BIOLOGY Domain: Eukaryota

TAXONOMY-is the process of naming and Kingdom: Animalia

classifying things such as animals and plants
Phylum: Chordata
into groups within a larger system, according to
their similarities and differences. Class: Mammalia
CATEGORIES: (Dear King Philip Came Over For Order: Primates
Good Soup)
Family: Hominidae
DOMAIN
Genus: Homo
 Bacteria
Species: Homo sapiens
 Archaea
 Eukaryota PLANTS & PHOTOSYNTEHSIS
KINGDOM PARTS OF A PLANT:
 Animals 1. ROOT- anchor the plants in the soil and
 Plants absorb nutrients and water that are
 Fungi needed by the rest of the plant.
 Protists
TYPES OF ROOTS:
 Archaea
 bacteria  TAPROOT- with a main taproot that
grows down and is larger and grows
PHYLUM
faster than the branch roots
 Porifera  FIBROUS - with all small roots about the
 Cnidaria same
 Platyhelminthes  ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS- develops from
 Annelida any part of the plant
 Mollusca  AERIAL ROOTS- grow above the
 Arthropoda ground, typically providing structural
 Chordata support.
 STORAGE ROOTS- (for example,
CLASS taproots and tuberous roots) are
modified for food storage.
 Mammals
 AERATING ROOTS- rise above the
 Reptiles
ground, especially above water, are
 amphibians
commonly seen in mangrove forests
ORDER that grow along salt water coastlines.
 HAUSTORIAL ROOTS- often seen in
 Poales
parasitic plants such as mistletoe.
FAMILY
PARTS OF A ROOT
 Poaceae.
*Root cap- protects the root tip
GENUS- is a taxonomic rank used in the
* Growing Point or Meristematic Zone-
biological classification of living and fossil
produces new cells for the root cap and the
organisms, as well as viruses
basal region of the root
SPECIES- classification comprising related
*Region or Zone of Elongation- cells in this
organisms that share common characteristics
region possess the power of absorption of
and are capable of interbreeding
water and mineral salts from the soil.
*The genus and species that an organism
* Root Flair Zone- zone of differentiation or
belongs to are how an organism receives its
maturation because different types of primary
scientific name. This naming system is called
tissues differentiate or mature in this region
‘binomial nomenclature’ and was invented by a
brilliant biologist named CARL LINNAEUS *Region or Zone of Mature Cells-anchors the
(father of taxonomy) plant firmly in the soil

TAXONOMY OF HUMANS: (Every Animal Can

Make Pretty Healthy Hot Stew)
 2. STEM- support the upper part of the
plant and act as a transport system for
nutrients, water, sugar, and starches
TYPES OF STEMS:
 HERBACEOUS STEMS- supported by
water in the stem (E.g. These are
climbers, bulbs, tubers and runners)
 WOODY STEMS- taller, thicker and
harder than herbaceous stems. When
they are fully grown, there is making of
bark.
*Nodes-region of the stem where leaves are
born
*Stem tendrils-help plants to climb such as in
gourds (cucumber, pumpkins, watermelon) and
grapevines.
*Thorns-protect plants from browsing animals
3. LEAF- are the parts of the plant where
photosynthesis usually occurs; where
food for the plant is made.
TYPES OF LEAVES:
 SIMPLE LEAF- has a single leaf blade on
its stalk
 COMPOUND- has more than one leaf
blade
PARTS OF A LEAF:
*Petiole- cools the leaf and bringing fresh air to
leaf surface
*Lamina/leaf blade- is the green expanded part
of the leaf with veins and veinlets
*Veins- provide rigidity to the leaf blade and act
as channels of transport for water, minerals and
food materials.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS- is the process by which
plants and other things make food
*PALISADE CELLS AND SPONGY CELLS- packed
with green chloroplasts which carry out
photosynthesis.
*CHLOROPLASTS- (in green plant cells) a plastid
that contains chlorophyll and in which
photosynthesis takes place.
*CHLOROPHYLL- gives plants their green color
* COMBINATION OF ANTHOCYANIN AND
CHLOROPHYLL- gives plants their brown color
*ANTHOCYANINS PLUS CAROTENOIDS- gives
plants their yellow color
*BILIRUBIN- gives plants their yellow color
4. FLOWERS- are the reproductive part of
plants that has showy petals and
fragrances to attract pollinators.
PARTS OF A FLOWER:
 SEPAL- outer parts of the flower (often
green and leaf-like) that enclose a
developing bud.
 PETAL- often conspicuously colored.
 STAMEN- The pollen producing part of
a flower.
 ANTHER- where pollen is produced.
 PISTIL- The ovule producing part of a
flower.
 OVARY- part of pistil where ovules are
produced.
 STIGMA- where pollen germinates.
 RECEPTACLE- where the parts of the
flower are attached
5. FRUITS- fleshy substances that usually
surround seeds. They protect the seeds
and attract animals to eat them. This
helps in seed dispersal.
6. SEEDS- contain plant material that can
develop into another plant. This plant
material is called an embryo
*POLLINATION (flowers)- is when pollen grains
from an anther, the male portion of a flower,
are transferred to a female part in the flower,
known as the stigma.
TYPES OF POLLINATION:
 SELF-POLLINATION- only involves one
flower. This type of pollination occurs
when pollen grains from the anther fall
directly onto the stigma of the same
flower
 CROSS-POLLINATION- involves the
transfer of pollen from the anther of
one flower to the stigma of a different
flower
BACTERIA- are microscopic, single-celled
organisms that thrive in diverse environments
everywhere
TYPES OF BACTERIA:
 SPHERICAL- shaped like a ball are called
cocci, and a single bacterium is a
coccus. (E.g streptococcus group,
responsible for "strep throat.")
  ROD-SHAPED- known as bacilli (singular
bacillus). Some rod-shaped bacteria are
curved. These are known as vibrio. (E.g
bacteria include Bacillus anthracis or
anthrax.)
 SPIRAL- known as spirilla (singular
spirillus). If their coil is very tight they
are known as spirochetes.
Leptospirosis, Lyme disease, and
syphilis are caused by bacteria of this
shape.
CELL BIOLOGY
*Cell- the basic membrane-bound unit that
contains the fundamental molecules of life and
of which all living things are compose
* Cell Structure- defined by the cell membrane,
the cytoplasm, and the nucleus
*Mycoplasmas- the smallest known cells
PARTS OF A CELL:
 MITOCHONDRIA- organelles which are
responsible for converting the food
eaten by an organism into energy;
powerhouse of the cell
 CELL MEMBRANE/ CELL WALL-
surrounds the cell and acts as their skin
 CYTOPLASM- a jelly-like substance,
made up of mostly water, that keeps
the various organelles within the cell
separate from each other
 DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)- is
frequently referred to as “the blueprints
for life” that contains the generic
information that allows cells to
reproduce and perform their respective
functions
 NUCLEUS- brain of the cell
 RIBOSOMES- organelles which assist in
the creation of proteins.
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)-
synthesizes proteins and for the cell
ANIMAL BIOLOGY
*Animal- any of the eukaryotic multicellular
organisms that comprise the biological
kingdom Animalia.
CLASSES OF ANIMALS:
 MAMMALS- vertebrate animals
constituting the class Mammalia
and has mammary glands
 BIRDS- vertebrates that has
feathers, toothless beaked jaws,
etc.
 REPTILES- are tetrapod animals in
the class Reptilia (E.g Crocodile)
 AMPHIBIANS- small vertebrates
that need water, or a moist
environment, to survive. (E.g frog)
 FISHES- aquatic animals within the
class Anatidae that do not have
limbs with digits
 INSECTS- largest group of six-limbed
(aka hexapod) invertebrates within
the class Insectav
 CRUSTACEANS- large, diverse group
of arthropods (i.e., segmented body
with jointed-limbs) within the class
Crustacea (E.g crabs)
 ARACHNIDS- another joint-legged
(8-legs) invertebrate animals
(arthropods) within the class
Arachnida.(E.g spiders)
 ECHINIDERMS- marine animals
classified under the class
Echinodermata. (E.g starfish)
 WORMS- animals with a long
cylindrical tube-like body with no
limbs
 MOLLUSKS- invertebrate animals
within the class Mollusca in the
animal kingdom (E.g octopus)
 SPONGES- bottom-dwelling sea
creatures within the class Porifera
in the animal kingdom. They do not
have tissues
HEREDITY, GENES AND DNA
*HEREDITY/BIOLOGICAL INHERITANCE- is the
passing on of traits from parents to their
offspring
GENETICS- study of heredity
*GREGOR MENDEL- deduced the classical
principles of genetics
*GENETIC INHERITANCE- occurs due to genetic
material in the form of DNA being passed from
parents to their offspring
*GENES-basic physical and functional unit of
heredity. Genes are made up of DNA
*CHROMOSOMES- carriers of genes
*GENE MUTATION- permanent alteration in the
DNA sequence that makes up a gene, such that
the sequence differs from what is found in most
people
*GENE FLOW/GENE MIGRATION/ALLELE
FLOW- the transfer of genetic variation from
one population to another
*GENETIC DRIFT- variation in the relative
frequency of different genotypes in a small
population, owing to the chance disappearance
of particular genes as individuals die or do not
reproduce.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GENETIC AND
HEREDITARY:
Hereditary disease- can be passed on from one
generation to another.
Genetic disease- may not be hereditary, but it is
always a result of a change in an organism's
genome
HUMAN BIOLOGY AND ANATOMY
BODY SYSTEMS:
1. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM- circulates blood
around the body delivering oxygen and
nutrients to organs and cells and
carrying their waste products away.
PARTS:
 HEART- organ that pumps blood
throughout the body via the
circulatory system, supplying
oxygen and nutrients to the tissues
and removing carbon dioxide and
other wastes
 ARTERIES- a vessel that carries
blood away from the heart and
toward other tissues and organs
 VEINS- returns deoxygenated blood
back to the heart after arteries
carry blood out.
 BLOOD- transport media of nearly
everything within the body. It
transports hormones, nutrients,
oxygen, antibodies, and etc.
2. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM- System to absorb
nutrients and remove waste via the
gastrointestinal tract, including the
mouth, esophagus, stomach and
intestines
PARTS:
 MOUTH- when you chew with
salivary glands begins to break
down starches in your food.
 ESOPHAGUS- where food is pushed
through the stomach
 STOMACH- store food and release it
to the intestines
 PANCREAS- produces insulin and
other important enzymes and
hormones that help break down
foods
 LIVER- makes bile that helps digest
fats and some vitamins.
 GALLBLADDER- store and
concentrate bile
 SMALL INTESTINE- absorbs
nutrients and minerals from food
 LARGE INTESTINE- absorbs water
from the remaining indigestible
food matter and transmit the
useless waste material from the
body.
3. EXCRETORY SYSTEM- Eliminates waste
from the body.
PARTS:
 KIDNEY- main excretory organ; are
two bean-shaped organs in the
renal system. They help the body
pass waste as urine
 URINARY BLADDER- stores urine
4. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM- Influences the
function of the body using hormones.
5. EXOCRINE SYSTEM/ INTEGUMENTARY-
Skin, hair, nails, sweat and etc.
EXOCRINE GLANDS:
 SWEAT GLANDS- produce sweat
 SALIVARY GLANDS- produce saliva
 MAMMARY GLANDS-produces milk
 CERUMINOUS GLANDS- produces
Cerumen that protects the ear canal
 LACRIMAL GLANDS- produces tears
 SEBACEOUS GLANDS-- produces oil for
skin and hair
 MUCOUS GLANDS- produce mucus
6. IMMUNE SYSTEM- Defends the body
against pathogens that may endanger
the body.
PARTS:
 WHITE BLOOD CELLS/LEUKOCYTE -
help fight infections by attacking
bacteria, viruses, and germs that
invade the body
 *RED BLOOD CELLS/ERYTHROCYTE-
carry oxygen from the lungs to the
body tissues and carbon dioxide as
a waste product, away from the
tissues and back to the lungs
 ANTIBODIES -help stop intruders
from harming the body
 THYMUS- main lymphatic organ;
trains the body to adapt specifically
to foreign invaders
 SPLEEN-acts as a filter for blood
 BONE MARROW- generate blood
cells
 COMPLEMENT SYSTEM- function is
to eliminate pathogens (bacteria or
virus)
*HEMOGLOBIN- an important protein in the red
blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to
all parts of our body.
7. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM- The system
comprising a network of lymphatic
vessels that carry a clear fluid called
lymph.
8. MUSCULAR SYSTEM- Enables the body
to move using muscles.
 SKELETAL MUSCLE- the specialized
tissue that is attached to bones and
allows movement
 SMOOTH MUSCLE- located in various
internal structures including the
digestive tract, uterus and blood vessels
such as arteries
 CARDIAC MUSCLE- the muscle specific
to the heart
9. NERVOUS SYSTEM- Collects and
processes information from the senses
via nerves and the brain and tells the
muscles to contract to cause physical
actions.
PARTS OF THE BRAIN:
 CEREBRUM- controls reading,
thinking, learning, speech, emotions
and planned muscle movements
like walking. It also controls vision,
hearing and other senses.
 CEREBELLUM- controls balance,
coordination and fine muscle
control (e.g., walking). It also
functions to maintain posture and
equilibrium.
 BRAIN STEM- connects the
cerebrum with the spinal cord
10. URINARY/RENAL SYSTEM- The system
where the kidneys filter blood to
produce urine, and get rid of waste.
 URETHRA- allows urine to pass outside
the body
11. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM- The sex
organs required for the production of
offspring.
12. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM- Brings air into
and out of the lungs to absorb oxygen
and remove carbon dioxide.
PARTS:
 NOSE AND NASAL CAVITY- It prevents
the entry of dust particles into the lungs
by trapping those dust on mucus or by
nasal hair.
 PHARYNX- allows inhaled air entering
the nasal cavity to make its way to the
respiratory tract
 LARYNX- “voice box”; produces sound
 TRACHEA- “windpipe”; providing air
flow to and from the lungs for
respiration.
 BRONCHI- carries oxygen rich air into
the lungs and carry carbon dioxide rich
air out of the lungs
 LUNGS-role is to bring in air from the
atmosphere and pass oxygen into the
bloodstream
 ALVEOLI- allows oxygen and carbon
dioxide to move between the lungs and
bloodstream
13. SKELETAL SYSTEM- Bones maintain the
structure of the body and its organs.
*Bone- provide support and protection for
the body's organs.
*Cartilage- provides flexible support for
certain structures in adult humans,
including the nose, trachea, and ears.
*Tendon- fibrous connective tissue that
connects muscles to bones*
Ligament- connect the ends of bones
together in order to form a joint
*Joint- Structures that connect individual
bones and may allow bones to move against
each other to cause movement.
CHEMISTRY
*ATOMS- consist of protons, neutrons, and
electrons
*PROTONS- have a positive (+) electrical charge.
*ELECTRONS- have a negative (−) charge that is
exactly equal and opposite to the electrical
charge of a proton
*NEUTRONS- has the same number of electrons
as it does protons
*ION- which is not electrically neutral and has
an electrical charge associated with it
*ANIONS- negatively charged ion
*CATIONS- positively charged ion
*ATOMIC NUCLEUS- made of protons and
neutrons
PERIODIC TABLE- made to organize the
periodic elements
*GROUP/FAMILY- column
*PERIOD-row
 *DMITRI MENDELEEV- first creator of
periodic table; father of periodic table
*Mendeleev’s periodic law- state the
chemical and physical properties of
elements vary in a periodic way with their
atomic weights
*Modern periodic law- properties vary with
atomic number
PERIODIC TABLE IS BASED UPON:
1. ELECTRON CONFIGURATION-
distribution of electrons of an atom or
molecule in atomic or molecular
orbitals
E.g Na (atomic number:11)
SUBSHELL ORBIT ELECTRON
Sharp 1 2
Principal 3 6
Diffuse 5 10
Fundamental 7 14
2. ATOMIC NUMBER- the number of
protons in the nucleus of an atom
*NIELS BOHRS- stated that electrons exist
within principal shells
*CHEMICAL BOND- atom’s interaction with
each other in which they gain or lose electrons
2 MAIN TYPES OF CHEMICAL BOND:
 COVALENT BONDS - the atoms are
bound by shared electrons
 IONIC BONDS- one atom essentially
donates an electron to stabilize the
other atom (bond between metal
and nonmetal)
*NONPOLAR COVALENT BONDS- a type of
chemical bond where two atoms share a
pair of electrons with each other.
*POLAR COVALENT BONDING- a type of
chemical bond where a pair of electrons is
unequally shared between two atoms.
*METALLIC BOND- formed between positively
charged atoms in which the free electrons are
shared among a lattice of cations
*HYDROGEN BONDS- caused by the positive
and negative ends of polar molecules attracting
each other strongly enough to hold each other
in fixed positions
MIXTURE AND COMPOUNDS
1. COMPOUND- the chemical combination
of elements, bonded together in
specific proportion (pure substance)
(E.g water, carbon dioxide, and table
salt)
2. MIXTURE- the physical combination of
substances, bonded together in any
proportion (impure substance); can be
separated using physical methods such
as filtration, freezing, and distillation
 HOMOGENEOUS- uniform mixture;
you can’t distribute the
components physically (E.g blood,
coffee)
 HETEROGENEOUS- mixture is not
uniform ; it's possible to physically
separate components (E.g ice cubes
in a drink, oil and water)
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND
SOLUTIONS
* CHEMICAL REACTION- is a process that leads
to the chemical transformation of one set of
chemical substances to another
4 MAIN TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS:
 DIRECT/SYNTHESIS COMBINATION-
two or more chemical species combine
to form a more complex product
 ANALYSIS REACTION/CHEMICAL
DECOMPOSITION- a compound is
broken into smaller chemical species
 SINGLE DISPLACEMENT/SUBSTITUTION
REACTION- characterized by one
element being displaced from a
compound by another element.
 DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT/METATHESIS-
two compounds exchange bonds or ions
in order to form different compounds.
*ACID BASE REACTION- type of double
displacement reaction that occurs between an
acid and a base
* COMBUSTION REACTION- type of redox
reaction in which a combustible material
combines with an oxidizer to form oxidized
products and generate heat
*ISOMERIZATION REACTION- the structural
arrangement of a compound is changed but its
net atomic composition remains the same
*HYDROLYSIS REACTION- involves water
*REACTANTS/REAGENTS- substance/s initially
involved in a chemical reaction
*CONCENTRATION- the amount of a substance
per defined space
*MOLARITY- most common unit of
concentration; number of moles of solute
present in exactly 1 L of solution (mol/L)
Molarity= moles/liter
*SOLUTION-a special type of homogeneous
mixture composed of two or more substances
DIAGRAMS
*Phase diagram- a graphical representation of
the physical states of a substance under
different conditions of temperature and
pressure; illustrate the variations between the
states of matter of elements or compounds as
they relate to pressure and temperatures.
 TRIPLE POINT- the point at which the
three states of matter: gas, liquid, and
solid coexist
 CRITICAL POINT- the point at which the
substance is indistinguishable between
liquid and gaseous states
 FUSION MELTING/FREEZING CURVE-
the curve which represents the
transition between liquid and solid
states
 VAPORIZATION/CONDENSATION
CURVE- the curve which represents the
transition between gaseous and liquid
states
 SUBLIMATION/DEPOSITION CURVE-
the curve which represents the
transition between gaseous and solid
states
MINERALS AND NUCLEOTIDE
*MINERAL- any naturally occurring
inorganic solid that has a definite chemical
composition (that can vary only within
specified limits) and possesses a crystalline
structure; form as a result of chemical
reactions
MINERAL CLASSIFICATION:
 NATIVE ELEMENTS- pure form
 SILICATES- largest group of minerals
 OXIDES- form from the combination
of a metal with oxygen
 SULFIDES- made of compounds of
sulfur usually with a metal
 SULFATES- made of compounds of
sulfur combined with metals and
oxygen
 HALIDES- form from halogen
elements like chlorine, bromine,
fluorine, and iodine combined with
metallic elements
 CARBONATES- group of minerals
made of carbon, oxygen, and a
metallic element
 PHOSPHATES-often formed when
other minerals are broken down by
weathering
 MINERALOIDS- those substances
that do not fit neatly into one of
these eight classes (E.g Opal)
*NUCLEOTIDE- any of several compounds
that consist of a ribose or deoxyribose sugar
joined to a purine or pyrimidine base and to
a phosphate group and that are the basic
structural units of nucleic acids (such as
RNA and DNA) — compare nucleoside
*Four types of nucleotides in DNA- Adenine,
Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine
PARTS OF NUCLEOTIDES IN DNA AND RNA:
1. NITROGENOUS BASE- purines and
pyrimidines are the two categories of
nitrogenous base
2. PENTOSE SUGAR- in DNA, the sugar is
2'-deoxyribose. In RNA, the sugar is
ribose
3. PHOSPHATE GROUP- a single
phosphate group is PO4^3-. The
phosphorus atom is the central atom.
STATES OF MATTER
 SOLID- solid, particles are packed tightly
together (high density); has a definite
shape and volume
 LIQUID- more loosely packed than in a
solid and are able to flow around each
other and has an indefinite shape.
Therefore, the liquid will conform to the
shape of its container
 GAS- gas has no definite shape or
volume. If unconfined, the particles of a
gas will spread out indefinitely; if
confined, the gas will expand to fill its
container
 PLASMA- consists of highly charged
particles with extremely high kinetic
energy. The noble gases (helium, neon,
argon, krypton, xenon and radon) are
often used to make glowing signs by
 using electricity to ionize them to the
plasma state.
 BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE (BEC)-
the atoms begin to clump together and
there are no longer thousands of
separate atoms, just one "super atom.";
used to study quantum mechanics on a
macroscopic level
PHASES:
 MELTING- from solid to a liquid
 FREEZING- from liquid to solid
 SUBLIMATION- from solid to gas
 DEPOSITION- from gas to solid
 VAPORIZATION- from liquid to gas
 CONDENSATION- from gas to liquid
MEASUREMENT
International System of Units- is the metric
system used in science, industry, and medicine
7 BASE UNITS IN THE SI SYSTEM:
 kilogram (kg)- mass
 second (s)- time
 kelvin (K)- thermodynamic temperature
 ampere- electric current
 mole (mol)- amount of a substance
 candela (cd)- luminous intensity
 meter (m)- distance (length)
EARTH SCIENCE
ROCKS AND MINERALS
Minerals and rocks are the essential building
blocks of the geosphere.
1. MINERAL- are the fundamental components
of rocks. They are naturally occurring inorganic
substances with a specific chemical composition
and an orderly repeating atomic structure that
defines a crystal structure. (E.g quartz, feldspar,
mica, amphibole, olivine, and calcite)
*SILICATE MINERALS- are the most abundant
components of rocks on the Earth's surface,
making up over 90% by mass of the Earth's crust
*Minerals are classified according to their
chemical composition.
*The physical properties of minerals, such as
their hardness, lustre, colour, cleavage, fracture
and relative density, can be used to identify
minerals. These general characteristics are
controlled mainly by their atomic structure
(crystal structure).
2. ROCK - an aggregate of one or more minerals,
or a body of undifferentiated mineral matter.
(E.g granite, basalt, limestone, and sandstone)
*The composition of a rock, as well as the
appearance, shape, and arrangement of the
grains or crystals within the rock (i.e. its
texture), are the characteristics that reveal its
process of formation
3 MAIN CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS:
 IGNEOUS ROCKS- (derived from the
Latin word “ignis” meaning fire), or
magmatic rock) Igneous rocks form
when hot, molten rock (magma) cools
and solidifies
*INTRUSIVE/PLUTONIC IGNEOUS ROCKS-
formed when rising magma is trapped deep
within the Earth, where it cools very slowly
over many thousands or millions of years
until it finally solidifies.
*EXTRUSIVE/VOLCANIC, IGNEOUS ROCKS-
produced when magma is erupted at, or
very near, the Earth's surface
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- formed from
the eroded fragments of pre-existing
rocks, or from the skeletal fragments of
once-living plants or organisms
*CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- made up of
fragments (clasts) of pre-existing rocks
* BIOLOGICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- form
when large quantities of living plants or
organisms die and accumulate
*CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- formed by
chemical precipitation from solutions
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS- formed when a
pre-existing rock is subject to high
temperature, high pressure, hot and
mineral-rich fluid, or a combination of
these conditions
*FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS- exhibit a
platy or sheet-like structure.
*NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS-
display a massive structure
ROCK CYCLE- a conceptual model that explains
how geological processes acting on any one of
the three main rock types can change one rock
type to another over geological time. Plate
tectonics is the driving force of the Rock Cycle
 Igneous rock-forming processes involve
melting, cooling and crystallization.
 Sedimentary rock-forming processes
involve weathering, erosion,
deposition, burial and lithification.
 Metamorphic rock-forming processes
involve changes to rock textures and
mineral compositions under different
temperature, pressure or hot fluid
conditions.
EARTH’S INTERIOR
MAJOR LAYERS:
1. INNER CORE- the very center of
the Earth, and the hottest part
of the planet
2. OUTER CORE- outer core is a
fluid layer about 2,400 km
(1,500 mi) thick and composed
of mostly iron and nickel that
lies above Earth's solid inner
core and below its mantle
3. MANTLE- is the mostly-solid
bulk of Earth's interior; lies
between Earth's dense, super-
heated core and its thin outer
layer, the crust
*ATMOSPHERE- a layer or a set of
layers of gases surrounding a planet
or other material body, that is held
in place by the gravity of that body
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE:
 TROPOSPHERE- lowest part
of the atmosphere - the
part we live in. It contains
most of our weather -
clouds, rain, snow
 STRATOSPHERE- extends
upwards from the
tropopause to about 50 km.
It contains much of the
ozone in the atmosphere
 MESOSPHERE- mesosphere
refers to the part of the
Earth's mantle below the
lithosphere and the
asthenosphere
 THERMOSPHERE- lies
above the mesopause, and
is a region in which
temperatures again
increase with height
 IONOSPHERE- region of the
atmosphere above about
80 km since the energetic
solar radiation knocks
electrons off molecules and
atoms, turning them into
"ions" with a positive
charge
 EXOSPHERE- region above
about 500; contains mainly
oxygen and hydrogen
atoms, but there are so few
of them that they rarely
collide - they follow
"ballistic" trajectories
under the influence of
gravity, and some of them
escape right out into space
 MAGNETOSPHERE- The
earth behaves like a huge
magnet. It traps electrons
(negative charge) and
protons (positive),
concentrating them in two
bands about 3,000 and
16,000 km above the globe
- the Van Allen "radiation"
belts
*ASTHENOSPHERE- the upper layer of the
earth's mantle, below the lithosphere
4. CRUST- outermost solid shell of
a rocky planet, dwarf planet, or
natural satellite
 OCEANIC CRUST- mainly
made out of dark basalt
rocks that are rich in
minerals and substances
like silicon and magnesium;
denser than continental
crust
 CONTINENTAL CRUST-
made up of light-colored
granite rocks full of
substances like oxygen and
silicon; less dense than
oceanic
 *LITHOSPHERE- the rigid outer
part of the earth, consisting of
the crust and upper mantle.
 OCEANIC
LITHOSPHERE- forms
through volcanism in
the form of fissures at
mid-ocean ridges which
are cracks that encircle
the globe
 CONTINENTAL
LITHOSPHERE- about
150 kilometers (93
miles) thick with a low-
density crust and
upper-mantle that are
permanently buoyant.
*CONTINENTAL DRIFT-a
process where continents drift
laterally along the convecting
system of the mantle away
from hot mantle zones toward
cooler ones
PLATE TECTONICS
*TECTONIC PLATE/LITHOSPHERIC PLATE- a
massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock,
generally composed of both continental and
oceanic lithosphere
*PLATE TECTONICS THEORY- the theory
supported by a wide range of evidence that
considers the earth's crust and upper mantle to
be composed of several large, thin, relatively
rigid plates that move relative to one another
*Tectonic earthquakes occur at plate tectonic
boundaries. Tectonic plates are constantly
moving. The waves of released energy (SEISMIC
WAVES- vibrations of the earth caused by
sudden release of energy stored in rocks) move
through the Earth's crust and cause the
*EARTHQUAKES- sudden shaking of the ground
caused by the passage of seismic waves through
Earth's rocks
*PLATE BOUNDARIES- boundary regions
between plates
THREE MAIN TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES:
1. DIVERGENT- extensional; the plates
move apart. Spreading ridges, basin-
range
2. CONVERGENT- compressional; plates
move toward each other. Includes:
Subduction zones and mountain
building.
3. TRANSFORM- shearing; plates slide past
each other. Strike-slip motion.
*FAULTS- rock fractures where a block of rock
moves with respect to another caused by forces
which maybe vertical, horizontal or inclined
*FAULT PLANE-rock surface along which fault
movement takes place. HANGING WALL is the
block of rock above the fault plane. FOOTWALL
is the block of rock below.
TYPES OF FAULTS:
 DIP-SLIP FAULTS- involves vertical
movement of blocks of rocks
 STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS- horizontal
movement of blocks of rock
VOLCANO- a rupture in the crust of a
planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that
allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to
escape from a magma chamber below the
surface
3 MAIN TYPES OF VOLCANOES:
1. COMPOSITE VOLCANOES/ STRATO
VOLCANOES- are steep sided cones
formed from layers of ash and lava
flows. The eruptions from these
volcanoes may be a pyroclastic flow
rather than a flow of lava.
*PYROCLASTIC FLOW- a superheated mixture of
hot steam, ash, rock and dust; can travel down
the side of a volcano
2. SHIELD VOLCANOES- are low with
gently sloping sides and are formed
from layers of lava. Eruptions are
typically non-explosive. Shield
volcanoes produce fast flowing fluid
lava that can flow for many miles
3. CINDER CONE- are the simplest type of
volcano. They are built from particles
and blobs of congealed lava ejected
from a single vent. As the gas-charged
lava is blown violently into the air, it
breaks into small fragments that solidify
and fall as cinders around the vent to
form a circular or oval cone
*ACTIVE VOLCANO- a volcano that has had at
least one eruption during the past 10,000 years;
might be erupting or dormant.
*ERUPTING VOLCANO- an active volcano that is
having an eruption...
*DORMANT VOLCANO- an active volcano that
is not erupting, but supposed to erupt again.
*EXTINCT VOLCANO- has not had an eruption
for at least 10,000 years and is not expected to
erupt again in a comparable time scale of the
future.
BODIES OF WATER
*BODY OF WATER- any significant accumulation
of water, generally on a planet's surface;
1. OCEAN- a very large expanse of sea, in
particular each of the main areas into which the
sea is divided geographically
 North Pacific Ocean
 South Pacific Ocean
 North Atlantic Ocean
 South Atlantic Ocean
 Indian Ocean
 Arctic Ocean
1. SEA- the expanse of salt water that
covers most of the earth's surface and
surrounds its landmasses
 Mediterranean Sea
 Caribbean Sea
2. DELTA- landform created by deposition
of sediment that is carried by a river as
the flow leaves its mouth and enters
slower-moving or stagnant water
3. WETLAND- distinct ecosystem that is
flooded by water, either permanently
or seasonally, where oxygen-free
processes prevail
4. LAKE- an area filled with water,
localized in a basin, surrounded by land,
apart from any river or other outlet that
serves to feed or drain the lake
5. POND- an area filled with water, either
natural or artificial, that is smaller than
a lake
6. PUDDLE- a small accumulation of liquid,
usually water, on a surface
LAND FORMS- a natural or artificial feature
of the solid surface of the Earth or other
planetary body
1. MOUNTAIN- a large landform that rises
above the surrounding land in a limited
area, usually in the form of a peak
2. HILL- extends above the surrounding
terrain
3. PLAIN- flat, sweeping landmass that
generally does not change much in
elevation
4. PLATEAU- also called a high plain or a
tableland, is an area of a highland,
usually consisting of relatively flat
terrain, that is raised significantly above
the surrounding area, often with one or
more sides with steep slopes
5. VALLEY- low area between hills or
mountains typically with a river running
through it
6. ISLAND- any piece of sub-continental
land that is surrounded by water
ECOSYETEM- large community of living
organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in
a particular area
MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS:
1. TROPICAL RAINFOREST-are
rainforests that occur in areas of
tropical rainforest climate in which
there is no dry season – all months
have an average precipitation of at
least 60 mm; lowland equatorial
evergreen rainforest
2. TEMPERATE RAINFORESTS-
coniferous or broadleaf forests that
occur in the temperate zone and
receive heavy rainfall
3. TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST-
found between the tropical and
boreal regions, located in the
temperate zone.
4. TAIGA- the sometimes swampy
coniferous forest of high northern
latitudes, especially that between
the tundra and steppes of Siberia
and North America
5. TUNDRA- type of biome where the
tree growth is hindered by low
temperatures and short growing
seasons
6. DESERT- barren area of landscape
where little precipitation occurs
and, consequently, living conditions
are hostile for plant and animal life
7. GRASSLAND- areas where the
vegetation is dominated by grasses
8. CHAPARRAL- shrubland or
heathland plant community found
primarily in the US state of
California and in the northern
portion of the Baja California
Peninsula, Mexico
*FOOD CHAIN- the sequence of who eats whom
in a biological community (an ecosystem) to
obtain nutrition
*TROPHIC LEVEL-is the position an organism
holds in a food chain
  PRIMARY PRODUCERS/AUTOTROPH-
organisms that make their own food
from sunlight
 PRIMARY CONSUMERS- animals that
eat primary producers; they are also
called herbivores (plant-eaters).
 SECONDARY CONSUMERS- eat primary
consumers. They are carnivores (meat-
eaters) and omnivores (animals that eat
both animals and plants).
 TERTIARY CONSUMERS- eat secondary
consumers.
 QUATERNARY CONSUMERS- eat
tertiary consumers.
Food chains "end" with top predators, animals
that have little or no natural enemies.
 When any organism dies, it is eventually
eaten by DETRIVORES (like vultures,
worms and crabs) and broken down by
DECOMPOSERS (mostly bacteria and
fungi), and the exchange of energy
continues.
*HETEROTROPHIC- cannot make their own
food
FOSSILS- the remains and traces of ancient
organisms
5 TYPES OF FOSSILS:
 INSECT PRESERVED IN AMBER
 PETRIFIED WOOD
(PERMINERALIZATION)
 CAST AND MOLD OF A CLAM SHELL
 PYRITIZED AMMONITE
 COMPRESSION FOSSIL OF A FERN
 AMBER: FOSSILIZED TREE SAP.
*CAST- mold filled with sediment and hardened
to create a replica of the original fossil
*MOLD- n impression made in sediments by the
hard parts of an organism
*PERMINERALIZATION- Fossilization in which
minerals in water deposit into empty spaces in
an organism
WEATHER, CLIMATE
*WEATHER is the condition of the atmosphere
at a particular place over a short period of time
*CLIMATE- refers to the weather pattern, using
statistical data, of a place over a long enough
period to yield meaningful averages.
*SOUTHWEST MONSOON (HABAGAT)- July to
October
*NORTHEAST MONSOON (AMIHAN)-
November to February
TYPICAL WEATHER INSTRUMENTS:
 Thermometer- measuring air and sea
surface temperature
 Barometer- measuring atmospheric
pressure
 Hygrometer- measuring humidity
 Anemometer- measuring wind speed
 Pyranometer- measuring solar radiation
 Rain gauge- measuring liquid
precipitation over a set period of time.
 Wind sock- measuring general wind
speed and wind direction
 Wind vane/weather vane/weathercock-
shows whence the wind is blowing.
PHYSICS
LAWS OF MOTION
Newton's Three Laws of Motion
1. LAW OF INERTIA- A body at rest will
remain at rest, and a body in motion
 will remain in motion unless it is acted
upon by an external force
2. The force acting on an object is equal to
the mass of that object times its
acceleration (f=ma)
3. implies conservation of momentum; for
every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction; When one object
``pushes'' a second object at some
(massless) point of contact using an
applied force, there must be an equal
and opposite force from the second
object that cancels the applied force
MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY
*ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM are separate
yet interconnected phenomena associated with
the electromagnetic force. Together, they form
the basis for electromagnetism, a key physics
discipline
*MAGNETIC FIELD- generated by a moving
electric charge generates a magnetic field;
induces electric charge movement, producing
an electric current.
In an electromagnetic wave, the electric field
and magnetic field are perpendicular to one
another.
*BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY- electricity
is the phenomenon associated with either
stationary or moving electric charges. The
source of the electric charge could be an
elementary particle, an electron (which has a
negative charge), a proton (which has a positive
charge), an ion, or any larger body that has an
imbalance of positive and negative charge.
Positive and negative charges attracts each
other (e.g., protons are attracted to electrons),
while like charges repel each other (e.g.,
protons repel other protons and electrons repel
other electrons).
*BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETISM-
magnetism is defined as the physical
phenomenon produced by moving electric
charge. Also, a magnetic field can induce
charged particles to move, producing an electric
current. An electromagnetic wave (such as light)
has both an electric and magnetic component.
The two components of the wave travel in the
same direction, but oriented at a right angle (90
degrees) to one another.
*THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF
ELECTROMAGNETISM- The word
electromagnetism comes from a combination of
the Greek works elektron, meaning "amber"
and magnetis lithos, meaning "Magnesian
stone," which is a magnetic iron ore. The
ancient Greeks were familiar with electricity
and magnetism, but considered them to be two
separate phenomena.
The relationship known as electromagnetism
wasn't described until JAMES CLERK MAXWELL
published A Treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism in 1873. Maxwell's work included
twenty famous equations, which have since
been condensed into four partial differential
equations
ASTRONOMY
PLANETS OF OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
*PLANET- a true planet as a body that circles
the sun without being some other object's
satellite; is large enough to be rounded by its
own gravity (but not so big that it begins to
undergo nuclear fusion, like a star); and has
"cleared its neighborhood" of most other
orbiting bodies
*TERRESTRIAL PLANETS- The inner four planets
closest to the sun (Mercury, Venus, Earth and
Mars) because their surfaces are rocky. Pluto
also has a rocky, albeit frozen, surface but has
never been grouped with the four terrestrials.
*JOVIAN/GAS GIANTS- The four large outer
worlds (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune)
because of their enormous size relative to the
terrestrial planets. They're also mostly made of
gases like hydrogen, helium and ammonia
rather than of rocky surfaces
*JUPITER AND SATURN- sometimes called the
gas giants
*URANUS AND NEPTUNE- have been
nicknamed the ice giants because Uranus and
Neptune have more atmospheric water and
other ice-forming molecules, such as methane,
hydrogen sulfide and phosphene, that
crystallize into clouds in the planets' frigid
conditions
MERCURY
 smallest and closest planet to the sun
 only a little bit larger than Earth's moon
 experiences dramatic changes in its day
and night temperatures: Day
temperatures can reach a scorching 840
F (450 C), which is hot enough to melt
lead. Meanwhile on the night side,
temperatures drop to minus 290 F
(minus 180 C).
 has a very thin atmosphere of oxygen,
sodium, hydrogen, helium and
potassium and can't break-up incoming
meteors, so its surface is pockmarked
with craters, just like the moon.
  Discovery: Known to the ancient Greeks
and visible to the naked eye
 Named for the messenger of the Roman
gods
 Orbit: 88 Earth days
 Day: 58.6 Earth days
VENUS
 Venus is Earth's twin in size
 Radar images beneath its atmosphere
reveal that its surface has various
mountains and volcanoes
 Because of its thick, toxic atmosphere
that's made of sulfuric acid clouds,
Venus is an extreme example of the
greenhouse effect.
 It's scorching-hot, even hotter than
MercuryThe average temperature on
Venus' surface is 900 F (465 C). At 92
bar, the pressure at the surface would
crush and kill you. And
 spins slowly from east to west, the
opposite direction of most of the other
planets.
 Discovery: Known to the ancient Greeks
and visible to the naked eye
 Named for the Roman goddess of love
and beauty
 Diameter: 7,521 miles (12,104 km)
 Orbit: 225 Earth days
 Day: 241 Earth days
EARTH
 Earth is a waterworld, with two-
thirds of the planet covered by
ocean.
 It's the only world known to harbor
life
 Earth's atmosphere is rich in
nitrogen and oxygen
 Earth's surface rotates about its axis
at 1,532 feet per second (467
meters per second) — slightly more
than 1,000 mph (1,600 kph) — at
the equator. The planet zips around
the sun at more than 18 miles per
second (29 km per second).
 Name originates from "Die Erde,"
the German word for "the ground."
 Diameter: 7,926 miles (12,760 km)
 Orbit: 365.24 days
 Day: 23 hours, 56 minutes
MARS
 it's a cold, desert-like place covered in
dust
 This dust is made of iron oxides, giving
the planet its iconic red hue
 shares similarities with Earth: It is rocky,
has mountains, valleys and canyons,
and storm systems ranging from
localized tornado-like dust devils to
planet-engulfing dust storms.
 Substantial scientific evidence suggests
that Mars at one point billions of years
ago was a much warmer, wetter world.
Rivers and maybe even oceans existed.
 Although Mars' atmosphere is too thin
for liquid water to exist on the surface
for any length of time, remnants of that
wetter Mars still exist today. Sheets of
water ice the size of California lie
beneath Mars' surface, and at both
poles are ice caps made in part of
frozen water
 Scientists also think ancient Mars would
have had the conditions to support life
like bacteria and other microbes. Hope
that signs of this past life — and the
possibility of even current lifeforms —
may exist on the Red Planet has driven
numerous space exploration missions
and Mars is now one of the most
explored planets in the solar system.
 Discovery: Known to the ancient Greeks
and visible to the naked eye
 Named for the Roman god of war
 Diameter: 4,217 miles (6,787 km)
 Orbit: 687 Earth days
 Day: Just more than one Earth day (24
hours, 37 minutes)
JUPITER
 is a giant gas world that is the most
massive planet in our solar systemmore
than twice as massive as all the other
planets combined, according to NASA
 Its swirling clouds are colorful due to
different types of trace gases. And a
major feature in its swirling clouds is
the Great Red Spot, a giant storm more
than 10,000 miles wide. It has raged at
more than 400 mph for the last 150
years, at least. Jupiter has a strong
magnetic field, and with 75 moons, it
looks a bit like a miniature solar system.
 Discovery: Known to the ancient Greeks
and visible to the naked eye
 Named for the ruler of the Roman gods
 Diameter: 86,881 miles (139,822 km)
 Orbit: 11.9 Earth years
 Day: 9.8 Earth hours
SATURN
is known most for its rings. When polymath
Galileo Galilei first studied Saturn in the
early 1600s, he thought it was an object
with three parts: a planet and two large
moons on either side. Not knowing he was
 seeing a planet with rings, the stumped
astronomer entered a small drawing — a
symbol with one large circle and two
smaller ones — in his notebook, as a noun
in a sentence describing his discovery. More
than 40 years later, Christiaan Huygens
proposed that they were rings. The rings are
made of ice and rock and scientists are not
yet sure how they formed. The gaseous
planet is mostly hydrogen and helium and
has numerous moons.
 Discovery: Known to the ancient
Greeks and visible to the naked eye
 Named for Roman god of
agriculture
 Diameter: 74,900 miles (120,500
km)
 Orbit: 29.5 Earth years
 Day: About 10.5 Earth hours
URANUS
 It has clouds made of hydrogen sulfide,
the same chemical that makes rotten
eggs smell so foul. It rotates from east
to west like Venus. But unlike Venus or
any other planet, its equator is nearly at
right angles to its orbit — it basically
orbits on its side. Astronomers believe
an object twice the size of Earth
collided with Uranus roughly 4 billion
years ago, causing Uranus to tilt. That
tilt causes extreme seasons that last 20-
plus years, and the sun beats down on
one pole or the other for 84 Earth-years
at a time.
 The collision is also thought to have
knocked rock and ice into Uranus' orbit.
These later became some of the
planet's 27 moons. Methane in the
atmosphere gives Uranus its blue-green
tint. It also has 13 sets of faint rings.
 Discovery: 1781 by William Herschel
(was originally thought to be a star)
 Named for the personification of
heaven in ancient myth
 Diameter: 31,763 miles (51,120 km)
 Orbit: 84 Earth years
 Day: 18 Earth hours
NEPTUNE
 is about the size of Uranus and is
known for supersonic strong winds
 is far out and cold. The planet is
more than 30 times as far from the
sun as Earth. Neptune was the first
planet predicted to exist by using
math, before it was visually
detected. Irregularities in the orbit
of Uranus led French astronomer
Alexis Bouvard to suggest some
other planet might be exerting a
gravitational tug. German
astronomer Johann Galle used
calculations to help find Neptune in
a telescope. Neptune is about 17
times as massive as Earth and has a
rocky core.
 Discovery: 1846
 Named for the Roman god of water
 Diameter: 30,775 miles (49,530 km)
 Orbit: 165 Earth years
 Day: 19 Earth hours
PLUTO
 Once the ninth planet from the sun
 It is smaller than Earth's moon; its orbit
is highly elliptical, falling inside
Neptune's orbit at some points and far
beyond it at others
 Pluto's orbit doesn't fall on the same
plane as all the other planets —
instead, it orbits 17.1 degrees above or
below.
 From 1979 until early 1999, Pluto had
actually been the eighth planet from
the sun. Then, on Feb. 11, 1999, it
crossed Neptune's path and once again
became the solar system's most distant
planet — until it was redefined as a
dwarf planet. It's a cold, rocky world
with a tenuous atmosphere. Scientists
thought it might be nothing more than
a hunk of rock on the outskirts of the
solar system. But when NASA's New
Horizons mission performed history's
first flyby of the Pluto system on July
14, 2015, it transformed scientists' view
of Pluto. Pluto is a very active ice world
that's covered in glaciers, mountains of
ice water, icy dunes and possibly even
cryovolcanoes that erupt icy lava made
of water, methane or ammonia.
 Discovery: 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh
 Named for the Roman god of the
underworld, Hades
 Diameter: 1,430 miles (2,301 km)
 Orbit: 248 Earth years
 Day: 6.4 Earth day
STARS, ASTEROIDS, COMETS,
METEORS
*COMETS- objects composed mostly of ice and
dust that grow tails when they approach the
sun; come from two places in the Solar System:
the Oort Cloud and the Kuiper Belt. OORT
CLOUD is a spherical halo of comets
surrounding the Solar System. KUIPER BELT is a
ring of icy objects beyond the orbit of Neptune
(30-100 AU). It lies (more or less) in the plane of
the solar system and is a reservoir for the short
period comets that we see

*ASTEROIDS- the small rocky objects in the

Solar System. The largest asteroid is Ceres,

*METEORS- the short, white trails across the

sky that we call "shooting stars." They are
caused by small pea-sized pieces of inter-
planetary dust that burn up when they slam
into the Earth's atmosphere at high speeds.
Meteor showers happen when Earth passes
through the orbital path of a comet that left a
lot of dust behind; If a meteoroid enters the
Earth's atmosphere and vaporizes, it becomes a
meteor, which is often called a shooting star.If a
small asteroid or large meteoroid survives its
fiery passage through the Earth's atmosphere
and lands on Earth's surface, it is then called a
meteorite
*GALAXY- is a gravitationally bound system of
stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust,
and dark matter. The word galaxy is derived
from the Greek galaxias, literally "milky", a
reference to the Milky Way.
*UNIVERSE is all of space and time and their
contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and
all other forms of matter and energy

*STAR- is an astronomical object consisting of a

luminous spheroid of plasma held together by
its own gravity. The nearest star to Earth is the
Sun

*BLACK HOLE- is a region of spacetime

exhibiting gravitational acceleration so strong
that nothing—no particles or even
electromagnetic radiation such as light—can
escape from it. The theory of general relativity
predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can
deform spacetime to form a black hole

ECLIPSES

*LUNAR ECLIPSE- occurs when the Moon passes

directly behind Earth and into its shadow. This
can occur only when the Sun, Earth, and Moon
are exactly or very closely aligned, with Earth
between the other two

*SOLAR ECLIPSE- occurs when a portion of the

Earth is engulfed in a shadow cast by the Moon
which fully or partially blocks sunlight. This
occurs when the Sun, Moon and Earth are
aligned. Such alignment coincides with a new
moon indicating the Moon is closest to the
ecliptic plane

MOON CYCLE

*LUNAR PHASE/PHASE OF THE MOON- the

shape of the directly sunlit portion of the Moon
as viewed from Earth