Wireless Lab Manual

LAB MANUAL
WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS LAB
EEP 776
BHARTI SCHOOL OF TELECOMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI
Wireless Communication Lab 1
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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Concept based Experiments Page
1. Study of basic Antennas………………………………………………………………… 3
2. Properties of Antennas: Polarization , Cross Polar Discrimination

Polarization Diversity……………………………………………………………………. 14
3. Antenna Resonance and Gain Bandwidth measurement……………….. 19
4. Characterization of Fading Effects……………………………………………….. 22
5. Fading Counter-measures using Antenna diversity and Frequency

diversity…………………………………………………………….…….................. 32
6. Delay Spread Measurement…………………………………………………………… 38
7. Handover Demonstration………………………………………………………………. 45
Application based Experiments Page
8.
9.
EXPERIMENT NO.1
STUDY OF BASIC ANTENNAS
1. OBJECTIVES
1. To plot the radiation pattern of simple antennas - Dipole, Monopole, Folded

dipole antenna etc, in E & H planes on log & linear scales on polar and
Cartesian plots.
2. To measure the beam width (-3 dB), front to back ratio, side lobe level and its
angular position, plane of polarization and directivity and gain.
2. THEORY
Radiation Pattern: The antenna radiation pattern is basically a measure of its

power or radiation distribution with respect to a particular type of coordinates. We
generally consider spherical coordinates as the ideal antenna is supposed to radiate
in a spherically symmetrical pattern. However antennae in practice are not omni
directional but have a radiation maximum along one particular direction. For e.g.
Dipole antenna is a broadside antenna wherein the maximum radiation occurs along
the axis of the antenna. The 3-D radiation pattern of a typical dipole antenna looks
something like this
Directivity: Given a set of spherical polar coordinates (R,,) we can determine the
power density in watts/(square meter) for both the antenna being investigated,
and the isotropic reference antenna, which is radiating the sane total power. The
ratio of these power densities gives the directivity of the unknown antenna in the
direction (,) at a distance R from the antenna. If the direction (,) is not
specified, the “directivity” is taken to be the maximum directivity of any of the
directions of radiation. The quoted definition is: “The directivity of an antenna is
defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the
antenna, to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions, The average
radiation intensity is equal to the total power of the antenna divided by (4) .If the
direction is not specified the directivity refers to the direction of maximum
radiation intensity”.
Gain: The gain in any direction (,) is power density radiated in direction (,)
divided by power density which would have been radiated at (,) by a loss less
(perfect) isotropic radiator having the same total accepted input power. If the
direction is not specified, the value for gain is taken to mean the maximum value in
any direction for that particular antenna, and the direction along which the gain is
maximum is called the “antenna boresight”. The efficiency of an antenna is the
gain divided by Directivity, in any direction.
3. EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
1. Antenna Digital RF Transmitter, MADL- 2.4.

2. Antenna Digital RF Receiver, MADL – 2.4
3. Antenna Stepper Motor Controller, WCS 860.
4. Dipole Antennas, Folded dipole, Monopole, Yagi antenna
5. Antenna tripod and stepper pod with connecting cables
6. Spectrum Analyser FS300
7. Signal generator SML03
Experiment Setup
Fig. 7.1
4. LAB PROCEDURE
 PART-I:
a) Connect one of the dipole antennas of length = 24cms (field generator

antenna) to the tripod and set the transmitter frequency to 600 MHz and
keep the attenuator downwards to avoid receiver saturation. Keep the
antenna in horizontal direction.
b) Now connect the second antenna (test antenna whose radiation pattern is
to be measured) to the stepper pod and set the receiver to 600 MHz. Set
the attenuator upwards for maximum sensitivity. Adjust the dipole for
resonance at 600 MHz.
c) Set the distance between the antennas to be around 1 m. Remove any
stray object from around the antennas, especially in the line of sight.
Avoid any unnecessary movement while taking the readings.
d) Now rotate the test antenna around its axis in steps of 5 degrees using
stepper motor controller. Take the level readings of receiver at each step
and note down.
e) Note the maximum reading out of the whole set of readings. This will
form the 0db reference reading. Now subtract all the readings from these
reference readings and note down. Now use this new set of readings for
drawing a plot.
f) Plot the readings on a polar or Cartesian plane with log/linear scales.
g) This plot with both the dipoles in horizontal plane shall form an E-plane
plot.
h) Now without disturbing the setup-rotate the test antenna at receiver from
horizontal to vertical plane by using a polarization connector.
i) And rotate the test antenna around its axis in steps of 5 degrees using
stepper motor controller. Take the level readings of receiver at each step
and note down.
j) Plot the readings also on a polar or Cartesian plane with log/linear scales.
k) This plot shall constitute the H-plane plot of the test antenna.
l) Use a jumper lead to connect the two tripods and take the reading in the
receiver. If the reading is more than 70dB then press another attenuator.
This is the power fed to the Transmitting antenna (Pt).
m) Now connect the two-dipole antennas, in this case, one at Tx pod and
other at Rx stepper Tripod. Take the reading in the receiver. This is the
Power received from the receiving antenna (Pr).
n) Now repeat the procedure for other as well.
 PART-II (Calculation):
a) From the E-plane radiation patterns drawn find the following.

b) The –3 db or half power beam width is defined as the angular width in
degrees at the points on either sides of the main beam where the radiated
level is 3db lower than the maximum lobe value.
c) From the polar plot measure the angle where the 0db reference is there.
This shall also be the direction of main lobe or bore sight direction.
d) Measure the angle when this reading is –3db on its either side.
e) The difference between the angular positions of the –3dB points is the E-
plane beam width of the dipole antenna.
f) Side lobe level is usually taken as the level below the bore sight gain.
Strictly all peaks on either side of the main lobe are side lobes. However
in practice only the lobes adjacent to the either side of the bore sight
maxima are referred to as side lobes.
g) Side lobes in this case shall form between the two maximums. Nulls can
be up to –20dB from the bore sight direction gain.
h) If the plot forms distinct side lobes then each one’s angular position and
level can be inferred from the plot.
i) The front to back ratio is a measure of the ability if a directional antenna
to concentrate its beam in the required forward direction.
j) Observe the difference in levels in dB from bore sight direction and the
direction diametrically opposite to it.
k) Measure the H-plane beam width of the dipole antenna from h-plane plot.
l) Calculate the directivity as 41000/(3 dB beam width E-plane X 3dB beam
width H-plane in degrees). Take a log of this value and multiply by 10 for
reading in dBi.
m) As the dipole antenna is itself a reference antenna for gain measurements
hence its absolute gain cannot be directly found out. However the gain of
other antennas can be referred to dipole gain.
n) The received power (Pr) is= Pt*(G * ) 2/ (4  R) 2, where Pt is the
accepted power, G is gain of each dipole antenna (a straight number) and
R is distance between them.
o) Now Gain = Directivity * Efficiency, so find Efficiency.
5. LAB REPORT
Give the following information:

1. Antenna Test frequency (f) = ……………………..MHz
2. Antenna Test Wavelength () = ……………….….m
3. Rayleigh Distance, near field-Far field boundary =………………….m (F=2*L2/,
where L is the maximum dimension of the antenna in m.)
3. Distance between the two antennas R=…………….m
4. Theoretical antenna dimension for half wave (/2) Dipole=……………m
5. Practical antenna Dimensions for half wave (/2) Dipole=……….m (/2 – 5%).
6. Power fed to the transmitting antenna (Pt)=………….dBV=……………..nw.
7. Power received from receiving antenna (Pr)= ………….dBV=…………..pw.
8. E-plane –3dB bandwidth of the antenna (HP)=………………….. .
9. H plane –3 dB beam width of the antenna (HP)=…………………. .
10. E plane half power beam width (HPBW) (HP)=…………………..rad
11. H plane half power beam width (HPBW) (HP) = ………………..rad
12. Beam area or Beam solid angle = …………..sr ( A =HP*HP (sr). Also
 A (sr)=4 (sr)*D where D is Directivity)
13. Beam width between first nulls (BWFN)=………….deg (BWFN=2*HPBW approx.)
14. Front to Back ratio = ………………………dB
15. Directivity of the antenna (D)=………………. (41,0002/ HP*HP)
16. Directivity of the antenna (DdB)=…………………….dB
17. Resolution of the antenna =………..(Beam width between first nulls (BWFN)/2 )
18. Antenna Aperture (A)=…………………m2
19. Gain of the Antenna (G)=……………….
20. Gain of antenna (GdB)=…………………….dB
21. Antenna Efficiency (k)=…………… (k=D/G )
6. QUIZ
1. What will happen if a conducting plate is placed behind the dipole?
2. Identify the type of antenna associated with following radiation pattern?
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
3. List the factors on which the shape of overall pattern of an antenna array
depends?
4. What will happen if a folded dipole is attached to 5V AC, 50 MHZ signal?
5. What will happen if a folded dipole is attached to 230V AC,50 Hz main supply?
6. When a 5V DC is applied across a folded dipole antenna, will it radiate energy?
Justify your answer.
7. “The Dipole antenna is extremely flexible”. Justify the statement?
8. A Hertz half wave dipole antenna is aligned along X-axis. Where radiation peak
will occur.
9. How does a radiation pattern depend upon the radius on antenna element?
10. What will be radiation pattern of dipole antenna, if it will put on ground?
7. Few more radiation patterns
A typical radiation pattern is shown below with necessary angular explanations
3-D radiation patterns of the dipole for different frequencies
Radiation pattern of the helical antenna
Radiation pattern of the Horn antenna
Radiation pattern of Folded dipole
EXPERIMENT NO.2
POLARISATION OF ANTENNAS, CROSS POLAR DISCRIMINATION AND

POLARISATION DIVERSITY
1. OBJECTIVES
1. To study the phenomenon of Linear and Circular polarization of antennas.

2. To determine the Cross Polar Discrimination(XPD) for the antenna systems in
the lab.
3. To study polarization diversity.
2. THEORY
Antenna Polarization for linear antennas is in direction of its elements so if the

dipole is mounted in horizontal plane it is horizontally polarized. If it is made
vertical using polarization adapter then it is vertically polarized. Linear
polarization of an antenna is measured with reference to a dipole antenna. So if
maximum signal is received from a given antenna with test dipole horizontal, then
the given antenna is horizontally polarized. A diagram illustrating polarization is
shown.
As the plane of either of the antennas is changed using a polarization
adapter the received signal strength reduces. A vertical antenna radiates vertically
polarized wave as a vertical whip/ vertical dipole/monopole
discone/endfire/broadside. A horizontal antenna radiates horizontally polarized
waves as a horizontal dipole/biconical/square loop/quad/Vee/Yagi/ Log-periodic.
Cross polarization discrimination is the change in received signal strength with
change in polarization direction for a linearly polarized antenna. In the case of
measurements between dipoles and yagi upto 20dB of change can be observed on
changing plane of polarization. Good polarization discrimination reflects the purity
of an antenna pattern. A circularly polarized wave front has equal power in its
plane. Hence when a dipole antenna is rotated from horizontal to vertical using
polarization adapter in front of a crossed dipole antenna or an axial mode helix
antenna. No appreciable change in signal strength is observed – concluding that
crossed dipole and helix antennas are circularly polarized. The axial ratio of a
crossed dipole and helix antennas would be close to 1 and signal variation would be
a few dBs around all directions in vertical plane. Received signal strength is
maximum between circularly polarized antennas at Tx and Rx when both have same
handedness. Thus it is maximum between RHCP and RHCP or between LHCP and
LHCP antennas. It will be lesser in case of communication between RHCP and LHCP
antennas indicating the polarization discrimination antennas. A practical antenna
using polarization diversity is shown below
1. Antenna Digital RF transmitter, MADL 2.4.

2. Antenna Digital RF receiver MADL 2.4.
3. Pair of Dipole antennas, RHCP & LHCP crossed dipole antennas and RHCP &
LHCP axial mode helix antennas.
4. Antenna Tripod and stepper pod with connecting cables, Polarization
connectors.
5. LHCP crossed dipole, RHCP crossed dipole, helix and dipole antennas
Experiment Setup
Fig. 8.1
4. LAB PROCEDURE
 PART-I:
a) Connect the BNC-RF cable to the transmitter tripod and attach a dipole
antenna to it using polarization adapter. Set the transmitter frequency to
600 MHz and attenuator downwards for low RF level to avoid receiver
saturation. Set the length of the antenna elements to 12 cm. Each from
the center of the boom Keep the antenna in horizontal direction.
b) Now connect another dipole antenna to the receiver stepper tripod using a
polarization connector in between and set the receiver to 600 MHz .Set
the attenuator upwards for maximum sensitivity.
c) Set the distance between the antennas to be around 1m.
d) Keep both the dipoles in horizontal planes and pointing towards each
other. The elements of both antennas should be parallel to each other.
Take the level reading in the receiver.
e) Now rotate the dipole at the stepper pod in vertical plane using
polarization adapter. Take the level reading in receiver with dipole in
vertical plane and note down. Take care not to change the direction of
antenna.
f) Now connect a RHCP/LHCP crossed dipole antenna or RHCP/LHCP axial
mode Helix antenna at the transmitter end and point it towards the
receiver. Take care to Point it precisely towards the other dipole and
ensure that same height is maintained while taking readings. Take the
level reading in the receiver.
g) Now rotate the dipole antenna at the receiver in vertical plane using
polarization Adapter. Observe the change in level reading. Observe its
difference from an ordinary dipole antenna.
h) Try replacing the dipole at receiver tripod with various antennas and
observe the Change in readings on rotating the other dipole from
horizontal to vertical.
i) Now, connect the RHCP/ LHCP crossed dipole antenna at Tx/Rx end and
one RHCP/LHCP axial mode helix antenna at the other end. And find out
which pair of antennas (i.e. RHCP crossed dipole antenna & RHCP axial
mode helix antenna or LHCP crossed dipole antenna & RHCP axial mode
helix antenna or vice-versa) out of four gives maximum Rx reading.
j) See if received signal strength is maximum between circularly polarized
antennas at Tx and Rx when both have same handedness. Measure the
polarization discrimination among antennas.
5. LAB REPORT
Give the following information:

1. Type of polarization = Linear / circular, if linear Horizontal / Vertical.
2. Axial ratio of circularly polarized antenna (A.R.)=………………….dB (Difference of
readings upon rotation of a test dipole in front of a circularly polarized wave
front (crossed dipole) in horizontal and vertical planes.)
3. Cross polarization discrimination (C.P.D) for linear antenna =…………..dB
(Difference of readings upon rotation of a test dipole in front of a linearly
polarized wave front (dipole) in horizontal and vertical planes).
6. QUIZ
1. Compare entire antenna used in this experiment according to their diversity
gain?
2. Find one application of each type of polarization?
3. “The larger the XPD, the less is the energy coupled b/w the cross polarized
channel”. Justify this statement?
4. What is the recommended value (Min.) of polarization discrimination for BTS?
EXPERIMENT NO.3
ANTENNA RESONANCE
&
GAIN BANDWIDTH MEASUREMENTS
1. OBJECTIVES
1. To identify whether an antenna is resonating or non-resonating type.

2. To measure basic antenna’s Gain Bandwidth using log
periodic antenna.
2. THEORY
The theory on the different types of antenna mentioned is provided in the Appendix
A.
Basically a resonant antenna is the one which is not terminated in its characteristic
impedance, because of which there will be reflection of the wave transmitted,
whereas a non-resonant antenna is terminated in its characteristic impedance
because of which the transmitted wave is fully absorbed by the antenna.
Dipole antenna’s resonant frequency is a function of its length. A half wave
dipole shall resonate when its length is equal to half the wavelength of its
operating frequency. Hence a half wave dipole whose element length is 12c.m.
shall resonate at around 600 MHz. At the resonant frequency the SWR is minimum
for a resonant antenna. A non-resonant antenna has a broadband frequency
response and its SWR is almost constant over a range of frequencies. A log periodic
antenna comes under the category of non-resonant antenna.
1. Antenna Digital RF Transmitter, MADL -2.4.

2. Antenna Digital RF Receiver, MADL – 2.4
3. Antenna Tripods.
4. Dipole, log periodic, Yagi, Monopole, folded dipole and Biconical antennas.
4. LAB PROCEDURE
a) Connect a log-periodic antenna at transmitter tripod and set the

frequency of the transmitter to 450 MHz. Keep the attenuator downwards
to avoid receiver saturation.
b) Connect the dipole to the receiver pod and set the receiver frequency to
450 MHz.
c) Adjust the dipole for resonance at 600 MHz i.e. set its total length as 24
cms.
d) Now take the receiver readings at 10 MHz interval from 450 to 750 MHz.
Plot the receiver readings against frequency.
e) This will result in plot of gain bandwidth of dipole antenna presuming that
log-periodic antenna have flat response with frequency.
f) The gain shall show some fall at higher frequencies due to various losses
in the system, which increases with frequency.
g) Repeat the above procedure for Yagi, Monopole and Biconical Antennas.
h) At this point you must be able to prove from gain bandwidth plots that a
given antenna is resonating or not.
Note : To adjust the monopole antenna for resonance at 600 MHz , set its
length as 12c.m. For Biconical Antenna biconical elements can be pulled
out completely for broad response.
5. LAB REPORT
1. Gain Bandwidth of the antenna(s) =……………………MHz

(Range of frequencies for which gain is reduced by over 3dB while measuring
with
log-periodic antenna.)
2. Gain bandwidth plot of various antennas
6. QUIZ
1. Compare the entire antenna used in this experiment according to their power
gain, directivity and polarity?
2. What determines the accuracy of antenna array?
3. Why Radomes, Heater and Labeling elements are added in antenna array?
EXPERIMENT NO. 4
CHARACTERIZATION OF FADING EFFECTS
1. OBJECTIVES
1. To observe and characterize the multi-path fading effects in the lab

environment using:
a) CRO
b) Power meter (in-built in the Receiver) and
c) Spectrum analyzer (prefer this to measure the received power)
2. To determine the fade duration at different frequencies.
3. To determine the coherence bandwidth of the wireless channel.
2. THEORY
Fading
When the waves of multipath signals are out of phase, reduction in signal strength
can occur. One such type of reduction is called a fade; the phenomenon is known
as “Rayleigh fading” or “fast fading.” A typical diagram of multi-path reception is
given below:
A fade is a constantly changing, three-dimensional phenomenon. Fade zones tend

to be small, multiple areas of space within a multipath environment that cause
periodic attenuation of a received signal for users passing through them. In other
words, the received signal strength will fluctuate downward, causing a momentary,
but periodic, degradation in quality.
Fig 1.1. A Representation of the Rayleigh Fade Effect on a User Signal
A phasor diagram of the multipath propagation channel is as shown:
Indoor Propagation Model

The indoor radio channel differs from the traditional mobile radio channel in two
aspects, the distances covered are much smaller, and the variability of the
environment is much greater for a much smaller range of T-R separation distances.
It has been observed that propagation within buildings is strongly influenced by
specific features such as the layout of the building, the construction materials, and
the building type. Indoor radio propagation is dominated by reflection, diffraction,
and scattering. Signal levels vary greatly depending on whether interior doors are
open or closed inside a building. Where antennas are mounted also impacts large
scale propagation. Antennas mounted at desk level in a portioned office receive
vastly different signals than those mounted on the ceiling. Also, the smaller
propagation distances make it more difficult to insure far-field radiation for all
receiver locations and types of antennas. A typical graph of Rayleigh fading
simulated in the lab environment with the receiver moving at 120km/h is as shown
In general, indoor radio channels may be classified either as line-of-sight (LOS) or

obstructed (OBS), with varying degrees of clutter.
Partition Losses (same floor)

Buildings have a wide variety of partitions and obstacles, which form the internal
and external structure. Partitions that are formed as part of the building structure
are called hard partitions, and partitions that may be moved and which do not span
to the ceiling are called soft partitions. Partitions vary widely in their physical and
electrical characteristics, making it difficult to apply general models to specify
indoor installations.
Partition losses between floors

The partition losses between floors of a building are determined by the external
dimensions and materials of the building, as well as the type of construction used
to create the floors and external surroundings. Even the number of windows in a
building and the presence of tinting (which attenuates radio energy) can impact the
loss between floors.
Log-distance Path Loss Model
Indoor path loss has been shown to obey the distance power law in equation:
d
PL(dB)= PL(d0) + 10nlog   + X (1.1)
 do 
Where
n is the path loss exponent which indicates the rate at which the path loss
increases with distance, the value of n depends on the surrounds and buildings
type. In free space, n=2, it increases if obstructions are present
d0 is the close-in reference distance which is determined from measurements close

to the transmitter
d is the Transmitter-Receiver distance
and X represents normal random variable in dB having a standard deviation of 

dB.
Level Crossing Rate
In the design of high speed digital mobile radio transmission systems, it is

important to know the characteristics of multipath fading that induce burst errors.
Provided that burst errors occurs when the signal envelope fades below a specific
threshold value, the level crossing rate can be used as an appropriate measure for
the burst error occurrence rate. The fade duration may also be used to estimate
the burst error length.
The level crossing rate which is generally defined as the expected rate at which the
Rayleigh fading envelope R, normalized to a local rms signal level, crosses a
specified level Rs in the positive-going direction and is given by

-ρ2
N Rs   Rp( Rs , R )dR = 2 f D ρ e (1.2)
0
where ρ = R/Rs
Where the dot denotes a time derivative, p(Rs, R ) is the joint pdf of R, and R for
R= Rs .
f D is the maximum Doppler Frequency. ρ is normalized to the local rms amplitude

of the fading envelope. The level crossing rate can be interpreted to be function of
the mobile speed as is apparent from the presence of f D in equation 1.2. It can be
shown that the level crossing rate NRs for a signal received by a vertical monopole
antenna is
 Rs   Rs 2 
N Rs  2 f D   exp  
2 
(1.3)
 2   2 
Average Fade Duration
It is defined as the average period of time for which received signal is below a
specified level R. Average Fade duration (τ),
1
τ= Pr[r  R] , (1.4)
Nr
where Pr[r<=R] is the probability that the received signal r is less than R and is
given by
Pr[r<=R] = (1/T)*Summation of τi’s
Where each τi is the duration of the fade and T is the observation interval of
the fading signal. Considering a Rayleigh distribution, the equation 1.3 becomes
ρ2
τ = (e -1) / (ρ f D 2 ) , f D = v/λ where v is velocity of incident
wave
The average duration of a signal fade helps determine the most likely number of
signaling bits that may be lost during a fade. It depends on the speed of the
mobile, and decreases with increase in f D.
Coherence Bandwidth
Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over

which the channel can be considered “flat” ( i.e. a channel which passes all
spectral components with approximately equal gain and linear phase ). In other
words, coherence bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which two frequency
components have a strong potential for amplitude correlation. Two sinusoids with
frequency separation greater than Bc are affected quite differently by the channel.
For more details refer to
http://users.ece.gatech.edu/~mai/tutorial_multipath.htm
1) Microwave analog digital link transmitter MADL 2.4.

2) Microwave analog digital link receiver MADL 2.4.
3) Scientific Function Generator, HM 5030-4.
4) FS 300 spectrum Analyzer 9KHz 3 GHz.
5) Digital oscilloscope or 100 MHZ analog oscilloscopes, HM 1004-3.
6) Two dipole antennas and antenna tripods.
Experiment Setup:
1. Connecting the Tx [Transmitter] side:
a) Set the length of the dipole antennas to 24 cm end to end.

b) Connect the dipole antenna to the tripod and connect the cable from the
tripod to the RFOUT point of the Microwave Antenna Digital link
Transmitter, MADL 2.4.
c) Set the frequency of the transmitter to 2.4 GHz.
d) Connect the Audio1 point of the transmitter to the output of function
generator, HM 5030-4.
e) Set the waveform knob of the function generator to the sinusoidal, rotate
the frequency knob, so that output is around 2000 Hz.
f) Keep the mic/1 KHz switch of the transmitter in the mic position,
Audio1/Audio2 switch in the Audio1 position and attenuator in the Low
position.
2. Connecting the Rx [Receiver] side:
a) Connect another dipole antenna to the stepper pod and connect it

simultaneously to the RF IN point of the Microwave Analog Digital link
Receiver, MADL 2.4 and RF input point of the spectrum Analyzer.
b) Set the frequency of the receiver 2.4 GHz
c) Set the attenuator of the receiver in the low position.
d) Connect the Audio1 point coming from the receiver to CH-1 of the
oscilloscope, HM 1004-3 (oscilloscope 1) to see the Analog output in the
scope.
3. Connecting the Spectrum Analyzer:

a) Press the SYS key.
b) Select PRESET in the button menu bar using the horizontal scroll keys.
c) Press the PRESET function key.
d) Select FREQ/SPAN in the button menu bar using scroll keys.
e) Press the CENTER function KEY.
f) ENTER 2400 using numerical keys. Terminate the entry by pressing the
unit key MHZ/ms.
g) Select MKR in the bottom menu bar using the scroll keys.
h) Press the MARKER 1 function Key.
i) Press the PEAK function Key in the submenu that appears. The marker
jumps to the signal peak. Turn the rotary knob to change the position of
the marker.
Fig. 1.2
LAB PROCEDURE
1) Transmit a sinusoidal signal of around 2 KHz frequency using a carrier frequency

of 2.4 GHz.
2) Connecting the Audio1 point from the receiver to the CH I of HM 1004-3
oscilloscope will show the sinusoidal signal transmitted and also the tone can be
heard by increasing the volume in the receiver.
3) Keeping the two dipoles parallel to each other, move antenna and receiver
relatively. Observe the 2.4GHz signal amplitude variations in spectrum analyzer
due to multi-path effect (fading effect).
4) Vary the distance between antenna and receiver and note down the distance
between antennas, 2.4 GHz RF signal amplitude in the spectrum analyzer, the
level reading in dBv and plot them. This gives the fade plot.
5) At carrier frequency, say 2.4GHz, keep the receiver at a fade. Now vary the
carrier frequency and note how much frequency change is required to get out of
fade & relate it to Coherence Bandwidth.
6) Repeat the above experiment with carrier frequencies 2.42 GHz, 2.44 GHz.
LAB REPORT
1. Plot of the fades versus the distance between the Tx and Rx. At frequencies f
= 2.4 GHz, 2.42GHz and 2.44 GHz.
2. Plot of the fades for vertical and horizontal polarization. Do you see any
differences ? Explain.
3. Determine the average distance between fades for 2.4 GHz, 2.42GHz and 2.44
GHz.
4. Find the value n for the lab, where
d
Path loss dB= PL(d0) + 10nlog   + X
 do 
6. QUIZ
1) Give the values of the IF and RF used in your experiment?

2) What type of modulation the transmitter is using?
3) Is n a function of frequency?
4) What will be the effect on Average Fade Duration if the receiver uses 2
antennas with received signals uncorrelated?
5) If the Coherence Bandwidth is greater than the channel bandwidth, do we need
equalizer? Give reason to support your answer?
6) Point out some WLAN channel models and clearly gives the parameters ranges
under which these models are suitable?
7) Which WLAN channel model may best describe your working environment in lab?
7. MATLAB SIMULATION OF MULTIPATH FADING
A typical MATLAB simulation of Rayleigh fading is as shown.
EXPERIMENT NO. 5
DELAY SPREAD MEASUREMENT AND CALCULATION OF COHERENCE
BANDWIDTH
1. OBJECTIVES
1. To measure the rms delay spread of the wireless channel.

2. To determine the coherence Bandwidth.
2. THEORY
Because of multipath reflections, the channel impulse response of a wireless

channel looks likes a series of pulses.
Figure: Example of impulse response and frequency transfer function of a

multipath channel.
We can define the local-mean average received power with excess delay within the
interval (T, T + dt). This gives the "delay profile" of the channel. The delay profile
determines to what extent the channel fading at two different frequencies f1 and f2
are correlated.
Some definitions
 The maximum delay time spread is the total time interval during which
reflections with significant energy arrives.
 The rms delay spread Trms is the standard deviation (or root-mean-square)
value of the delay of reflections, weighted proportional to the energy in the
reflected waves.
For a digital signal with high bit rate, this dispersion is experienced as frequency
selective fading and intersymbol interference (ISI). No serious ISI is likely to occur if
the symbol duration is longer than, say, ten times the rms delay spread. An
instantaneous impulse influened by delay spread is as shown
In order to compare different multipath channels and to develop some general

guidelines for wireless systems, parameters which grossly quantify the multipath
channel are used. The mean excess delay, rms delay spread and excess delay
spread (X dB) are multipath channel parameters that can be determined from a
power delay profile. The mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay
profile and is defined to be
2
a 
k
 P( )
k k
k
k k
   2
(3.1)
a  P ( ) k
k
k
k
Where P(τ) is the power measured at time τ.
The rms delay spread is the square root of the second central moment of the power
delay profile and is defined to be
    2  ( ) 2
a  k
2
k
2
 P  k k
2
where 2  k
 k
a k
2
 P  k
k
k
These delays are measured relative to the first detectable signal to at the receiver
at 0=0. The above equations do not rely on the absolute power level of P(), but
only the relative amplitudes of the multipath components within P().Typical
values of rms delay spread are on the order of microseconds in outdoor mobile
radio channels and on the order of nanoseconds in indoor radio channels.
The maximum excess delay (X dB) of power delay profile is defined to be the time
delay during which multipath energy falls to X dB below the maximum. In other
words, the maximum excess delay is defined as x - 0.where 0 is the first arriving
signal and x is the maximum delay at which a multipath component is within X dB
of the strongest arriving multipath signal (which does not necessarily arrive at
0).The figure below illustrates the computation of the maximum excess delay for
multipath components within 10 dB of maximum. The maximum excess delay (X dB)
defines the temporal extent of the multipath that is above a particular threshold.
The value of x –is sometimes called the excess spread of a power delay profile, but
in all cases must be specified with a threshold that relates the multipath noise floor
to the maximum received multipath component.
Fig. 3.1
Coherence Bandwidth
Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over

which the channel can be considered “flat”( i.e. a channel which passes all spectral
components with approximately equal gain and linear phase ). In other words,
coherence bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which two frequency
components have a strong potential for amplitude correlation. Two sinusoids with
frequency separation greater than Bc are affected quite differently by the channel.
If the coherence bandwidth is defined as the bandwidth over which the frequency
correlation function is above 0.9, then the coherence bandwidth is approximately
1
Bc  ( 3.2 )
50
Where the denominator sigma corresponds to the rms delay spread. If the
definition is relaxed so that the frequency correlation function is above 0.5, then
the coherence bandwidth is approximately
1
Bc 
5
1. Microwave Analog Digital Link Transmitter MADL 2.4

2. Microwave Analog Digital Link Receiver MADL 2.4
3. Signal generator SML03 .
4. Digital phosphorous oscilloscope TDS 5104B or100 MHz Analog Oscilloscope HM
1004-3
5. Any 2 antennas – dipole or helix
4. LAB PROCEDURE
1. Transmit a narrow pulse (duty cycle 0.1) using signal generator using a carrier
frequency of 2400 MHz.
2. Connect the external pulse signal to Audio2 input of the transmitter. The Horn
antenna is connected to the RF output of the transmitter. Connect another horn
antenna to the RF input of the receiver. Set the frequency to 2600 MHz at both
transmitter and receiver.
3. Connect the CRO to the Audio2 output of the receiver.
4. Plot the delay profile for the transmitted pulse.
5. Calculate the rms delay spread.
6. Comment on the shape of the received signal on the CRO.
7. Repeat the above steps at frequencies of 2.4, 2.42 and 2.44 GHz.
8. Repeat the above steps with a different antenna (with different HPBW).
5. LAB REPORT
1. Obtain the delay profile for the transmitted pulse. How will your answer change
if you use a narrower pulse for measurement?
2. Calculate the mean access delay, rms delay spread and excess delay spread of
the wireless channel at 2.40, 2.42, 2.44 GHz. Compare the results and explain.
3. Calculate the coherence Bandwidth of the channel based on measurement.
Obtain the approximate dimensions of the lab and theoretically calculate the
approximate value of mean access delay and coherence bandwidth. Compare
the results obtained experimentally. Explain the mismatch.
4. Give the values for mean access delay, rms delay spread and excess delay
spread for antennas with different half power beam width (HPBW). Explain your
result theoretically.
6. QUIZ
1. Explain the sentence ‘One of the ways to reduce multipath interference is to

use an antenna with a very narrow HPBW’. What is disadvantage of using an
antenna with narrow HPBW?
2. What are the HPBW of antennas in the base station and in the handset for a
typical mobile communication scenario (for GSM and for CDMA2000)?
3. Calculate the Coherence Bandwidth for mobile communication in India(GSM and
CDMA 2000)? Will your answer change with degree of urbanization?
4. A signal is said to undergo flat fading if Bs << Bc, where Bs is signal bandwidth
and Bc is coherence bandwidth, otherwise signal undergoes frequency selective
fading . Is your signal transmission in lab undergoing flat fading or frequency
selective fading?
5. For each of the scenario below, decide if the received signal is best described as
undergoing fast fading, frequency selective fading, or flat fading?
(a) A binary modulation has a data rate of 500kbps, and fc=1GHz and a typical
urban radio channel is used.
(b) A binary modulation has a data rate of 5kbps, and fc=1GHz and a typical
urban radio channel is used to provide communication to cars moving on a highway.
6. Which channel has more RMS delay spread between Indoor channel and Outdoor
Channel and why?
EXPERIMENT NO. 6
FADING COUNTER-MEASURES USING ANTENNA DIVERSITY AND

FREQUENCY DIVERSITY
1. OBJECTIVES
1. To observe effects of multiple antennas on the received signal strength.

2. To use antenna diversity as fading counter measure.
3. To use frequency diversity as fading counter measure.
2. THEORY
Concepts of Diversity branch and signal paths:
Diversity is a powerful communication technique that provides wireless link

improvement at relatively low cost .Unlike equalization it requires no training
overhead.
A diversity technique requires a number of signal transmission paths, named
diversity branches, which carry the same information but have uncorrelated
multipath fadings and a circuit to combine the received signals or select one of
them. Depending on the land mobile radio propagation characteristics, there are a
number of methods to construct diversity branches.
Space Diversity: It is also known as Antenna Diversity. It has a single transmitting

antenna and a number of receiving antennas. Spacing between adjacent receiving
antennas is chosen so that multipath fading appearing in the diversity branches
becomes uncorrelated. A typical element using the antenna diversity technique is
as shown
Angle diversity: It requires a number of directional antennas. Each antenna
responds independently to a wave propagating at a specific angle and receives a
faded signal that is uncorrelated with the others.
Polarization Diversity: In this case two diversity branches are available; it is

effective because the signals transmitted through two orthogonally polarized
propagation paths have uncorrelated fading statistics in the usual VHF and UHF land
mobile radio environment. The concept of Polarisation diversity is shown below:
Time and Frequency Diversity: Difference in frequency and/or time can also be
utilized to construct diversity branches with uncorrelated fading statistics. The
required frequency and time spacing can be determined from the characteristics of
the time delay spread and the maximum Doppler frequency. A common advantage
of these two techniques compared with space, angle and polarization diversity
techniques is that the number of transmitting and receiving antennas can be
reduced to one of each, with the disadvantage that a wider bandwidth is required.
Error-correction coding, which is peculiar to digital transmission systems, can be
regarded as a kind of time diversity technique. Frequency diversity as such is
utilized for large antennas for transmission over large distances. A picture of an
antenna using the frequency diversity is shown at the end of the experiment.
In principle, with an exception of polarization diversity, there exists no limit
to the number of diversity branches. For example, several practical wireless
applications in the 2.4 GHz band have used up to five receiver antennas to achieve
space diversity.
The rationale behind the Frequency diversity is that frequency separated by more
than Coherence Bandwidth of channel will be uncorrelated and will not experience
same fades.
Time diversity repeatedly transmits information at time spacing that
exceeds coherence time of channel so that multiple repetitions of signal will be
received with independent fading condition thereby providing condition for
diversity.
1. Microwave analog digital link transmitter MADL 2.4.

2. Microwave analog digital link receiver MADL 2.4.
3. Function Generator, HM 5030-4.
4. FS 300 spectrum Analyzer 9KHz 3 GHz.
5. Digital oscilloscopeTwo or 100 MHZ analog oscilloscope, HM 1004-3
6. Three antenna & three antenna tripods
Experimental Setup
Tx1
Rx
Tx2
Fig 2.1 Transmitter diversity
Rx1
Tx
Rx2
Fig.2.2 Receiver Diversity
1. Connecting the Tx (Transmitter) side:

b) Connect the dipole antenna to one tripod and the YAGI antenna to
another tripod. Connect the two antenna cables to the RFOUT point of the
Microwave Analog Digital LINK Transmitter, MADL 2.4 with the help of
multiple antenna connectors.
c) Set the frequency of the transmitter to 2.4GHz.
d) Connect the AUDIO 1 point of the transmitter to the output of function
e) Set the waveform knob of the function generator to the sinusoidal,
frequency range knob to 2K and rotate the frequency knob, so that output
is around 2 KHz.
Audio1/Audio2 switch in the Audio1 position and attenuator in the low
position.
2. Connecting the Rx (Receiver) side:

simultaneously to the RF IN point of the Microwave Analog Digital link
Receiver, MADL 2.4 and RF input point of the spectrum Analyzer.
b) Set the frequency of the receiver 2.4 GHz
c) Set the attenuator of the receiver at the in the low position..
d) Connect the Audio1 point coming from the receiver to CH-1 of the 100 MHZ
analog oscilloscope, HM 1004-3 (oscilloscope 1) to see the analog signal
output in the scope.

f) ENTER 2400 using numerical keys. Terminate the entry by pressing the unit
key MHZ/ms.
h) Press the MARKER 1 function key. Press the PEAK function Key in the
submenu that appears. The marker jumps to the signal peak. Turn the
rotary knob to change the position of the marker.
4. LAB PROCEDURE
1. Transmit a sinusoidal signal of around 2 KHz frequencies using a carrier

frequency of 2.4 GHz.
2. Connecting the Audio1 point from the receiver to the CH I of HM 1004-3
3. Disconnect one antenna (say, the Yagi Antenna) from the multiple antennas
Connector in the transmitter side and move the two antennas relatively.
4. Observe the 2.4 GHz signal amplitude variations in spectrum analyzer due to
multi-path effect (fading effect). Position the transmitter Antenna in a fade.
5. Now connect the other antenna to the multiple Antenna Connectors and observe
the change in the received signal.
6. Connecting one antenna at a time to multiple antenna connector vary the
distance between antenna and receiver and note down the distance between
antennas and the corresponding 2.4 GHz RF signal amplitude in the spectrum
analyzer, the level reading in dBv And Plot them.
7. Thus two fade plots corresponding to two transmitter antennas are obtained.
Superimpose the two plots to get the overall fade plot.
8. From the plot find out the average distance between fades and average length
of a fade (fade duration in cm).
9. Now repeat the experiments with one transmitter antenna & two receiver
antennas.
10. Frequency Diversity: Use one transmitter & one receiver antenna and set up a
communication link as shown in fig.(ii).
11. Move the Receiver with respect to the transmitter. For every location measure
the received power for four different frequencies separated by coherence
Bandwidth.
12. On the same graph plot the fading profiles for the different frequencies.
5. LAB REPORT
1. Obtain the fade plot with one transmitter antenna and one receiver antenna.
2. Obtain the fade plot with one transmitter antenna and two receiver
antennas(Receive Diversity).
3. Obtain the fade plot with two transmitter antenna and one receiver
antennas(Transmit Diversity).
4. Calculate the average duration of fade (in cm) for
(i) Receive diversity and
(ii) Transmit Diversity.
Compare the values and explain which is better? While commenting make sure
you keep in mind the total transmit power in each case.
5. Obtain the fade profiles for different frequencies (2.40, 2.42 and 2.44 GHz)
using (i) Receive diversity and (ii) Transmit Diversity .Comment on your result.
6. Give the plot of the fade profile using frequency diversity.
6. QUIZ
1. Give an example were Time Diversity Technique is used?

2. What can be the distance between the antennas in Antenna Diversity for signals
to be uncorrelated?
3. Which Diversity Technique is used in Base Station Design?
4. Describe briefly the conditions under which small scale and large scale fading
will occur?
5. Why space diversity technique is considerably less practical at base station?
Which diversity technique will be more suitable at base station?
6. Which diversity technique is suitable for Line-of-Sight Microwave Links?
7. Suggest some other fading countermeasures?
EXPERIMENT NO. 7
HANDOVER DEMONSTRATION
1. OBJECTIVES
1. To demonstrate the concept of handover in a cellular system

2. To plot the received power at the mobile station with respect to the distance
from the two base stations.
3. To set up two overlapping micro cells within the lab.
2. THEORY
When a mobile moves into different cell while a conversation is in progress, the
MSC (Mobile Switching Center) automatically transfers a call to a new channel
belonging to the new base station. This handoff operation not only involved
identifying a new base station, but also requires that the voice and control signals
be allocated to channels associated to the new base stations.
Processing handoffs is an important task in any cellular radio system. Many
handoff strategies prioritize handoff requests over call initiation request when
allocating unused channel in a cell site. Handoffs must be performed successfully
and as infrequently as possible, and as imperceptible to the users. In order to meet
these requirements, system designers must specify an optimum signal level at
which to initiate a handoff. Once a particular signal level is specified as the
minimum usable signal for acceptable voice quality as the base station receiver
(normally taken as between –90dBm and –100dBm), a slightly stronger signal level is
used as a threshold at which a handoff is made. This margin, given by =Pr handoff –
Pr minimum usable can’t be too large or too small. If  is too large, unnecessary handoffs
which burden the MSC may occur, if  is too small, there may be insufficient time
to complete a handoff before a call is lost due to weak signal conditions. Therefore
 is chosen carefully to meet these conflicting requirements.
The figure bellow illustrates a handoff situation. Fig. A demonstrates the case
where a
handoff is not made and the signal drops below the minimum acceptable level to
keep the channel active. These dropped call event can happen when there is an
excessive delay by the MSC in assigning a handoff or when the threshold  is set too
small for the handoff time in the system. Excessive delay may occur during high
traffic conditions due to computational loading at the MSC or due to the fact that
no channels are available on any of the nearby base stations (thus forcing the MSC
to wait until a channel in a nearby cell becomes free).
In deciding when to handoff, it is important to ensure that the drop in the
measured signal level is not due to momentary fading and that the mobile is
actually moving away from the serving base station. In order to ensure this, the
base station monitors the signal level for a certain period of time before a handoff
is initiated. This running average measurement of signal strength should be
optimized so that unnecessary handoffs are avoided, while ensuring that necessary
handoff are computed before a call is terminated due to poor signal level. The
length of time needed to decide if a handoff is necessary depends on the speed at
which the vehicle is moving. If the slope of the short term average received signal
level in a given time interval is steep, the handoff should be made quickly.
Information about the vehicle speed which can be useful in handoff decisions can
also be computed from the statistics of the received short term fading signal at the
base station.
Today’s GSM systems use something known as Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO),
wherein the handoff decisions are mobile assisted. Here every mobile station
measures the received power from surrounding base stations and continually
reports the results of these measurements to the serving base station. The process
Receive power from all the

neighboring base stations.
Compare the power with that
of current base station
Wireless Communication YesLab No 46

Process the handoff No need for
and pass the signal to Is the power large? handoff.
Created with
the novaPDF
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can be explained in short by using a flowchart:
A more comprehensive diagram is as below
Here the cells interact with the original base station as they transmit power
information, and the base station (and sometimes the MSC) takes the decision for
handoff.
For more details refer to http://www.3g4g.co.uk/Tutorial/ZG/zg_handover.html
1. Two Microwave Analog Digital Link Transmitter MADL 2.4

2. One Microwave Analog Digital Link Receiver MADL 2.4.
3. SCIENTIFIC Function Generator, HM 5030-4.
4. FS 300 Spectrum analyzer 9KHz-3GHz.
5. Digital Oscilloscope or 100 MHZ analog oscilloscope, HM 1004-3.
6. Three antennas and three antenna tripod
7. T connectors
Experiment Setup
Fig. 4.2
1. Connecting the Tx [Transmitter] side:

b) Connect the dipole antenna to one tripod and the YAGI antenna to another
tripod. Connect the two antenna cables to the RFOUT point of the Microwave
Analog Digital link Transmitter, MADL 2.4 with the help of multiple antenna
connectors.
c) Set the frequency of the transmitter to 2.4 GHz.
d) Connect the Audio1 point of the transmitter to the output of function
e) Set the waveform knob of the function generator to the sinusoidal,
frequency range knob to 2K and rotate the frequency knob, so that output is
around 2KHz.
Audio1/Audio2 switch in the Audio1 position and attenuator in low position.
2. Connecting the Rx [Receiver] side:

simultaneously to the RF IN point of the Microwave Analog Digital Link
Receiver, MADL 2.4 and RF input point of the spectrum Analyzer Adapter.
b) Set the frequency of the receiver 2.4 GHz.
c) Set the attenuator of the receiver in the low position.
d) Connect the Audio1 point coming from the receiver to CH-1 of the 100 MHZ
analog oscilloscope, HM 1004-3 (oscilloscope 1) to see the analog signal
output in the scope.

f) ENTER 2400 using numerical keys. Terminate the entry by pressing the unit
key MHZ/ms.
h) Press the MARKER 1 function key. Press the PEAK function Key in the
submenu that appears. The marker jumps to the signal peak. Turn the rotary
knob to change the position of the marker.
4. LAB PROCEDURE
1. Keep the two transmitter antennas at a distance from each other pointing to
each other.
2. Keep the receiver antenna in between the two transmitter antennas.
3. Transmit a sinusoidal signal of around 2 KHz frequencies using a carrier
frequency of 2.4GHz.
4. Connecting the Analog Out point from the receiver to the CH I of HM 1004-3
5. Move the receiver antenna in between the two transmitter antennas and
observe the 2.4GHz signal amplitude variations in spectrum analyzer.
6. Connecting one transmitter antenna at a time to multiple antenna connectors
move the receiver and obtain the fade plot.
7. Similarly connecting the other antenna to the multiple antenna connectors
move the receiver and obtain the fade plot for the other antenna.
8. Now connect the two transmitter antennas simultaneously and move the
receiver between them and obtain the combined fade profile (received power
vs. distance).
9. Repeat the above procedures for 2.4GHz, 2.42 GHz, and 2.44 GHz.
5. LAB REPORT
1. Plot the received power vs. distance (fade plot) with one transmitter antenna
at a time. Do this for both the antennas.
2. Obtain the combined fade profile (received power vs. distance) with two
transmitter antennas connected simultaneously.
3. Assume a threshold value for the receiver sensitivity(a power level below the
signal cannot be used by receiver) and create your cell boundaries within the
lab
4. Repeat the experiment for 2.4GHz, 2.42 GHz, 2.44 GHz. Compare the result
and explain the behavior. Theoretically what u can say about the cell size as a
function of frequency ?
6. QUIZ
1. What is threshold level for power in mobile handset?

2. ‘Cells are hexagonal’? Give reasons for hexagonal cells?
3. What could be the other cell shapes possible? Give three examples and explain
the relative merits / demerits.
4. What can be done to increase the capacity of the cell?
5. What is ‘reuse factor’? Give the typical cell reuse factor for GSM networks.
6. In mobile assisted handoff (MAHO), every mobile station measures the received
power from surrounding base station and continually reports the results of the
measurement to the saving base station. In this handoff strategy, when handoff
will initiate?
7. For GSM system, what is the range of  and value of handoff duration?
8. What are the practical considerations of handoff?
8. A Little bit extra

In practice there are many more different types of handoffs than MAHO. One
of them is the intertechnology handoff wherein different elements are accessing
the same network and the handoff to different network elements is made based on
different criteria. The diagrammatic representation of such a handoff in Flash-
OFDM technique is as shown.
APPENDIX A
Introduction to antennas
An antenna is used to radiate electromagnetic energy efficiently and in desired

directions. Antennas act as matching systems between sources of
electromagnetic energy and space. The goal in using antennas is to optimize
this matching. Here is a list of some of the properties of antennas:
Field intensity for various directions (antenna pattern).
Total power radiated when the antenna is excited by a current or voltage of

known intensity.
Radiation efficiency which is the ratio of power radiated to the total power.
The input impedance of the antenna for maximum power transfer

(matching).
The bandwidth of the antenna or range of frequencies over which the above
properties are nearly constant.
All antennas may be used to receive or radiate energy. An antenna

radiation pattern or antenna pattern is defined as "a mathematical function or
graphical representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a
function of space coordinates. In most cases, the radiation pattern is
determined in the far-field region (i.e.in the region where electric and
magnetic fields vary inversely with distance) and is represented as a function
of the directional coordinates." The radiation property of most concern is the
two- or three-dimensional spatial distribution of radiated energy as a function
of an observer's position along a path or surface of constant distance from the
antenna. A trace of the received power at a constant distance is called a power
pattern. A graph of the spatial variation of the electric or magnetic field along
a constant distance path, is called a field pattern.
An isotropic antenna is defined as "a hypothetical lossless antenna having

equal radiation in all directions." Clearly, an isotropic antenna is a fictitious
entity, since even the simplest antenna has some degree of directivity.
Although hypothetical and not physically realizable, an isotropic radiator is
taken as a reference for expressing the directional properties of actual
antennas. A typical linear isotropic dipole antenna is as shown
The linear dipole is an example of an omnidirectional antenna -- i.e. an

antenna having a radiation pattern which is nondirectional in a plane. As the
figure below indicates, a linear dipole has uniform power flow in any plane
perpendicular to the axis of the dipole and the maximum power flow is in the
equatorial plane.
To know more about dipole antennas and their radiation patterns, refer
Appendix B
Yagi-uda antenna: A directional antenna is one "having the property of

radiating or receiving electromagnetic waves more effectively in some
directions than in others." The term is usually applied to an antenna whose
maximum directivity is significantly greater than that of a linear dipole
antenna. One important class of directional antennas is from linear arrays of
linear dipoles as illustrated below. The most famous and ubiquitous member of
this class is the so called Uda-Yagi antenna shown below the array antenna.
There are three kinds of elements (or rods) mounted on a longitudinal
connecting bar or rod. It doesn't matter if this connecting rod conducts, as it is
orientated at right angles to the currents in the elements, and to the radiating
electric fields; it supports little or no current, and does not contribute to the
radiation. It does not matter what it is made of other than that it should have
good structural properties. If it is made of conducting metal as are the
elements, it can be connected electrically to the directors and to the reflector
(but not to the driven element) without disturbing any of the properties of the
antenna. The three types of element are termed the driving element, the
reflector(s) and the director(s).
Only the driving element is connected directly to the feeder; the

other elements couple to the transmitter power through the local
electromagnetic fields which induce currents in them. The driving element is
often a folded dipole, which by itself would have a driving point impedance of
about 300 ohms to the feeder; but this is reduced by the shunting effect of the
other elements, so a typical Yagi-Uda has driving point impedance in the range
20-90 ohms.
The maximum gain of a Yagi-Uda is limited to an amount
given approximately by the gain of a dipole (1.66 numerical) times the total
number of elements. In an end-fire array of N elements the gain is proportional
to N. Consider N isotropic sources, all phased such that the field contributions
in the end-fire direction from each element all add up in phase in the far field.
The field strength (E-field or H-field) of the sum of the phasors will be N times
the field from a single element, so the radiated power density, which is
proportional to the square of the fields, will be N^2 times larger. However, the
total POWER delivered to the N elements will be N times larger than that
delivered to a single element, so the power gain in the far field is (N^2)/N = N .
To broadband a Yagi-Uda, sometimes the individual elements are split into two
in an approximation to a primitive "biconical antenna". An example is shown
here; this shows part of a UHF television receive Yagi-Uda to cover a fractional
bandwidth of around 30 percent. It is vertically polarized.
The H-plane radiation pattern of the yagi-uda antenna for 4 elements is as

shown:
The E-plane pattern can be obtained by point wise-multiplying this "array
pattern" by the "element pattern", which in this case is a simple half-wave-
dipole E-plane pattern.
To know about the working of Yagi-uda antennas, refer the tutorials on the
website http://www.flickr.com. Courtesy: D.Jefferies email 13th October
2004. You can also access various antenna pictures at
http://www.flickr.com/photos/rabinal/sets/710532/
Antenna arrays: Antenna arrays are formed by assembling identical (in most
cases) radiating elements such as dipoles for example. In the diagram below is
shown an antenna array with its elements along the z axis such that the
distance between each two successive elements is equal to d.
Antenna arrays are characterized by their array factor which is given by the
formula
where
N the number of elements making the array, k = 2Pi / wavelength , is the
polar angle and is the difference of phase between any two successive
elements forming the array.
The examples below explores how each of the parameters N, d and affect
the radiating pattern of the array.
End-fire array: Set N = 10, d = 0.25 (this is 0.25*wavelength) and = kd =
2*Pi*0.25 = 0.5Pi. The main beam (maximum radiation) is directed toward =

180 degrees along the z axis which is also the axis of the array. If you change
to -0.5Pi, the main beam is directed toward 0 degrees along the z axis. For
these values of we have end-fire radiation.
Broad side array: Set N = 10, d = 0.25 (this 0.25*wavelength) and = 0 . The
main beam (maximum radiation) is directed toward = 90 degrees normal to
the z axis which is also the axis of the array. For this value of we have
broadside radiation.
Rod or Monopole Antennas
Rod antennas are the counterparts of loop antennas. They are designed to
respond to electric fields from 30 Hz to 50 MHz. Since rod antennas are so
small compared to the wavelengths (at 30 Hz, the wavelength is 10,000 km),
amplifiers within the antennas are sometimes necessary for small signals. Rod
antennas are typically required for the GR-1089-core standard for network
telecommunications equipment (where radiated emission and immunity tests
for electrical field at 10 kHz are required).
Biconical Antennas
Biconical antennas typically cover the frequency range from 20 MHz to 300
MHz. All wire-cage biconical antennas on the market have similar size and
shape (approximately 1.36 m wide). This is because they are based on MIL-STD-
461 specifications from the 1960s, which has become the de facto standard.
Due to their small electrical size below 50 MHz, they have very high input
impedance, resulting in high VSWR.
Balun performance is crucial for biconical antennas. Common mode
current can be easily induced on the feed cable (common mode impedance is
no longer large compared to the input impedance of the antenna). Ferrite
beads are often used on the feed cable to suppress the common mode. In
addition, feed cables should be extended out a meter or more horizontally
before the cable is dropped vertically to the ground to reduce possible
interaction between the cable and the antenna.
Log Periodic Dipole Arrays
Log periodic dipole arrays (LPDA) typically cover the frequency range of 80 MHz
to several gigahertz. The phase center of a LPDA moves from the back of the
antenna boom to the front as the frequency is increased. In ANSI or CISPR
standards, emissions measurements are performed from the center of the log
antenna boom. For immunity tests, EN61000-4-3 requires measurements be
made from the tip of the log antenna. The gain of a LPDA is typically around 5
dBi, which provides a good compromise between beamwidth and sensitivity.
For more information on Antenna related definitions and their measurements,
please refer http://www.conformity.com/0509/0509emc.html (Article EMC
Antenna Fundamentals
by Zhong Chen )
APPENDIX B
Dipole radiation patterns
Calculation of array patterns
The radiated field strength at a certain point in space, assumed to be in the far
field, is calculated by adding the contributions of each element to the total
radiated fields. The field strengths fall off as 1/r where r is the distance from
the isotrope to the field point. We must take into account any phase angle of
the isotrope excitation, and also the phase delay which is due to the time it
takes the signal to get from the source to the field point. This phase delay is
expressed as 2 Pi radians times (r/lambda) where lambda is the free space
wavelength of the radiation. Contours of equal field strength may be
interpreted as an amplitude polar radiation pattern. Contours of the squared
modulus of the field strength may be interpreted as a power polar radiation
pattern.
Here is an example of a power polar radiation pattern for two

isotropes spaced 1/4 wavelength apart along the x axis (horizontally on your
screen or paper) and fed with equal amplitudes and phases......-->
Two Isotropes 1/4 Wavelength Apart Fed In Phase
If we increase the spacing to 1/2 wavelength, but still keep the excitation in
phase and equal amplitudes, we see deep nulls developing.......-->
Two Isotropes 1/2 Wavelength Apart Fed In Phase
If we restore the original 1/4 wavelength spacing and feed the isotropes in
phase quadrature (that is, there is Pi/2 phase shift between the excitations),
we see a single lobe develop. This pattern is close to a Cardioid......-->
(To make the lobe face the other direction we would have to reverse the
relative phase, and feed the second isotrope at -Pi/2 phase angle.)
Two Isotropes 1/4 Wavelength Apart 90 Degrees Phase Shift
Returning now to feeding the two isotropes in phase, as we increase the

spacing we see more sub-lobes or sidelobes develop. Here is a picture for
spacing of a whole wavelength.
Two Isotropes 1 Wavelength Apart, In Phase
And if we increase the spacing to six whole wavelengths, there are large
numbers of lobes developing.
This is a method used to make sharp beams for radio telescopes using "Very
Long Baseline Interferometry". In this method two elements are spaced
thousands of kilometres apart, which makes the individual lobes very narrow
indeed.
Two Isotropes 6 Wavelengths Apart In Phase
If we now take two isotropes spaced by a half a wavelength and feed the
elements in antiphase (Pi phase difference) we see the pattern with horizontal
lobes rather than vertical lobes. This radiation pattern is similar to that of a
vertical dipole, which may roughly be regarded as a "doublet" consisting of two
isotropes fed in antiphase. The shape of the radiation pattern is not very
dependent on the separation.
Two Isotropes 1/2 Wavelength Apart Antiphase
Now we turn to arrays of four elements, just to illustrate the ideas further.
Equally excited (same amplitudes and phases) and spaced along the x axis at
intervals of 1/4 wavelength, we see.
Four Isotropes Spaced 1/4 Wavelength in Phase
and again, if we increase the spacing to 1/2 wavelength we get more sidelobes.
Four Isotropes Spaced 1/2 Wavelength, In Phase.
The pictures were obtained from D.Jefferies email 25th March 2003.
APPENDIXC
The ¸FS300 is a highly accurate spectrum analyzer with a frequency range of 9
kHz to 3 GHz. Owing to its modern, digital frequency processing technique; it
offers high measurement quality at a favorable price. The ¸FS315 is
additionally equipped with a built-in tracking generator from 9 kHz to 3 GHz
for scalar network analysis; the tracking generator is also suitable for
generating fixed-frequency signals. Plus, the ¸FS315 includes various detectors
for evaluating measurement results and allows electric field strength
measurements taking into account the antenna factors. The features of the
network analyzer are briefly mentioned below:
 Frequency range: 9 kHz to 3 GHz

 Resolution bandwidths: 200 Hz to 1 MHz
 Dynamic range: >137 dB
 Noise level: typ. -120 dBm (300 Hz RBW)
 Level uncertainty: <1.5 dB
 Frequency counter with 1 Hz resolution
 Maximum input level 33 dBm
 USB interface
For details on these features and explanation on other features visit

www.rohde-shcwarz.com
How to operate??
A brief overview of the buttons present on the Spectrum analyzer is as shown:
Application Ranges: The FS300/FS315 is a versatile spectrum analyzer for
comprehensive measurements in laboratory, service and production. Some of
the typical applications are as listed:
 Measurement of RF spectrum (level and frequency)

 Radiomonitoring remote-controlled via USB
 Time domain measurements
 Measurement of radiated interference (EMC)
 Scalar network analysis
The spectrum analyzer also comes with a powerful software package for
remote control from a PC which makes generation of test reports on PC
possible. The software package also enhances the functions of the spectrum
analyzer. Detailed description of the applications can be found in the data
sheet of FS300/FS315 Spectrum analyzer at www.rohde-schwarz.com
Other features:
High-quality measurement characteristics
The RF characteristics of the ¸FS300/FS315 are setting new standards in the

lower price class. Since the displayed average noise level is typically –115 dBm
(300 Hz), even weak signals can be reliably detected. Owing to the wide
dynamic range, this is also possible when strong carrier signals are present. The
points in the traces are displayed with an accuracy unrivalled in this price
class. This is an essential prerequisite for any measurement task.
Resolution bandwidths from 200 Hz to 1 MHz
With 16 digitally implemented resolution bandwidths from 200 Hz to 1 MHz, the

FS300 can be optimally adapted to the measurement task at hand. The FS315
additionally covers the range up to 20 MHz. Wide resolution bandwidths for
overall measurements ensure short sweep times, whereas narrow bandwidths
are ideal for high frequency resolution and a low noise level. The FS300 and
FS315 fulfill every requirement in between.
Scalar network analysis
The ¸FS315 with built-in tracking generator is the perfect solution for cost
efficient testing of the transmission behavior of filters, cables, amplifiers and
so forth. Equipped with an additional VSWR bridge, reflection measurements
can also be performed. Entering any frequency offset between 0 Hz and 3 GHz
allows measurements on frequency-converting DUTs. With simple applications,
the tracking generator can be used as a signal generator with a permanently
set frequency.
Locating EMC weak spots
The ¸HZ-15 near-field probes are diagnostic tools used for locating EMC weak
spots on printed boards, integrated circuits, cables, shielding and other trouble
spots. The Near-Field Probe Set ¸HZ-15 is adequate for emission measurements
from 30 MHz to 3 GHz. The Preamplifier ¸HZ-16 up to 3 GHz, with
approximately 20 dB gain and a noise figure of 4.5 dB, increases sensitivity for
measurements. In combination with the FS300/FS315, the preamplifier and
near-field probe set are a cost-effective means of analyzing and locating
sources of interference during development.
For discussion on the rear panel and the slots present therein, visit www.rohde-
schwarz.com
APPENDIX D
FEATURES & BENEFITS
 Bandwidths of 15 GHz (TDS6154C), 12 GHz (TDS6124C), 8 GHz

(TDS6804B), and 6 GHz (TDS6604B)
 Risetimes to 19 ps 20-80% (28 ps 10-90%) on TDS6154C typical risetime,
with channel-matched, user-selectable DSP
 40 GS/s real-time sample rate on two channels*1, 20 GS/s real-time
sample rate on all four channels with 500 fs/sample interpolated points
 Up to 64 Megasamples on two channels*1, up to 32 Megasamples record
length on all four channels with MultiView Zoom™ function for quick
navigation
 MyScope® Custom Control Windows Enhance Productivity
 Right Mouse Click Menus for Exceptional Efficiency
 Pinpoint™ triggering provides the most flexible and highest performance
triggering, with over 1400 combinations to address virtually any
triggering situation
 Serial pattern triggering up to 3.125 Gb/s with 8b/10b protocol
triggering
 Serial data analysis and compliance at rates of 6.25 Gb/s and above
 OpenChoice® software with Microsoft Windows XP OS delivers built-in
networking and analysis
 Technology specific software solutions provide built-in domain expertise
for serial data, jitter, ethernet, DVI, USB2.0, communications, and
power measurements
 System includes: Dual processor system (2.8 GHz Pentium 4 and 583 MHz
PowerPC), high resolution XGA display, front panel CD-R/W, front panel
USB2.0 port, and 1000BaseT network connection
APPLICATIONS
 Signal Integrity, Jitter, and Timing Analysis
 Validation, Debug, Characterization, and Compliance of Next Generation
Digital Designs
 Computer, Datacom, Storage Area Network Equipment Designs and High-
speed Backplanes
 High Energy Physics measurements and Data Acquisition
For detailed explanation of features and their benefits, go to

http://www.tek.com/site/ps/0,,55-14873-INTRO_EN,00.html.
Some important features:
Uncompromised Acquisition
You won’t need to need to trade-off bandwidth, record length, and sample
rate for your serial data measurement and analysis needs. The TDS6000C DSOs
provides acquisition architecture with 40 GS/s maximum sample rate and
64 Megasamples record length on two channels (20 GS/s and 32 Megasamples
on each of the four channels simultaneously), for the acquisition power you
need. They provide the ultimate combination of bandwidth, sample rate, and
record length for the fastest signals.
MyScope Custom Control Windows
MyScope control windows allow you to build your own control windows with
only the controls, features, and capabilities that you care about and are
important in your job. You can create your own personalized “toolbox” of
oscilloscope features. MyScope control windows are easily created in a matter
of minutes using a simple, visual, drag and drop process. Once created, these
customized windows are easily accessed through a dedicated MyScope button
and menu selection on the oscilloscope button/menu bar, just like any other
control window. Since the control windows are stored as files on the hard
drive, they can easily be transferred to other TDS5000B or TDS/CSA7000B Series
oscilloscopes, or they can even be e-mailed to a co-worker around the world
when the need arises.
Right Clicks
Right mouse click menus make simple things as they should be – simple.
Virtually all objects on the oscilloscope display have right click menus
associated with them that include all the appropriate actions or features
relative to those objects. There are also right click menus for regions of the
display in addition to just objects.
Pinpoint Triggering
Pinpoint trigger system provides the most advanced, highest performance

triggering available. The ability to trigger an oscilloscope on events of interest
is paramount in high speed debug and validation. Whether you're trying to find
a system error, or need to isolate a section of a complex signal for further
analysis, Tektronix’ Pinpoint triggering provides the solution. The Pinpoint
trigger system uses Silicon Germanium (SiGe) technology to provide trigger
sensitivity of up to 9 GHz (TDS6000C models), and allows selection of all trigger
types on both A and B trigger circuits. An example of triggering using Pinpoint
triggering is as shown:
Front Panel
Fast Edge Output - Front panel SMA connector provides fast edge signal.
Amplitude 440 mV pk-pk, ±20% in a 50 Ω load; VOH +0.3 V, VOL – 0.14 V;
frequency 1 kHz ±5%, 200 ps typical rise time.
Recovered Clock - SMA connector, ≤1.25 Gb/s, Output swing ≥130 mV pk-pk
into 50 Ω. Requires Opt. SM or Opt. ST to enable.
Recovered Data - SMA connector, ≤1.25 Gb/s, Output swing of 1010 repeating
pattern 200 mV into 50 Ω. Requires Opt. SM or Opt. ST to enable.
DC Probe Calibration Output - BNC connector, ±10 V DC for DC probe

calibration. (Signal available only during probe calibration.)
AUX Trigger Output - BNC connector, provides a TTL-compatible, polarity

switchable pulse when the oscilloscope triggers.
USB2.0 Port - One in front. Allows connection or disconnection of USB
keyboard, mouse, or storage device while oscilloscope is on.
Rear Panel
External Time Base Reference In - BNC connector; allows time base system to
phase-lock to external 10 MHz reference.
Time Base Reference Out - BNC connector; provides TTL-compatible output of

internal 10 MHz reference oscillator.
Aux Trigger Input - BNC, see Ext Trigger specification.
Parallel Port - IEEE 1284, DB-25 connector.
Audio Ports - Miniature phone jacks for stereo microphone input and stereo
line output.
USB2.0 Ports - Four in back. Allows connection or disconnection of USB

keyboard, mouse, or storage device while oscilloscope power is on.
Keyboard Port - PS-2 compatible.
Mouse Port - PS-2 compatible.
LAN Port - RJ-45 connector, supports 10BaseT, 100BaseT, and 1000BaseT.
Serial Port - DB-9 COM1 port.
Windows Video Port - 15 pin D-Sub connector on the rear panel; connect a
second monitor to use dual-monitor display mode allowing analysis results and
plots to be viewed along with the oscilloscope display. Video is DDC2B
compliant.
GPIB Port - IEEE 488.2 standard.
Scope XGA Video Port - 15 pin D-Sub connector on the rear panel, video is IBM
XGA compatible. Connect to show the oscilloscope display, including live
waveforms on an external monitor or projector. The primary Windows desktop
can also be displayed on an external monitor using this port.
For more information on the specifications and characteristics of the DSO, visit
http://www.tek.com/site/ps/0,,55-14873-SPECS_EN,00.html

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LAB MANUAL

WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS LAB

BHARTI SCHOOL OF TELECOMMUNICATION

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI

Wireless Communication Lab 1

Concept based Experiments Page

1. Study of basic Antennas………………………………………………………………… 3

2. Properties of Antennas: Polarization , Cross Polar Discrimination

3. Antenna Resonance and Gain Bandwidth measurement……………….. 19

4. Characterization of Fading Effects……………………………………………….. 22

5. Fading Counter-measures using Antenna diversity and Frequency

6. Delay Spread Measurement…………………………………………………………… 38

Application based Experiments Page

Wireless Communication Lab 2

STUDY OF BASIC ANTENNAS

1. To plot the radiation pattern of simple antennas - Dipole, Monopole, Folded

Radiation Pattern: The antenna radiation pattern is basically a measure of its

Wireless Communication Lab 3

Wireless Communication Lab 4

1. Antenna Digital RF Transmitter, MADL- 2.4.

a) Connect one of the dipole antennas of length = 24cms (field generator

Wireless Communication Lab 5

Wireless Communication Lab 6

a) From the E-plane radiation patterns drawn find the following.

Wireless Communication Lab 7

Give the following information:

Wireless Communication Lab 8

Wireless Communication Lab 9

Wireless Communication Lab 10

3-D radiation patterns of the dipole for different frequencies

Wireless Communication Lab 11

Radiation pattern of the Horn antenna

Wireless Communication Lab 12

Wireless Communication Lab 13

POLARISATION OF ANTENNAS, CROSS POLAR DISCRIMINATION AND

1. To study the phenomenon of Linear and Circular polarization of antennas.

Antenna Polarization for linear antennas is in direction of its elements so if the

Wireless Communication Lab 14

Wireless Communication Lab 15

1. Antenna Digital RF transmitter, MADL 2.4.

Wireless Communication Lab 16

Wireless Communication Lab 17

Give the following information:

Wireless Communication Lab 18

1. To identify whether an antenna is resonating or non-resonating type.

Wireless Communication Lab 19

1. Antenna Digital RF Transmitter, MADL -2.4.

a) Connect a log-periodic antenna at transmitter tripod and set the

Wireless Communication Lab 20

1. Gain Bandwidth of the antenna(s) =……………………MHz

Wireless Communication Lab 21

CHARACTERIZATION OF FADING EFFECTS

1. To observe and characterize the multi-path fading effects in the lab

A fade is a constantly changing, three-dimensional phenomenon. Fade zones tend

Wireless Communication Lab 22

A phasor diagram of the multipath propagation channel is as shown:

Indoor Propagation Model

Wireless Communication Lab 23

In general, indoor radio channels may be classified either as line-of-sight (LOS) or

Partition Losses (same floor)

Partition losses between floors

Wireless Communication Lab 24

d0 is the close-in reference distance which is determined from measurements close