Republic of the Philippines

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

Institute of Engineering and Technology

(a) Conservation of Mass

Conservation of Mass, which states that mass cannot be created or destroyed, is

implicitly satisfied by the definition of a control mass. So the law of conservation of mass
simply states that mass is indestructible.

Mass Flow Rate

The mass flow rate (ṁ) is defined as the amount of mass flowing through a cross-
section per unit time. The mass flow rate of a fluid flowing in or out of a pipe or duct is
proportional to the cross-sectional area (A) of the pipe or duct, the density of the fluid (ρ),
and the velocity of the flow (V). The flow rate through a differential area dA is:

dṁ = ρVndA

where
Vn = the velocity component normal to the area dA

Integrating the above equation to get the total mass flow rate.

Volume Flow Rate

The volume flow rate ( ) is the volume of the fluid flowing through a cross-
sectional area per unit time.

The mass and volume flow rate are related by

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 Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
Institute of Engineering and Technology

(b) Conservation of Energy

The first law of thermodynamics, also known as Law of Conservation of Energy, states
that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; energy can only be transferred or changed
from one form to another. For example, turning on a light would seem to produce energy;
however, it is electrical energy that is converted.

Potential energy

Potential energy is energy an object has because of its position relative to some other
object. When you stand at the top of a stairwell you have more potential energy than when
you are at the bottom, because the earth can pull you down through the force of gravity,
doing work in the process. When you are holding two magnets apart they have more
potential energy than when they are close together. If you let them go, they will move
toward each other, doing work in the process.

The formula for potential energy depends on the force acting on the two objects. For
the gravitational force the formula is P.E. = mgh, where m is the mass in kilograms, g is
the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m / s2 at the surface of the earth) and h is the height in
meters. Notice that gravitational potential energy has the same units as kinetic energy, kg
m2 / s2. In fact, all energy has the same units, kg m2 / s2, and is measured using the unit
Joule (J).

In thermodynamics the formula for potential energy is

P.E. = (mgh)/k

Where: k is the proportionality constant

g is the acceleration due to gravity

m is the mass

h is the height

Kinetic energy

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 Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
Institute of Engineering and Technology

Chemists divide energy into two classes. Kinetic energy is energy possessed by an
object in motion. The earth revolving around the sun, you walking down the street, and
molecules moving in space all have kinetic energy.

Kinetic energy is directly proportional to the mass of the object and to the square of its
velocity: K.E. = 1/2 m v2. If the mass has units of kilograms and the velocity of meters per
second, the kinetic energy has units of kilograms-meters squared per second squared.
Kinetic energy is usually measured in units of Joules (J); one Joule is equal to 1 kg m2 / s2.

In thermodynamics the formula for kinetic energy is

K.E. = (mv)/2k

Where: k is the proportionality constant

g is the acceleration due to gravity

m is the mass

v is the velocity

Internal Energy

Internal energy is defined as the energy associated with the random, disordered motion
of molecules. It is separated in scale from the macroscopic ordered energy associated with
moving objects; it refers to the invisible microscopic energy on the atomic and molecular
scale. For example, a room temperature glass of water sitting on a table has no apparent
energy, either potential or kinetic. But on the microscopic scale it is a seething mass of
high-speed molecules traveling at hundreds of meters per second. If the water were tossed
across the room, this microscopic energy would not necessarily be changed when we
superimpose an ordered large-scale motion on the water as a whole.

In short, internal energy is energy stored within a body or substance by virtue of the
activity and configuration of its molecules and of the vibration of the atoms within the
molecule.

Formula:

u = u2 – u1 u= specific internal energy (unit mass)

U = U2 – U1 U = mu = total internal energy (m mass)

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 Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
Institute of Engineering and Technology

Heat

Heat is the amount of energy flowing from one body to another spontaneously due to
their temperature difference. Heat is a form of energy, but it is energy in transit. Heat is not
a property of a system. However, the transfer of energy as heat occurs at the molecular
level as a result of a temperature difference.

Consider a block of metal at high temperature, that consists of atoms that are oscillating
intensely around their average positions. At low temperatures, the atoms continue to
oscillate, but with less intensity. If a hotter block of metal is put in contact with a cooler
block, the intensely oscillating atoms at the edge of the hotter block gives off its kinetic
energy to the less oscillating atoms at the edge of the cool block. In this case there is energy
transfer between these two blocks and heat flows from the hotter to the cooler block by
these random vibrations.

Q is positive when heat is added to the body or system.

Q is negative when heat is rejected by the body or system.

Work

Work is the product of the displacement of the body and the component of the force in
the direction of the displacement of the body and the component of the force in the direction
of the displacement. Work is energy in transition; that is, it exists only when a force is
“moving through a distance”

In thermodynamics, work performed by a system is the energy transferred by the

system to its surroundings. Kinetic energy, potential energy and internal energy are forms
of energy that are properties of a system. Work is a form of energy, but it is energy in
transit. A system contains no work, work is a process done by or on a system. In general,
work is defined for mechanical systems as the action of a force on an object through a
distance.

W = F. d

where:

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 Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
Institute of Engineering and Technology

W = work (J)

F = force (N)

d = displacement (m)

Flow Work

Work is needed to push the fluid into or out of the

boundaries of a control volume if mass flow is involved.
This work is called the flow work (flow energy). Flow work
is necessary for maintaining a continuous flow through a
control volume.

Consider a fluid element of volume V, pressure P, and

cross-sectional area A as shown left. The flow immediately
upstream will force this fluid element to enter the control volume, and it can be regarded
as an imaginary piston. The force applied on the fluid element by the imaginary piston is:

F = PA

The work done due to pushing the entire fluid element

across the boundary into the control volume is

Wflow = FL = PAL = PV

For unit mass,

wflow = Pv

The work done due to pushing the fluid element out of the control volume is the same as
the work needed to push the fluid element into the control volume.

Enthalpy

Enthalpy is a thermodynamic property of a system. It is the sum of the internal energy

added to the product of the pressure and volume of the system. It reflects the capacity to
do non-mechanical work and the capacity to release heat.

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 Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
Institute of Engineering and Technology

Enthalpy is denoted as H; specific enthalpy denoted as h. Common units used to express

enthalpy are the joule, calorie, or BTU (British Thermal Unit.) Enthalpy in a throttling
process is constant.

H = E + PV

where H is enthalpy

E is internal energy of the system

P is pressure

V is volume

General Energy Equation

The conservation of energy principle states that energy can be neither created nor
destroyed. This is the equivalent to the 1st law of Thermodynamics which was used to
develop the General Energy Equation.

Formula

It states that the rate of heat transfer into the control volume plus rate of energy flowing
in as a result of mass transfer is equal to the rate of change of energy inside the control
volume plus rate of energy flowing out as a result of mass transfer plus power output
associated with shaft, shear and electrical effects.

(c) First Law of Thermodynamics

The First Law of Thermodynamics states that heat is a form of energy, and
thermodynamic processes are therefore subject to the principle of conservation of energy.
This means that heat energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can, however, be transferred
from one location to another and converted to and from other forms of energy.

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 Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
Institute of Engineering and Technology

The First Law says that the internal energy of a system has to be equal to the work that
is being done on the system, plus or minus the heat that flows in or out of the system and
any other work that is done on the system. So, it’s a restatement of conservation of energy."

The change in internal energy of a system is the sum of all the energy inputs and outputs
to and from the system similarly to how all the deposits and withdrawals you make
determine the changes in your bank balance.” This is expressed mathematically as:
ΔU = Q – W, where ΔU is the change in the internal energy, Q is the heat added to the
system, and W is the work done by the system.

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 Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
Institute of Engineering and Technology

Reference

Thermodynamics: Kinetic and Potential Energy. (n.d.). Retrieved from: https://www.che

m.wisc.edu/deptfiles/genchem/netorial/modules/thermodynamics/energy/energy2.
htm

Hipolito, S. M. (2008). Thermodynamics 1. Mandaluyong, PH: National Book Store, Inc

Nave, R. (n.d.). Internal Energy. Retrieved from http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hba

se/thermo/inteng.html

Work in Thermodynamics. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.nuclear-power.net/nuclear

-engineering/thermodynamics/laws-of-thermodynamics/first-law-of-thermodynam
ics/work-in-thermodynamics/

Huang, M. (n.d.). Thermodynamics- theory. Retrieved from https://www.ecourses.ou.ed

u/cgibin/ebook.cgi?doc=&topic=th&chap_sec=03.1&page=theory

Helmenstine, Anne Marie, Ph.D. (2020, January 29). Enthalpy Definition in Chemistry
and Physics. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-enthalpy-
605091

UCLwiki. (2009). First Law Applied to Flow Processes. Retrieved from https://wiki.ucl.a
c.uk/display/MechEngThermodyn/First+law+applied+to+flow+processes