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Management of Oil Palm Pests and Diseases in Indonesia:
Learning from the Past, Adapting for the Future
By

Satyoso Harjotedjo, Bandung Sahari, Bambang Palgoenadi

Research Center, PT Astra Agro Lestari Tbk.

Contanct: satyoso@astra-agro.co.id

Abstract

Nettle catterpillar and Ganoderma boninense are major limiting factors of oil palm
productivity in Indonesia. For many years, various methods have been developed in order to
maintain pests and diseases attack under economic threshold. Application of combined control
techniques and implementation of monitoring system were the common strategy applied to
response pests and diseases attack in the field. Unfortunatelly, at the moment, pest outbreak is
still frequently found in the field and lead to the use of chemical pesticide. At the same time
basal stem rot (BSR) caused by G.boninense still remains to be the most destructive disease.
Continuing pest and disease problem in the field indicate that there is ecological procesess that
need to be more studied and understood. Learning from the past, here we propose new school
of thought in developing control strategy of pests and diseases that is expected to adapt future
challenges. We believe that understanding the oil palm landscape, the existing interaction
pattern among contributing ecological agents, and landscape variability is the key to develop
more appropriate control strategy that will benefit both environment quality and palm oil
productivity.

Introduction

Indonesia is the largest palm oil producer in the world by producing about 23.900.000
ton palm oil or 49% from total production of palm oil in 2011. Total land used for oil palm
plantation reached 9,2 million Ha, where 41% of which owned by Smallholders. Private
sectors occupy about 51% and the rest is owned by the Government (See Indonesian Palm Oil
Statistics 2012). It would be a tremendous challenge to ensure longlasting productivity of large
scale plantations with varies in both management style and landscape (Smallholder vs Private
sector; geographical differences, landscape dynamic).
Pests and diseases have been well recognized as main factors responsible for serious
decline of oil palm productivity in Indonesia. Among many pest species and diseases attacking
oil palm, nettle caterpilar (Sudharto et al.2003) and basal stem root caused by Ganoderma
boninense (Ariffin et al. 2000; Flood et al. 2003; Pilloti 2005; Susanto et al. 2005) are two
major limiting factors that contribute to significant yield lost. Attack of nettle caterpilar has
caused serious yield loss up to 90% (Sudharto et al. 2003). In the other hand, basal stem rot
(BSR) caused by Ganoderma boninense has been recorded to be major problem (Susanto et al.
2005) in several areas, especially in Sumatera and Sulawesi.
For many years, various control methods have been developed and applied to maintain
low level attack of pest and diseases. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) concept is always
the basis for the development of control technology. Early warning system is applied in many
plantations in Indonesia to monitor the status of pest/disease and to determine the type of
control technique should be taken. Combination of biological control approach by planting

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flowering plants accross plantations -that is expected to maintain the existence of natural
enemies- and application of chemical control to overcome pest explosion is the common
strategy applied to response the attack of nettle caterpilar. Unfortunatelly, pest outbreak is still
recorded to happen in many plantations in Indonesia. At the same time, basal stem rot is now
becoming the most harmfull disease attacking oil palm since the attack can not be visually
detected and anticipated from the early stage. Unfortunatelly, there is no single technique
proved to be effective to control the disease (Chong et al. 2012).
Continuing pest and disease problem in the field indicates that there is ecological matter
related to the decreasing function of natural control. Pest/disease problem is affected by the
pattern of complex interaction among crop, pest/patogen, and associated natural enemies. In
large scale plantation where oil palm is the most dominant crop, the function of pest control is
strongly affected by the diversity or identity of existing natural enemies. Therefore, pest
control strategy should be based on the understanding of ecological processes at the landscape
level and how landscape variability across geographic region may affect pest/disease problem.
Here, we propose school of thought on how we look at the pest/disease problem in the
field. This paper discuss about tool/technology/method of the control of pests/disease attacking
oil palm in the past, present, and future. The ultimate aim is the development of a new
paradigm and concept on pest/disease control approach based on the understanding of the
ecological process in oil palm agroecosystem.

Management of Nettle Caterpilar

Lepidopteran pests such as bagworm, nettle caterpillars, slug caterpillars, and tussock
or hairy catterpillars are important oil palm pests (Sankaran & Syed 1972; Basri & Kamarudin
2000; Chung & Sharma 2009). However, Netlle catterpilars and bagworms are recognized as
the most important herbivorous insects attacking oil palm that cause a significant loss
(Kalshoven 1981; Sankaran & Syed 1972; Wood 2002, Sudharta et al. 2003; Kamarudin &
Basri 2010; Cheong et al. 2010). Nettle caterpilar (Limacodidae) is an important group of
Lepidopteran pests in many oil palm plantations in Indonesia. Several spesies including Setora
nitens and Darna spp, have frequently been found to be the main pest causing serious damage
of oil palm. In large scale plantation, attack of nettle caterpillars can impact on yield losses
until 70% in the first year after defoliation and become 90% if the attack continues in the
following year (Sudharto et al. 2003).
Control technigues that are friendly to environment should be the main choice in the
response of pest attack. This is where IPM concept and strategy comes in and becomes the
basis for the development of pest management in oil palm plantation in Indonesia. Pest
population is commonly monitored by applying early warning system (EWS) where the
number of individuals from various stages of pests (eggs, larvae, pupae, mature) is regularly
observed to identify the status of pest and the type of response/control need be taken. The
knowledge capacity of the observer is the key of the success of EWS implementation. The
failure of EWS implementation will result in false information which may lead to inappropriate
control decision.
Practical control by applying biopesticide such as Bacillus thuringiensis seems to be
the most preffered control technique to maintain lower pest population. However, when the
outbreak occurs, contact poison application is the common choice taken to quicly decrease pest
population for preventing longer damage of the crop. Unfortunatelly, this method will also
capable of killing untargetted insects including natural enemies i.e parasitoids and predators

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(Garratt et al. 2011). Large scale outbreak of pest may rise a question regarding the role of
existing natural enemies which reflect the failure of ecosystem functioning?.
Pests mitigation by enhancing biological control through planting flowering herbs may
promise a glimer of hope in maintaining pest community at low level population. Various
species of flowering herbs which have a potential to maintain parasitoids have been studied
(Basri et al. 1999; Desmier de Chenon et al. 2002; Tuck et al. 2003; Kamarudin & Basri 2010).
In fact, only Turnera subulata is the flowering herb species widely planted in many plantations
in Sumatera, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi. Since there is a specific relationship between
flowering plant species and associated visiting insect species (Baggen & Gurr 1998; Coley &
Luna 2000; Begum et al. 2004), the next question to rise is does T. subulata support parasitoid
species expected to result in high parasitization level of the targeted pest?. Unfortunatelly, there
was a lack of published information studying this relationship. Recent study showed that T
subulata only support few amount of parasitoid species and may not support the expected
parasitoid species (Sahari 2012).
Our case study in Central Kalimantan, where Darna (Ploneta) deducta and D. trima
become major pest attaking oil palm, Apanteles sp was identified to have highest parasitization
level of the species, however very low number of the species found to visit the flower of T.
subulata (Sahari 2012). This study also identified that generalist pupal parasitoid Brachymeria
lasus was the most dominant species visiting the flower of T. subulata (see Fig. 1). Therefore,
more studies need to be conducted to found flowering plants that can be planted in combination
with T. subulata to have more effects on parasitoid community.

50
Relative abundance (%)

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Fig. 1 Abundance ranking of 16 species of Hymenopteran parasitoid (from 146 species) visiting
flowers of T. subulata. Speciments were collected by using sweep-net from 24 plots
along 30 days. Only species with more than 30 individual calculated to determine the
species ranking (See Sahari 2012)

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90
80
70 Brachymeria lasus
Number of individual

60 Braconidae X
50 Enicospilus
40
30
20
10
0
Hari-2
Hari-3
Hari-4
Hari-1

Hari-5
Hari-6
Hari-7
Hari-8
Hari-9
Hari-10
Hari-11
Hari-12
Hari-13
Hari-14
Hari-15
Hari-16
Hari-17
Hari-18
Hari-19
Hari-20
Hari-21
Hari-22
Hari-23
Hari-24
Hari-25
Hari-26
Hari-27
Hari-28
Hari-29
Hari-30
Day of observation

Fig. 2. Visitation frequency of Hymenopteran parasitoid in flowers of T subulata planted in

6 years old oil palm plantation. Only species represented by more than 30 individual
showed

Management of Bassal Stem Rot Caused by Ganoderma boninense

Basal stem rot (BSR) caused by white rot basidiomycetous fungus G.boninense is the
most destructive disease in oil palm in SE Asia (Corley & Tinker 2003: Susanto et al. 2005,
Flood et al. 2005; Chong 2010). Infection of the oil palm by species of Ganoderma has long
been recognized (Turner 1965). For more than 40 years, Ganoderma remained to be the most
serious problem in many areas in Malaysia and Indonesia (Chong et al. 2012). Typically it is
an infection of the base of the trunk, causing an extensive internal rot which results in gradual
reduction in crop production, wilting and death. The disease is frequently occur on older trees
over 25 years of age, on younger plantings on sites which had previously borne coconut palms
(Turner 1965). In the last decade or so palms as young as 1 year old were found to be infected
by the disease (Arifin et al. 1989; Singh 1990)
High incidence of BSR results in economic loses, due to zero yield from dead palm,
and significantly reduced weight and number of fruit bunches in infected but living palms
(Chong 2010). In several oil palm plantations, BSR has caused large losses where 50% in
Indonesia (Susanto et al. 2005) and more than 80% in Malaysia (Idris et al. 2010; Chong 2010)
the productive plants have died. Historically control of BSR has involved cultural techniques,
mechanical and chemical control which have been well documented by many studies (Susanto
et al. 2005; Patterson et al. 2007, 2008, 2009; Idris et al. 2010; Sabrina et al 2012). Land
sanitation from the palm debris before replanting is the most recomended culture practice to
eliminate source of inoculum of G. boninense for preventing infection and disease spread.
Several possible control techniques reported to have a potential to control BSR is described as
follow:

(1) Defence manipulation

Enhancement of oil palm’s natural defences such as through lignin manipulation was
recomended by many studies (Patterson et al. 2007,2008, 2009; Sabrina et al 2012). Sabrina et
al. 2012 reported that opper and calcium supplementations could be used to reduce the severity
of basal stem rot in oil palm at seedling stage. The recent studies on the possibility to manage
G. boninense effectively include alteration of lignin content in oil palm root (Paterson, 2007;

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Paterson, 2008) and the effect of phenolics in oil palm root to G. boninense (Chong et al. 2012;
Arif et al. 2007). Degradation of lignin by enzymes produced by Ganoderma may be inhibited
by manipulation of (a) temperature, pH and aeration, (b) high carbon and high nitrogen and (c)
halides, metal chelators, heavy metals, and reducing agents (Patterson et al. 2008).

(2) Chemical control

Attems to control BSR in the lab and field by the use of systemic fungicides i.g
triadimefon, carboxin, carbendazim, methfuroxam have been reported, however the result of
these studies were all inconclusive, although some systemic fungicides and soil fumigants
seems to be promising (Shamala et al. 2006). Chemical control by injection with several
fungicide such as triazole and hexaconazole was reported to decrease Ganoderma attack (Idris
et al. 2010). This study stated that healthy mature palm treated with hexaconazole applied
through soil injection and soil drencing gave significantly lower percentages palms with BSR
incidence. Another chemical poison, Dazomet was also reported to have the potential to
eradicate Ganoderma inoculum in the field (Idris & Maizatul 2012).

(3) Biological control

Possible control of G. boninense using natural enemies has been studied for many years
by many scientists. This method has gained much attention in the pas decade as a way of
reducing the use of chemical products in agriculture (Sariah et al. 2005; Azadeh et al. 2010).
Several microbes species may have future potential as biological control agents of G boninense
including Penicillium citrinum (Dharmaputra et al. 1989), T viridae (Dharmaputra et al. 1989;
Wijesekera et al. 1996; Susanto et al 2005; Sariah et al. 2005), T. harsianum (Susanto et al.
2005; Nur Ain Izzati & Abdullah 2008), Gliocladium viridae, Pseudomonas fluorescens,
Bacillus (Susanto et al 2005) and endophyte bacteria P. aeruginosa (Sapak et al 2008; Bivi et
al. 2010), Burkholderia cepacia ( Sapak et al. 2008; Azadeh et al. 2010). Trichoderma viridae,
T. virens, and T harsianum have been reported as the most common biological control agents
(Sariah et al. 2005). Large scale trial showed that the disease incidence was lower in a field
treated with biological control agents than in untreated fields (Susanto et al. 2005). Aplication
of endophytic bacteria in oil palm seedling reduced BSR incidence between 42% and 76%
(Sapak et al. 2008)
(4) Resistant Crop
Resistant oil palm is believed and recomended as one breakhthrought expected to
combat Ganoderma disease. Studies to find varieties which have a possible resistance traits
have been started (Duran-Gasselin et al 2005; Chong et al 2012). Chong et al. 2012, reported
that some varieties showed to be more subceptible compared with other variety. Whithin Elaeis
guineensis, material of Deli origin was found to be highly susceptible compared to material of
African origin. The variability of resistance to BSR within the same cross was also identified
(Duran-Gasselin et al. 2005). Difference in ergosterol content among varieties was suspected
to be the indicator of subceptibility to Ganoderma (Chong et al. 2012). Partial resistance in oil
palm progenies expressed by low severity of foliar symptoms and slow progress of Ganoderma
infection in the roots and stem tissues was also studied.

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Table 1. Summary of some studies on possible control techniques of G.boninense
Techniques Method Authors
Defense manipulation Lignin using Cu & Ca Sabrina et al. 2012
Inhibition of lignin degrading Patterson et al. 2007, 2008,
enzymes 2009
Monoclonal antobodies Shamala et al. 2006
Biological control Antagonistic microbes Susanto et al. 2005
Burkholderia cepacia Azadeh et al. 2010
Trichoderma viridae Wijeksekera et al. 1996
Penicilium, Trichoderma spp Dharmaputra et al. 1989
Trichoderma spp. Sariah et al. 2005.
Trichoderma harzianum Nur Ain Izzati & Abdullah
Endophyte bacteria 2008
Bivi et al. 2010
Sapak et al. 2008
Chemical control Hexaconasol Idris et al. 2010
Dazomet Idris & Maizatul 2012
Resistance in oil palm Partial resistance Idris et al. 2004
Susceptibility Chong et al. 2012
Source of resistance Durrand-Gasseline et al. 2005

Lesson Learned

Eventhough Ganoderma remaind to be a problem and has been long studied,

unfortunately, there is no single reliable application in suppressing or controlling either the
disease severity or a promising resistant variety of oil palm to this pathogen (Chong et al 2012).
The current availabe control method may result in minimizing the incidence of BSR in
replanting, prolonging the productive life infected palms, and delaying the progress of
Ganoderma infection (Azadeh et al. 2010) but not be long lasting (Sariah et al. 2005) as the
disease is systemic (Bivi et al. 2010). The failure to control the disease is due to the
characteristics of G. boninense. Ganoderma has various resting stages such as melanised
mycelium, basidiospores and pseudosclerotia. The fungus is soil borne and so fungicides may
be ineffective due to degradation in the soil before they can reach their target (Susanto et al
.2005).
Biological control by using natural enemies is belived as a green method which is
capable of combating characteristics of G. boninense. Some studies have shown significant
result in reducing BSR incidence by applying antagonistic fungus or bacteria in plantation
seedling (see Susanto et al. 2005; Sapak et al. 2008). Unfortunatelly, those reported studies
mostly focus on seedlings level or small scale experiment or under glass house condition. There
is very limited published scientific information reporting the success of biological control
agents at large scale plantation. In fact, aplication of biological control agents in the field did
not prove to solve the problem yet. For this reason, we need to understand what key factors
affecting the success of biological control agents in the field. Does species diversity or species
composition or species identity play role in determining the success of pathogen suppression
by its natural enemies?.

Re-tooling and re-thinking of Pest management in Oil Palm Plantation

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Pest and disease outbreak in agroecosystem may not only link to the failure of the
implementation of standar operation procedure, but it mostly relates to the work mechanism of
ecological functions. For that reason, continuing pest and disease problem in oil palm
plantation indicates that there is ecological processes that need to more studied and understood.
Pest and disease control strategy should be based on the understanding of the tri-throphic
interaction pattern among pest/patogens, crop, natural enemies. This interaction may be
affected by climate condition and cultural techniques applied to enhance crop productivity.

The importance of early detection for BSR incidence

The limiting factor of controlling the BSR disease is the lack of reliable diagnostic
method which allow the early detection of the disease as the disease symtoms can not be
visually detected. This is true since disease symptoms take years to develop, and are often
totally absent in young palms (Patterson 2007). Aplication of ELISA and PCR for detecting
pathogenic fungi in infected plants has been commonly conducted (Shamala et al. 2006). Does
it also apply to Ganoderma?. Utilization of molecular techniques to identify the infected palms
has been conducted by many scientists (Zakaria et al. 2005; Panchal & Bridge 2005; Utomo et
al. 2005). The use of specific primers and PCR-RFLP analyses gave consistent results for the
characterisation of pathogenic Ganoderma, and Ganoderma strain. (Utomo et al. 2005).
However, does this method can be used to identify of all planted palms?, how effective and
efficien this method to be applied?.

Spatial Variation and Natural Enemy Diversity

In natural ecosystem, herbivorous insects are well managed through ecological
processes such as parasitization and predation. However, in human-modified landscapes, -such
as oil palm plantation-, the story may be different. Transformation of natural ecosystem into
agricultural ecosystem brings many consequences on ecological processes and trophic
interaction among contributing agents, such as parasitoid, predator, herbivorus insects, and
vegetation architecture. Simplified vegetation may not sufficiently provide alternative hosts,
foods, and microhabitat for natural enemies.
In large scale oil palm plantation, pest outbreak is the function of the failure of natural
enemies. Therefore, pragmatic question would be how to maintain the natural enemies and to
decline pest population?. To answer the question, we need to understand more about the
interaction dynamic among species inhabiting oil palm landscape. Habitat manipulation
through the establishment of flowering herbs which can provide microhabitat and foods for
parasitoids could be an option. However, how this method applied in the field should be based
on the information about the relationship between flowering herbs and the targeted visiting
parasitoids. Another aspect which should also be considered is spatial dynamic pattern of the
landscape. In many areas in Indonesia, oil palm landscape may be composed by different ages
of the planted palms which may affect parasitoid community. Parasitoid diversity and
abundance were found to be lower in older plantations with darker canopy than in younger
plantation with more open canopy (Sahari 2012). Decreasing diversity and abundance of
parasitoid will result in higher number of pests escaping from parasitization (Kruess &
Tscharntke 1994).
In relation to microbial diversity, landscape condition may affects species diversity and
distribution of natural enemies. Soil moisture has effects on the composition of major groups
of soil microflora, mainly Trichoderma, Aspergillus, and Penicillium. Soil reaction has strong
effect on the abundance and distribution Trichoderma (Sariah et al. 2005). The higher
distribution of Trichoderma was recorded in inland jungle soil than coastal soil (Sariah et al.

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2005). In contrast, highest incidence of Ganoderma disease was recorded in coastal area than
in inland soil (Latiffah & Ho YW 2005). Does this imply that higher incidence of Ganoderma
relate to lower population of its natural enemy Trichoderma?.

Geography Effects, Genetic Variability, Pests/Disease

Occurence of pests and disease may be different for different geographic region. This
is true since different geographic area may have different environment characteristics which is
possible to affect disease/pest occurence. Study conducted by Wicaksono et al. 2011 identified
that Ganoderma attacking plantations from diferent areas in Sumatra was found to be
genetically different. Genetic analysis was conducted by using RAPD techniques.
Basidiospores play a major role in spread and 54 genetic variability of G. boninense (Rees et
al. 2012). Genetic variability among G.boninense isolates is related to the capacity of the
organisms to adapt to using different substrates (Zakaria et al. 2005). Somatic incompatibility
study shown that G. boninense isolates from oil palm and from coconut are genotypically
distinct individuals (Lattifal et al 2002). This imply that the G boninense population in oil palm
is derived of diverse inoculum source.
However, our study shows different result. Ganoderma attack was recorded in three
different geographic regions Sumatera, Kalimantan and Sulawesi (see Fig 3). Number of
infected palm from plantations in Sulawesi was found to be higher than in Kalimantan and
Sumatra. Identification using specific primer for ITS gene for amplification any organs of
infected oil palm including in leaves and soil confirmed that the attacking species is G.boninse
(Faisal et al. 2012 unpublished).
5,000
Number of infected palm

4,500
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
-

Geographic regions
Fig 3. Ganoderma disease incidence in plantations from different geographic regions in 2011.

The result also strongly indicated that G.boninense infecting the crop from different
geographic region is not genetically different. This can be seen from the homology between
isolates reached 80% (Faisal et al 2012 unpublished). This finding implies that species identity
is not the main factor triggering BSR incidence instead of cultural practice/management and
environment. We suggest that studies on interaction pattern between G.boninense and their
natural enemies under different quality of ecosystem should be emphasized. This is very
important to find the type of condition that may favor natural enemies to sustain and play their
role to control Ganoderma.

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Conclusion

Continuing pests and diseases outbreak in the field may indicates one or several
problems below:
1. Available control method may not be sufficient to overcome pest/disease problem
2. Available control methods may not be well implemented
3. There is ecological problem that limit the work of natural control.
Based on above statement, pest/disease problem may not only about the failure of the SOP
implementation. However, attention should be more paid on key factors analyses affecting the
work of natural enemies in the field. Future research should be more focused on three throphic
interaction among patogen, natural enemies, and crop to achieve best model of pest control
strategy.

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