the blowdown drum is such that the magnitude of these resulting