SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE (PSY002) PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS

Prof. GINA T. MONTALLA

MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS
Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)
1. Enumerate the four methods of studying truth
2. Define and contrast important statistical concepts such as observational versus experimental research;
descriptive versus inferential statistics
3. Define basic statistical concepts: population, sample, variable, statistic, and parameter
4. Explain why random sampling is important
5. Differentiate measurement scales such as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio
6. Differentiate and give examples of continuous and discrete variables

STATISTICS
Refers to a set of mathematical procedures for organizing, summarizing, and interpreting
information.
Consists of facts and figures such as average income, crime rate, birth rate, average snowfall,
and so on.
The branch of mathematics which deals with the collection, organization, and interpretation
of data
A scientific body of knowledge that deals with the collection, organization, presentation,
analysis, and interpretation of data.
 Collection – refers to the gathering of information or data
 Organization or presentation – involves summarizing data or information in textual,
graphical or tabular forms
 Analysis – involves describing the data by using statistical methods and procedures
 Interpretation – refers to the process of making conclusions based on the analyzed data
General purpose of Statistics in research
 Statistics are used to organize and summarize the information so that the researcher can
see what happened to the research study and can communicate the result to others.
 Statistics help the researcher to answer the general questions that initiated the research
by determining exactly what conclusion are justified based on the result that were
obtained.

POPULATION AND SAMPLES

Population
 The set of all the individuals of interest in a particular study.
 The totality of the elements from which data under consideration shall be obtained
 Refers to a large collection of objects, persons, places, or things.
 It is usually denoted or represented by N

Sample
 It is a set of individual selected from a population, usually intended to represent the population in a
research study.
 A representative portion of the population taken for a study.
 A small portion or part of the population.
 It could also be defined as a subgroup, subset, or representative of a population.
 It is usually denoted or represented by n

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SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE (PSY002) PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS
Prof. GINA T. MONTALLA

The relationship between a population and a sample

PARAMETER AND STATISTIC

Parameter
 Parameter is usually a numerical value that describes a population.
 It is any numerical or nominal characteristic of the population. It is a value or measurement obtained
from the population.

Statistic
 Statistic is usually a numerical value that describes a sample.
 Statistic is an estimate of parameter. It is any value or measurement obtained from a sample.

VARIABLES AND DATA

Variables
 A characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for different individuals.
 A characteristic or property of the population or sample which makes the members different from each
other.
 Examples: age, gender, grades, type of family, job satisfaction, gender, height, weight, personality,
temperature, time of the day, size of the room, etc.
 Classification of variables
 Discrete Variables - consists of separate, indivisible categories. No values can exist between
two neighboring categories. Examples: Gender, Nationality, Occupation, Number of students
in a classroom, etc.
 Continuous Variables - there are an infinite number of possible values that fall between any
two observed values. A continuous variable is divisible into an infinite number of fractional
parts. Ex. Weight, Height, Average grade, income, age, etc.

Data (Datum)
 Measurements or observations.
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SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE (PSY002) PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS
Prof. GINA T. MONTALLA

 Facts or set of information or observation under study. More specifically, data are gathered by the
researcher from a population or from a sample.
 Classification of Data
 Metric Data – data obtained by measurement. Examples: height, weight, age, monthly
income, performance rating, scores in a test, grades, length of teaching experience, etc.
 Enumeration Data – data obtained by counting. Examples: number of students in a
classroom, number of households in a barangay, number of working students, etc.
 Categorical Data – data which can be classified into groups or categories of responses.
Examples: attitudes, perceptions, personality traits, study habits, socio-economic status, level
of stress, level of implementation

Data collection requires that we make measurements of our observations. Statistics deals mostly with
measurements. Measurement involves assigning individuals or events to categories.

The categories can simply be names such as male/female or employed/unemployed, or they can be
numerical values such as 68 inches or 175 pounds. The categories used to measure a variable make up a
scale of measurement, and the relationships between the categories determine different types of scales.

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT

 Nominal Scale
 A nominal scale consists of a set of categories that have different names. Measurements on a
nominal scale label and categorize observations, but do not make any quantitative
distinctions between observations.
 This is the most primitive level of measurement. It is used when we want to distinguish one
object from another for identification purposes. In these level, we can only say that one level
is different from another, but the amount of difference between them cannot be determined.
We cannot tell that one is better or worse than the other.
 Examples: gender, nationality, religion, color of skin, religion, civil status, etc.

 Ordinal Scale
 An ordinal scale consists of a set of categories that are organized in an ordered sequence.
Measurements on an ordinal scale rank observations in terms of size or magnitude.
 In the ordinal level of measurement, data are arranged in some specified order or rank.
 Examples: ranking of contestants, siblings in the family, honor students in a class, positions,
social class, clothing size, etc.

 Interval Scale
 Interval scale has an arbitrary zero point. The value 0 is assigned to a particular location on
the scale simply as a matter of convenience or reference. In particular, a value of zero does
not indicate a total absence of the variable being measured.
 If the data are measured in interval level, we can say not only that the object is greater or less
than the other but we can specify the amount of difference.
 Examples: scores in a test, temperature, IQ scores, score in standardized test, etc.

 Ratio Scale
 Ratio scale is anchored by a zero point that is not arbitrary but rather is a meaningful value
representing none (a complete absence) of the variable being measured

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SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE (PSY002) PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS
Prof. GINA T. MONTALLA

 The ratio level of measurement is like the interval. The only difference is that the ratio level
always starts from the absolute or true zero point. In addition, in the ratio level, there is
always the presence of unit of measure. If the data is measured in this level, we can say that
that the object is so many times as large or as small as the other.
 Examples: age, height, weight, length, time
EXERCISES:
 Identify the scale of measurement for each of the following:
1. Religion
2. IQ scores
3. Speed of a car
4. Civil Status
5. Number of book in the library
6. Address
7. Size of a T-shirt
8. Land area
9. Salary of Workers
10. Number of hours spent in studying

DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Descriptive Statistics
 Descriptive statistics are statistical procedures used to summarize, organize, and simplify data.
 It is a technique that take the raw score and organize or summarize them in the form that is more
manageable.
 Generally, descriptive statistics involves gathering, organizing and presenting, and describing data.
 Descriptive statistics includes those measures that may be used to describe a group in terms of
variables being considered, such as measure of central tendency and measure of dispersion.

Inferential Statistics
 Inferential Statistics consist of techniques that allows us to study samples and then make
generalizations about the populations from which they were selected.
 Inferential Statistics involves decision-making based on data at hand and employing some statistical
test
EXERCISES:
Tell whether the following situation will make use of DESCRIPTIVE or INFERENTIAL statistics.
1. A teacher computes the average grade of her students and then determines the top
ten students.
2. The manager of the business firm predicts future sales of the company based on the
present sales.
3. A psychologist investigates if there is a significant relationship between the mental
age and the chronological age.
4. A researcher studies the effectiveness of a new fertilizer to increasing food
production.
5. A janitor counts the number of various furniture inside the school.
6. A sports journalist determines the most popular basketball player for this year.
7. A school administrator forecast future expansion of the school.
8. A market vendor investigates the most popular brand of vinegar.
9. An engineer calculate the average height of the building along Taft Avenue.
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SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE (PSY002) PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS
Prof. GINA T. MONTALLA

10. A dermatologist tests the relative effectiveness of a new brand of medicine in curing
pimples and other skin diseases.

SAMPLING ERROR
 It is the discrepancy, or amount of error, that exists between a sample statistic and the corresponding
population parameter.
 It is the error arises as a result of taking a sample from a population rather than using the whole
population
 The sampling error for a given sample is unknown but when the sampling is random, the maximum
likely size of the sampling error is called the margin of error
 Illustration:

Two samples are selected from the same population. Notice that the sample statistics are different
from one sample to another, and all the sample statistics are different from the corresponding population
parameters. The natural differences that exist, by chance, between a sample statistic and a population parameter are
called sampling error.

NON-SAMPLING ERROR
 The error that arises in data collection process as a result of factors other than taking a sample
 Non sampling error have the potential to cause bias in polls, surveys, or samples.
 Examples:
 Bias in choosing samples
 Typographical errors/wordings used in questionnaire
 Undesirable answers in survey or poll
 Low response rate
SAMPLING
 Sampling is the process of taking the sample from a population
SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
 Sampling technique is the procedure used to determine the individuals or members of the sample.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 It is a sampling technique wherein each member or element of the population has an equal chance of
being selected as a member of the sample.
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SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE (PSY002) PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS
Prof. GINA T. MONTALLA

 It is therefore an assumption that when using a probability sampling, the researcher should have a
complete list of the members of the population.
 Probability sampling is sampling without bias because selection of members of the sample is not
predetermined

 Simple Random Sampling/Random Sampling

o It is a technique of drawing sample whereby each element of the population has an equal
chance of being taken into the sample.
o This technique is the most commonly used especially if the population is homogenous
with respect to a particular attributes or characteristics.
o Example: Lottery, Table of random digits.
 Systematic Sampling
𝑁
o It is a technique of choosing an element for every k elements of a population where k = ,
𝑛
where N is the population size and n is the sample size
 Stratified Sampling
o It is a technique of dividing a population into groups, called strata, and sampling is done
in each stratum.
o The table below shows the sample size taken in the different strata considering equal
allocation and proportional allocation. In this example, 30% of a population of 1000
families is to be taken
Socio- Population Sample Size (n)
economic Size (N) Equal Allocation Proportional Allocation
Status
High 150 100 45
Average 350 100 105
Low 500 100 150
Total 150 300 300

 Cluster Sampling
o It is a technique of taking a sample from groups, and all the elements in those group
chosen will form the sample
 Multi-Stage Sampling
o It is a sampling in various stage until the desired sampling units are obtained
o It is used in studies that cover a wide geographical area or substantially large population

Non-Probability Sampling
 It is a sampling technique wherein members of the sample are drawn from the population based on
the judgement of the researcher.
 The results of a study using this sampling technique are relatively biased
 The technique lack objectivity of the selection; hence, it is sometimes called Subjective Sampling.
 Inferences made based on the sample obtained using this technique are not so reliable.

 Purposive Sampling
o It is a technique of choosing sampling units from a given population which have a
specific characteristics

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SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE (PSY002) PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS
Prof. GINA T. MONTALLA

 Quota Sampling
o A technique of setting a sample size based on the nature of the data that are needed
and taking the first sampling units that fulfill the required number or quota.

 Convenience Sampling
o As the name implies, convenience sampling is used because of the convenience it
offers to the researcher. Although convenience sampling may be used occasionally,
we cannot depend on it in making inferences about a population

Determining the sample size

 To determine the sample size from a given population size, the Slovin’s Formula is used.

𝑁
n=
1+𝑁𝛼 2
where n = sample size
N = population size
𝛼 = level of significance (allowable error in making a decision)
 The sample size is the smallest possible number that may constitute a good sample.
 Example: It is desired to conduct a survey on 5000 students of ABC College. What is the minimum
sample size that may be drawn if an error of at most 5% is allowed?
1. Solution:
N = 5 000

𝛼 = 0.05

5 000
n = 1+(5 000)(0.05)2

n = 370

EXERCISES:
 Determine the sample size in each problem.
1. There are 2 000 housewives In Barangay Matahimik. It is desired to make a survey of their
preferences for cooking fuel. How many housewives may at least be taken as respondents if
an error of at most (a) 5% and (b) 2.5% in the decision maybe allowed?

2. A physician would like to study the effectiveness of a drug on patients with pulmonary
disease. He is considering a population of 10 000 patients. What is the minimum sample size
he could take if he could only allow (a) 1% and (b) 5% error for a conclusion to be made?

3. A researcher plans to conduct a survey. If the population is 8 000, find the sample size if the
allowable error to make a conclusion is
a. 10%
b. 5%
c. 1%
d. 7.5%

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SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE (PSY002) PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS
Prof. GINA T. MONTALLA

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