CHAPTER-2

MODELS OF TEACHING - A THEORETICAL BASE

2.0.0 INTRODUCTION
Students have multidimensional personality traits and different learning styles
with numerous individual differences. These individual differences required different
teaching strategies to match them, which could be possible only if we have strong
theoritical base for teaching methodology or strategy. For the last three or four decades
educationists, psychologists and curriculum-developers have been striving hard to evolve
some well developed theories of teaching but so far no final theory of teaching has been
formulated. If a teacher is provided with a good theory of teaching, he gets success in the
classroom to captivate the interest and attention of the students. However, some
researches have come up with principles (though no well evolved theories) which could
serve as guiding principles for creating conducive environment which can prove helpful
in teaching-learning process. These are known as “Models of Teaching”. They are
tentative theories which have analogy and evaluated by utility.
2.1.0 MODEL OF TEACHING APPROACH
From the dictionary meaning the model is a pattern of something to be made or
reproduced or process from its actual setting to one in which it can be more conveniently
studied (Page, G. 1978). In context of the teaching, models of teaching is a midway
approach between teaching method and teaching skill approach, i.e. it is teaching process
approach. Models of teaching are derived from personalism, group dynamics, academic
and psychological information processing stances, behaviour modification etc. Different
meanings have been assigned by different educationists to the term ‘Models of
Teaching’. A model of teaching is a plan or pattern that can be used to shape curricula, to
design instruction of materials and to guide instruction in the classroom and other settings
to attain specified objectives. (Joye & Weil, 1972). Thus models of teaching are well
arranged, inter-related and logically sequenced set of teaching components. It is step-by-
step procedure that leads to specific learning outcomes (Gunter, Estego and Schwab,
1990). Schaefor (1972) has defined models of teaching more comprehensively and

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exclusively as, “well structured, logically consistent, cohesive, exclusively and lucidly
described alternative patterns of teaching” Flander (1985) has described the model of
teaching by stating that a model is more than a description of teaching behaviour, it is a
curriculum design in which instructional materials, learning activities, specific objectives,
class formation and patterns of teaching behaviour are synthesized into a coherent,
understandable gestalten”. Thus a model of teaching consists of guidelines for designing
educational activities and environments. Models are prescriptive teaching strategies,
designed to accomplish particular instructional goals (Eggen Paul, D. et. al 1979).
According to Singh and Sansanwal (1990), “A model of teaching is a blue print where
theory based, well sequenced replicable steps are given for creating instructional effects
in the learners. The main goal of the models of teaching is to teach by creating
environments. A model of teaching is characterized by well defined and verifiable theory,
specification of intended and unintended objectives, pedagogical syntax expressed in
terms of well sequenced steps, explicitly described reaction of teachers and description of
classroom support system (Passi, 1991).
According to Brady (1985) (i) The models are guide to the preparation and
implementation of teaching and not highly developed theories. They are as Dececco
(1968) suggests, forerunners to probable theories, (ii) The models are not highly discrete
i.e. there is no definite boundary between each one, (iii) No single model is regarded
superior to others. No single model can realise the multiplicity of school and subject
objectives, (iv) A through knowledge of all models leads to a greater flexibility and
efficiency.
In this way models of teaching are like criteria which tell us where our teaching
should aim at and what are the means to reach at these objectives. In other words models
of teaching help in fixing the objectives and techniques of teaching as well as in
moulding the behaviour of the teachers and learners according to the need of teaching-
learning situations in the classroom. Models of teaching are not alike to theories of
teaching. Dececco (1968) made a distinction between teaching models and a theory of
teaching. Models do not have the rigour of tested theories. Some useful models / teaching
strategies eventually give way to empirically tested theories. A model of teaching is not a
substitute for teaching skill. It is rather complementary to the latter. Motto of models of

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teaching is to create the conducive teaching-learning environment in which teacher can
teach more effectively, by making the teaching act more systematic and efficient
2.1.1 Characteristics of Models of Teaching
On the basis of the above discussion it can be said that all models of teaching
have some identifiable characteristics which can be stated as below:-
i) Scientific procedure - Models of teaching are not a haphazard combination of
facte but on the other hand, are a systematic and scientific procedure designed to
modify the behaviour of learners.
ii) Specification of learning outcome - All the models of teaching specify the
learning outcomes in detail in terms of behavioural performances.
iii) Specification of Environment - Each and every model of teaching specifies in
definite terms, the environmental conditions under which learning takes places.
iv) Criterion of performance - Every model specifies the criteria of acceptable
performance which is expected from the students after the implementation of the
model in teaching-learning situation.
v) Specification of operations - All models of teaching provide specification of
mechanisms that provide for student’s reaction and interaction with environment.
2.1.2 Basic Assumptions of Models of Teaching
The models of teaching have been evolved on certain assumptions and was first
time described by Joyce & Weil (1972). These assumptions are -
i) Teaching is creation of appropriate environment which consists of some
interdependent and definite component parte.
ii) All such forms of environmental systems, the parte (content, skill, instructional
role, social relation, various activities related to teaching etc.) interact with each
other to constrain the behaviour of all participants, i.e. teachers as well students.
iii) Different combinations of these components may create different environments
and elicit different learning outcomes.
iv) Creation of teaching-learning situation or environment is different in each model
of teaching.

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2.13 Functions of a Model of Teaching
A discussion on the concept of models of teaching reveals that models of teaching
have three major functions in teaching-learning process. These are (a) designing of
curriculum or courses of study (b) development and selection of instructional materials,
and (c) guiding the teacher’s activities in teaching-learning situations. The functions of
models of teaching can be explained with the help of the following figure :-

Fig. 2.1: Functions of Models of Teaching

2.1.4 Elements / Components of Models of Teaching
Each teaching model consists of theory and practical training. To translate a
theoretical model into practical teaching form Joyce and Weil (1982) designed a
procedure of implementation of model using some-terms or concepts which are known as
elements or components of a model. A model has the following elements:
i) Focus or Orientation A focus of a model refers to the frame of reference
around which the model is developed. It determine combinations and relationships of
various processes, conditions and factors built into the model. Objectives of teaching and
aspects of the environment generally constitute the focus of the model.
ii) The Syntax or PhasingSyntax refers to the description of the model in action.
Syntax of a model consists of several phases and activities which have to be arranged in a
specified sequences quite unique to a particular model.
iii) Principles of Reaction Principles of reaction guide the teacher’s responses to
the learner. They tell the teacher how to regard the learner and to respond to what he

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does. Principles of reaction provide the teacher rule of thumb by which to “tune in” to the
students and select an appropriate response to what the student does. In this way these are
the rules that the teacher has to follow in response to every action of the learner.
iv) Social System or Climate of the Model The social system provides a
description of the student’s and teacher’s roles and relationships and the kind of norms
that are encouraged. Models of teaching can be classified as highly structured,
moderately structured and low structured considering social system of the model in view.
v) Support System It refers additional requirements beyond the usual human
skills, capacities and technical facilities necessary for proper implementation or existence
of a model. Support requirements are derived from two sources: the role specification for
the teacher and the substantive-demands of the experience.
vi) Application of the Model The basic purpose and limits of application of a
teaching model are being specified under this criteria including the nature of subject and
contents.
vii) Effects of the ModelThe description of the effects of a model are categorised
as the direct or instructional effects and the indirect or nurturant effects. Instructional
effects consists of contents and skill based changes in the learner behaviour developed
through own activities Nurturant effects include changes in the ability of the learner such
as thinking, creative development etc, which results from ‘living in the environment’
created by the model. In choosing a model for teaching, curriculum building, or as a basis
for materials, the teacher must balance instructional effects with the predictable nurturant
effect as shown in the following figure

Fig. 2.2 : Effects of the Model of Teaching

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2.1.5 Classification of Models of Teaching
Israll Shefter (1970) has discussed three philosophical models of teaching as -
Impression Model, Insight Model and the Rule Model. Similarly, Hadden (1970) has
discussed four models of teaching in behavioural analysis of teaching, diagnostic
teaching etc. These are - Taba’s Model of Teaching, Turner’s Model of Teaching, Model
of Variation in Teacher Orientation and the Fox-Lippitt’s Teaching Model.
Mosstons (1972) has discussed seven models in his book, “ From command to
Discovery”. These are - Command Style, Task Style, Reciprocal Style, Individual
Programme (Teacher’s Design), Guided Discovery Model, Problem Solving Model and
Individual Programme (Pupil’s Design).
Lapp, Bendel, Elenwood and John (1975) have discussed four models - Classical
Model, Technological Model, Personalized Model and the Interaction Model in their
book, ‘Teaching and Learning - Philosophical, Psychological and Curricular
Applications.”
Stalling (1977) discussed five models - Exploratory Model, Group Process
Model, Cognitive Development Model, Programmed Model and the Fundamental Model.
Eggen, Kauchck and harder (1979) discussed six Information Processing Model as -
Inductive Model, Concept Attainment Model, Taba’s Inductive Thinking Model, General
Deductive Model, Ausubel’s Model and Suchman’s Inquiry Training Model. Brady
(1985) discussed five models of teaching as- Exposition Model, Behaviour Model,
Cognitive Development Model, Interaction Model and Transaction Model.
Joyce & Weil have conducted a long research useful models of teaching from a
list of many educational models developed by persons engaged in different types of
activities of teaching-learning process on the basis of practice, empirical theories and
researches done by others, they selected 23 models. Joyce & Weil have grouped these
models into four families - Information Processing Models, Social Interaction Models,
Personal Models and Behaviour Modification Models.
Briefly models of teaching may be classified under five following heads :-
1 Historical Teaching Models
a) The Socratic Teaching Model - Socrates
b) The classical Humanistic Model - Brondy

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c) The Personal Development Model
2 Philosophical Models of Teaching
a) The Impression Model - John Locke
b) The Insight Model - Plato
c) The Rule Model - Kant
3 Psychological Models of Teaching
a) Basic Teaching Model - Robert Glaser
b) Computer Based Teaching Model - Lawrence Stolyrow & Davis
c) Teaching Models of School Learning - John Carroll
d) Interaction Model of Teaching - Ned. A. Flander

4 Teaching Models for Teacher Education

a) Taba’s Model of Teaching
b) Turner’s Model of Teaching

c) Fox-Lippit Teaching Model

5 Modern Teaching Models / Families of Models of TeachingBruce Joyce and
Marsha Weil have developed more than twenty models on the basis of the way they
approach educational goals and means. They have organized these models into four
following families
i. Information Processing Models This family of models aims at fostering the
information processing ability in the learners. Information processing is
concerned with intellectual functioning. The model of this family are concerned
with the intellectual skills and acquisition of knowledge to students. The models
included in this family are - Inductive Thinking Model, Inquiry Training Model,
Scientific Inquiry Model, Concept Attainment Model, Advance Organiser Model.
ii. Personal Models These models focus on personal development of the
individuals and help them to develop positive relationship with environment,
construct and utilize their unique ability(ies). These models are concerned with
human feelings and emotions and try to move towards die development of an

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 integrated functioning self. The models included in this family are - Non
Directive Teaching Model, Awareness Training Model, Synetics Model,
Classroom Meeting Models, etc.
iii. Social Interaction Models The models of this family emphasize the
development of capabilities for interpersonal relationships. These models
emphasize the development of social skills which help the individuals to engage
in democratic process and to work productively in the society. The models
included in this family are - Group Investigation Model, Social Inquiry Model,
Jurisprudential Model, Role Playing Model, Social Simulation Model, Value
Discussion Model etc.
iv. Behaviour Modification Models The models of this family attempts to
develop an efficient system for sequencing learning tasks and shaping behaviour
by manipulating stimulus, response and reinforcement. These models are used in
wide variety of applications from teaching information, concepts and skills,

increasing comfort and relaxation and decreasing phobias, changing habits and
learning to control dimension of behaviour. Models included in this family are -
Programmed Instruction Model, Managing Behaviour Model, Relaxation Model,
Anxiety Reduction Model, Simulation Model, Mastery Learning Model, Assertive

Training Model etc.

These four families of models of teaching are shown in the Table 2.1

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 Table: 2.1
Families of Models of Teaching
Sr.No. Category of Model Name of the Model
1 Information Processing Models 1 Inquiry Training Model
2 Inductive Thinking Model
3 Concept Attainment Model
4 Cognitive Growth Model
5 Advance Organiser Model
6 Memory Model
2 Social Interaction Models 1 Group Investigation Model
2 Social Inquiry Model
3 Jurisprudential Model
4 Training Model
5 Role Playing Model
6 Value Discussion Model
7 Social Simulation Model
3 Personal Models 1 Non-directive Teaching Model
2 Awareness Model
3 Synetics Model
4 Conceptual Systems Model
5 Classroom Meeting Model
4 Behaviour Modification Models 1 Programmed Instruction Model
2 Managing Behaviour Model
3 Relaxation Model
4 Anxiety Reduction Model
5 Assertive Training Model
6 Simulation Model
7 Mastery Learning Model

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2.2.0 CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL (CAM): AN INTRODUCTION
The concept Attainment Model (CAM) is based on the work of Jerome Bruner,
Jacqueline Goodnow and George Austin (1956) ideas on concept and concept formation.
It was designed and developed by Joyce & Weil (1972). This model depends upon the
information processing as its major source. The Concept Attainment Model is a teaching
strategy to facilitate the learning of concepts. The process of teaching in this model
involves the presentation of positive and negative examples of concepts to learners. The
learners are required to consider the positive and negative examples and identifying
attributes, which are present in all the positive examples but are not present in negative
examples. On the basis of these attributes, they formulate and reformulate hypotheses
with regards to the naming of the concept. They are asked to mention its name, definition
rule in the light of essential attributes / characteristics. The model stimulates a lot of
thinking on the part of the learners. It is based on the learner-centred approach and can
diagramatically be represented in the following manner
The Concept Attainment Model

Planning for Concept Implementing Concept Evaluating Concept

Attainment Activities Attainment Activities Attainment Activities

Identification of Selection of Sequencing Medium of

Goals Examples Examples Presentation
(Words, Picture etc.)

Presentation of Analysis of
Example Characteristic

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2.2.1 Bruners Ideas on Concept, Categorizing, Concept Formation and Concept
Attainment
Bruner considers concept as category. Bruner and his associates asserted that to
cope with the environment, we engage in a process of categorisation. It means that we
render discriminately different things equivalent. We respond to them in terms of then-
class membership rather than their uniqueness. In other words, we form categories of
objects/events on the basis of their common characteristics. These categories are known
as concept Bruner sees any concept of having five elements
i) Name:- It is the term given to a category i.e. a class of experiences, objects,
configurations or processes.
ii) Examples:- (positive and negative) They refer to instances of the concept. All
examples which are instances of the concepts are the positive examples and
examples which are not the instances of the concept are the negative examples.
Attaining a concept is recognising positive instances of the concept and also
distinguishing them from closely related but negative examples.
iii) Attributes (essential and non-essential) - These refer to the characteristics of a
particular concept that help distinguish instances of the concept from non­
instances. These attributes may be relevant, irrelevant, or criterion related.
Attributes are of two types:- Criterial Attributes & Defining Attributes.
Criterial attributes are those in which a discriminable feature is used as means for
inferring the ‘identify’ of something. These are used to distinguish one category
distinctly from another. Defining attributes are the external statements of defining
properties of a class by a legal code, by scientific convention or by the degree of
correlation between attribute and ultimate criterion.
iv) Attribute values - It refers to the degree to which an attribute is present in any
particular example.
v) Rule - It refers to a final statement specifying the essential attributes of a concept.
A correct rule reflects successful utilization of the other elements of a concept.

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2.2.2 Types of Concepts
Attributes combine in three different ways to produce three types of concepts - i)
Conjunctive Concepts, ii) Disjunctive Concepts & iii) Relational Concepts. A conjunctive
concept is one defined by a joint presence of appropriate values of several attributes. A
disjunctive concept is one defined by the presence of the appropriate values of one
another or of another attributes or both (i.e. and/or). A relational concept is one which is
defined by specifiable relationship between different attributes.
Bruner and his associates asserted that to cope with the environment, we engage
in a process of categorization. It means we render discrimately different things
equivalent In other words we form categories of objects/events on the basis of their
common characteristics. These categories are known as concepts. According to Bruner,
Categorizing process has two components - the act of concept formation and the act of
concept attainment. Concept formation refers to the activity of forming and defining a
concept whereas concept attainment refers to the activity of attainment and grouping
elements into categories which are already clearly understood and defined.
2.23 Forms of the Concept Attainment Model (CAM)
The CAM has been designed to keep students to develop as well as form new
concepts. Concept Attainment Model facilitate the type of learning referred to as
conceptual learning in contrast with the rote learning of factual information or of
vocabulary. Knowing a concept means distinguishing examples from non-examples,
generating new examples of the concept and articulating the attributes of the Concept
Attainment Model. The purpose of CAM has been identified four fold
i) help students to acquire a new concept,
ii) enrich and clarify their thinking on previously acquired concepts,
iii) teach them the “Concept of a Concept” including the terminology and meaning of
a concept, theory and conceptual activity.
iv) help them to become aware of their own thinking process and strategies.
There are three variations of CAM that have been built on Bruner and his
associates basic study entitled, “A Study of Thinking”. These three variations are
a) Reception Model of Concept Attainment
b) Selection Model of Concept Attainment

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 c) Unorganised Materials Model of Concept Attainment
These three forms of model differ in mode of presentation of the examples and
activities which the teacher under takes to teach the concept
In Selection Concept Attainment Model, the teacher presents the unlabelled
examples of the concept to the students. A student look over the array of unlabelled
examples, selects one and inquires whether it is ‘yes’ or ‘no’ and attempt to construct
positive examples on their own.
In Reception Concept Attainment Model, the teacher presents the examples of the
concept that are labelled ‘yes’ or ‘no’ in a pre-arranged order. The students attain the
concept with the help of positive examples. Reception strategies are most often required
for concept attainment-both within the classroom and in everyday learning opportunities.
A simplified syntax in two forms of concept attainment strategy, i.e. selection and
reception oriented strategy is given in table :•
Table: 2.2
Steps of Strategies of Concept Attainment Model
Selection Concept Attainment Model Reception Concept Attainment Model
1 Presenting unlabelled examples. 1 Presenting labelled examples.
2 Inquiring positive and negative 2 Comparing attributes in given examples
examples.
3 Generating, telling and testing 3 Generating, telling and testing
hypotheses. hypotheses.
4 Identifying additional unlabelled 4 Identifying unlabelled examples.
examples.
S Generating more examples. 5 Confirm hypotheses, naming concept
and restating definition according to
attributes.
6 Confirm hypotheses, naming concept 6 Generating more examples.
and restating definition according to
attributes.
7 Describing thoughts (Reasoning). 7 Giving reasons for identification.
8 Describing attributes and hypotheses. 8 Describing attributes and hypotheses.
9 Discussing (Categorizing) type and 9 Discussing (Categorizing) type and
number of hypotheses. number of hypotheses.

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 In Unorganized Materials Model of Concept Attainment, learners attain concepts
from unarranged materials.
As the present study aims to investigate the effectiveness of concept attainment
model under reception conditions therefore, the Reception Model of Concept Attainment
shall be taken up in detail.
2.2.4 Assumptions of the ModelThe CAM is developed on the basis of following
assumptions
i) Means of acquiring any concept is essentially the same in all cultures.
ii) The thought process of categorisation, concept formation and concept attainment
is the same for individuals in different cultures.
iii) The complexity of the environment can be reduced by engaging in the process of
categorisation.

2.2.5 Elements of CAM

The out line of CAM can be explained with the help of fundamental elements in

the following manner,

i) Focus or Goal
The main focus of this model is to facilitate the type of learning referred to as
conceptual learning among the learner in contrast with the rote learning of factual
information. Therefore in addition to helping the students in the attainment of a particular
concept, the model also enables them to become aware of the process of
conceptualisation.

Ii) Syntax
The Syntax of this model is comprised of three phases. The syntax of this model
is outlined in the Table 2.3.

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 Table: 2.3
Syntax of the Concept Attainment Model (CAM)
Phase One: Phase Two:
Presentation of Data and Identification Testing Attainment of the Concept
of Concept
Teacher present labeled examples. Students Students identify additional unlabelled
compare attributes in positive and negative examples as yes or no.
examples
Students generate and test hypotheses. Teacher confirms hypotheses, names
concept, and restates definitions according
to essential attributes.
Students state a definition according to the Students generate examples.
essential attributes.
Phase Three:
Analysis of Thinking Strategies
Students describe thoughts.
Students discuss role of hypotheses and attributes.
Students discuss type and number of hypotheses.

Phase First: Presentation of Data and Identification of Concept

This phase involves presenting data to the learner. Each unit of data is a separate
example or non-example of the concept. The data may be events, objects, people, stories,
pictures or any other discriminable unit. The learners are informed that there is one idea,
which all the positive examples have common and their task is to develop a hypothesis
about the concept. The teachers presents labelled ‘yes’ or ‘no’ instances from simple to
more difficult in a pre-arranged sequence. They are asked to compare and justify the
attributes of different examples. Finally they are asked to name their concepts and state
the rule or definitions of the concepts according to their essential attributes.
Phase Second: Testing Attainment of the Concept
In this phase the students are presented unlabelled examples and are asked to
identify those examples that are the correct examples of the concept. The students are
also required to generate their own example and thereby confirm or reject their
hypothesis about the concept.

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Phase Third: Analysis of Thinking Strategies
In this phase students begin to analyse the strategies by which they have attained
the concepts. In this phase the learners can describe their patterns; whether they focused
on concepts, whether they did so, one at a time or several at once and what happened
when their hypotheses were not confirmed? Did they change their strategies? Gradually,
they can compare the effectiveness of different strategies. In this way in this phase,
thinking processes of learners are analysed and discussed.
iii) Social System
Prior to teaching with this model, the teacher chooses the concept, selects and
organizes the material into positive and negative examples and sequences the examples.
The teacher gives the clues to name the concept, he/she further prompts the learners to
generate the suitable examples and finally he/she directs students to define the concept.
The teacher’s function is to provide data to direct students and guide them in attaining the
concept The learner actively participate. The climate of the class is generally warm,
competitive and friendly.
iv) Principles of Reaction
In this model, the role of teacher is very supportive and cooperative to the
students. The teacher helps the students to test their formulated hypotheses. Students
discuss and evaluate their thinking strategies with proper assistance & support of the
teacher.
v) Support System
Concept attainment lessons require specially designed material with positive and
negative examples of the concepts. As in this model, the students have to attain those
concepts which have previously been selected by the teacher, therefore the data sources
are essential to be known before hands. When students are presented with an example,
they describe its characteristics, which can they be recorded in a column on a blackboard
or tagboard.
vi) Application of the Model
Because of its “great flexibility” observe Bruce Joyce and Marsha Weil, “The
Concept Attainment Model can be adopted to the entire curriculum in the different
disciplines”. This model is applicable to students of all ages & grade levels. This model

40
can also be used by the teacher as an evaluation tool to determine the mastery of already
introduced important ideas. This is also useful in opening a new conceptual area by
initiating a sequence of individual or group inquires,
vii) Instructional & Nurturant Effect
The CAM is designed for providing instructional effects on specific concepts,
nature of concepts & inculcation of inductive reasoning. The nurturant effects of CAM
are (i) awareness of alternative perspectives (ii) a sensitivity to logical reasoning in
communication & (iii) a tolerance of ambiguity. The instructional & nurturant effects of
CAM can diagrammatically be represented in the following manner:-

Fig. 23: Instructional & Nurturant Effects: Concept Attainment Model

23.0 INQUIRY TRAINING MODEL (ITM): AN INTRODUCTION

Whenever we are engaged in the process of finding out or investigating through
questions we are involved in the process of inquiry. This process of inquiry was studied
by J.Richard Suchman (1962) and a model called Inquiry Training Model (ITM) was
designed to develop scientific inquiry training skills in the learners. He created this model
to help students learn to organize data, examine facts, reason about (muse and effect,
build and test theories and become independent learners. This model also promotes

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proficiency in verbal expressions, tolerance of ambiguity, persistence, logical thinking
and the like.
2.3.1 Assumptions of the Model The ITM is developed on the following
assumptions:
1 All knowledge is tentative and disconfirmed. Scholars constantly generate
theories and explanations. Years after, these are pushed aside by new theories and
explanations.
2 There are no important answers. Most problems may have several equally
plausible explanations.
3 Human being are curious and hence inquire naturally when they are puzzled.
4 Children learn better when they actively participate in an independent inquiry.
5 Team approach is better than the individual approach to find solutions to a
problem.
6 The process of inquiry can be taught to students.
Thus Suchman was interested in helping students inquire independently, but in a
disciplined way. Some features of inquiry learning are presented in figure:

Fig. 2.4 : Features of Inquiry Learning

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 The defining feature of inquiry oriented instruction is that students are not told
explicitly the conceptual or meta-cognitive information that comprises objectives for
instruction, rather the teacher creates an intellectual and social environment within which
students explore to discover both, the essentials of subject matter and the cognitive
strategies that are useful in those explorations. The principle underlying this orientation is
that, by personally constructing plan to identify and acquire knowledge, the subject
matter will be inherently comprehensible, task will be intrinsically motivating and meta-
cognitive knowledge will be developed naturally. Through the same process of
exploration the students come to interpret process for learning as development
successively building on an refining earlier methods for learning.
23.2 Overview of the Inquiry Training Model (ITM)
In Inquiry Training Model, the students are presented with a puzzling situation.
This may be presented in the form of an episode, experiment, story etc. In what-so-ever
form it is presented, it must show a discrepancy leading to puzzle. After the presentation
of a puzzling situation, the students are encouraged to ask questions. These questions
have to be so worked that they have only ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer. The teacher only responds
the questions of students in ‘yes’ or ‘no’ but does not explain the phenomenon to
students. Whenever a question cannot be replied as ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response, the teacher
asks the student to rephrase the question so as to further their own attempts to collect data
and related them to the problem situation.
As the students become aware of the properties of the data, they form hypotheses
which guide them in further inquiry. Finally, the students try to develop a probable theory
that fully explains what happened. In other words, they reach to the final explanation.
The main emphasis in this model is to master the inquiry process and not the content or
explanation of any particular problem situation.
233 Essentials of Inquiry Training Model
There are certain essential conditions that are required during the process of
inquiry. The teacher needs to take note of these
1 Students need freedom to interact in the inquiry process. Suchman has talked of
two types of freedom - external and internal. External freedom means physical
freedom to reach out for the desired data and information on the other hands,
internal freedom is something that follows as a consequence.

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2 Students needs some kind of problem or stimulus. They prefer those problems
which are discrepant to their conceptual system. In order to solve these problems
they pursue causal relationships, collect data, which are intrinsically rewarding,
builds self-confidence, encourages creative intuitiveness and strengthens
cognitive skills.
3 Students’ need to have a rich environment where they get a feeling of procuring
something. It is the motivation which maintains the interest of the students during
the inquiry process.
2.3.4 Rules/Procedure for an Inquiry Session
It is essential that to make the students more autonomous learners the teacher
should creates such a climate in the classroom that aids inquiry. To facilitate this climate
Suchman provided the following rules for conducting the inquiry session smoothly :-
Rule 1 : Close-ended Questions The questions asked by the students should be
phrased in such a way that they can be answered with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response only. This
shifts the burden of thinking on the students.
Rule 2 : Freedom to ask questions Full freedom should be given to students to ask as
many questions as desired once they begin. This encourages the student to use his/her
previous questions to formulate new ones to pursue a reasonable theory.
Rule 3 : No response of the teacher towards approval of a theory :- The teacher
should not answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to statements regarding theories or to questions that
attempt to obtain the teacher’s approval of a theory. The teacher should simply record the
theory of the students or ask a question about the student’s theory.
Rule 4 : Testing of theories Students should be allowed to test their theories at any
time.
Rule 5: Team approach :- Students should be encouraged to work in team and to call a
conference in order to confer and discuss their theories without the teacher’s presence.
Rule 6 : Experimenting The teacher should provide experimental kits, resource
materials, text, reference books etc. to the inquirers so that the students can explore their
ideas. This will help them in developing sophisticated explanations.
The outline of the Inquiry Training Model can be explained with the help of
fundamental elements one by one in the following manner.

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23.5 Elements of the ITM
The out line of ITM can be explained with the help of fundamental elements in
the following manner
i) Focus or Goal
This model primarily aims to foster a disciplined approach to questioning. Here,
the questions are not posed merely for the sake of questioning, rather they are meaningful
probes which help the learners to develop cognitive skill to inquire and process
information / data, develop ability to understand logic and cause-effect relationship and
ultimately to form complex concepts through it. Therefore, the focus of the model is to
help the students inquire independently, but in a disciplined way.
ii) Syntax
The ITM is implemented through various phases as shown in Table 2.4,
Table: 2.4
Syntax of the Inquiry Training Model (ITM)
Phase One : Confrontation with the Phase Two: Data Gathering Verification
Problem
Explain Inquiry procedures. Verify the nature of objects and conditions.
Present discrepant events. Verify the occurrence of the problem
situation.
Phase Three : Data Gathering Phase Four : Organizing, Formulating
Experimentation an Explanation
Isolate relevant variables Hypothesize and Formulate rules or explanations
testing causal relationships
Phase Five : Analysis of the Inquiry
Process
Analyze inquiry strategy and develop more
effective ones.

Phase FirstConfrontation with the Problem

In this phase, the teacher firstly explains the inquiry procedures to the students
and then presents a problem situation / the puzzling situation. The inquiry starts with

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simple questions leading to yes or no type of answers. The presentation of a puzzling
situation or discrepant event needs preparation. While preparing a problem or an event
the following points must be kept in mind
i) The event must pose a problem to the students.
ii) The problem must match the background of the learners.
iii) The problem should enhance curiosity and motivation of the students.
iv) The event should focus on a particular problem.
Phase Second: Data Gathering-Verification ;-
Hem students gather information about the problem situation and verifies (i) the
nature and identify the objects, events, properties and conditions related to the problems,
(ii) the occurrence of the problematic situation.
Phase ThirdData Gathering-Experimentation :-
In this phase, students introduce new elements of experimentation in to the
situation to see if the events happen differently. Ibis phase has two functions :
exploration and direct testing. Exploration means changing things just to see what will
happen ? It is a random process and is not guided by a theory. Direct testing occurs when
ideas are collected, hypothesis is formulated, experiment is designed and ideas are tested
to arrive at a set of causal relationships. Many similar testings are required to conclude
one theory.
Phase Fourth:- Organizing and Formulating an Explanation :-
In this phase students formulate explanations of the problem or puzzling situation
as best, as they can, on the basis of the data gathered through verification and
experimentation. Different students may extend different explanations of the same event
or phenonmenon. Together the group can shape the explanation that fully responds to the
problem.
Phase Fifth :- Analysis of Inquiry Process :-
In this phase the students analyse their pattern of inquiry working together with
their teachers. They may determine the type of questions that were most effective and
those that were not or the type of information they needed and did not obtain. This phase
provides suggestions to make the inquiry process more effective and productive.

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iii) The Social System
As this model is based on the assumption that team approach is better than the
individual approach, therefore, the social system in this model is of a co-operative and
participatory nature. In the beginning stage, the teacher structures the pattern of inquiry
and guide the learners to conduct it. Later on after one or two such inquiry sessions the
teacher encourages the students to initiate inquiry independently and when the students
learn the principles of inquiry, the learning system become more open. The role of the
teacher in this model is to select the problem situation, to referee the inquiry according to
inquiry procedures, to responds to students’ inquiry probes with the necessary
informations, to help beginning inquiries, establish a focus in their inquiry and to
facilitate discussion of the problem situation among the students.
As the students learns the principles of inquiry, the structure can be relaxed so
that in their pursuit of the explanation for a problem situation, they can alternate, in an
open environment and time frame, between resource material, dialogue with other
students, experimentation and discussion with the teacher. Thus in this model there is a
gradual transition from teacher-structured inquiry session to student-controlled inquiry
session.
iv) Principles of Reaction
In this model, the teacher has an active role in the planning and presentation of the
problem. After the presentation of the problem the teacher must motivate the students so
that they can become inquisitive to know more about the puzzling situation. During the
second phase the teacher’s task is to help the students to inquire but not to do the inquiry
for them. He or she must ask the students to rephrase the questions if they can not be
answered by a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response so as to further their own attempts to collect data
and relate them to the problem situation. During the last phase, the teacher’s task is to
analyse the inquiry process on the whole..
v) Support System
A set of confronting materials, a well trained teacher who understands the
intellectual processes and strategy of inquiry and resource materials related to the
problem in the form of books, films, posters etc. would serve as support material in this
model.

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vi) Application of the Model
Although ITM was originally developed for the natural science yet its procedures
are usable in all subject areas, to teach any topic in which a discrepant event can be
presented to the students to initiate the inquiry process. This model can be used with
learners of all age groups by making suitable adaptation in the model,
viii) Instructional and Nurturant Effects
This model promotes strategies of inquiry and the values and attitudes that are
essential to an inquiring mind, including : Process Skill (observing, collecting and
organizing data, identifying and controlling variables, formulating and testing hypotheses
and explanations, inferring), active autonomous learning, verbal expressiveness, tolerance
of ambiguity, persistence and logical thinking etc. The chief learning outcomes of inquiry
training are the process involved-observing, collecting and organize data, making and
testing hypotheses formulating explanation and drawing conclusions. The model
splendidly integrates these several process skills into a single, meaningful unit of
experience.
The instructional or direct effect of this model is considered with the development
of creative ideas, thinking and ability to find out the fact independently. Indirectly or
nurturant effect lies on assistance in enhancing the power observation and inferencing.

Fig.: Instructional & Nurturant Effects: Inquiry Training Model

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