Chemistry GCSE Paper 1 Notes 2019

Principles of Chemistry
A) States of Matter
1.1
Solid – low energy particles packed closely together, due to strong intermolecular forces, in
a regular formation, vibrating in place. Cannot be compressed or poured.
Liquid - particles can slide over each other but remain in contact. Cannot be compressed,
can be poured, fluid, can flow and fill the bottom of a container
Gas – weak forces between high energy particles so they move randomly in straight lines
until they bounce off a wall or each other. Can be poured and compressed and change
shape and volume in order to fill a container
1.2
Solid  Liquid = melting, heating to melting point, gains energy so forces between
particles are overcome
Liquid  Gas = evaporation, heating to boiling point, gains energy so forces between
particles are overcome;
Gas  Liquid = condensation, cooling to boiling point, loses energy so forces are created
between particles
Liquid  Solid = freezing, cooling to freezing point, loses energy so forces are created
between particles
Solid  Gas = sublimation,
1.3
1.4
Solvent = liquid in which solute is dissolved to form a solution
Solute = solid which is dissolved in solvent to form a solution
Solution = homogenous mixture formed from a solute in a solvent
Saturated solution = a solution in which no more solute can be dissolved
1.5/1.6
Solubility – grams of solute / 100ml of solvent
- ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent
- solubility increases as temperature increases, as represented on ea solubility curve (temp on x,
solubility on y)

B) Elements, Compounds and Mixtures

1.8
Element = pure, simplest version of a substance, containing only one element (eg H2)
Compound = pure, two or more different elements chemically bonded together (eg H2O)
Mixture = two or more elements not chemically bonded together so can be separated
physically (eg salt water)

1.9
Elements + compounds = pure, so have a fixed melting and boiling point (eg water is exactly
100C)
Mixtures = not pure so can melt or boil over a range of temperatures (eg salt water has a
lower boiling point than pure water)
1.10
Simple Distillation; separation of one liquid from a solution where the liquids have vastly
different boiling points; solution is heated until the liquid with the lower boiling point
evaporates – this can then be condensed to form the liquid
Fractional Distillation; separation of multiple liquids with similar boiling points; liquid is
heated until the liquid with the lowest boiling point evaporates and can be tapped off for
condensation, this repeats as the temperature is increased, with the lowest boiling point solution
evaporating and condensing ad infinitum
Filtration; purification of insoluble solids from a liquid; mixture is run through filter paper
leaving a residue of insoluble solid
Crystallisation; removal of soluble solid from a solution; solution is heated in an evaporating
dish until it reaches the point of crystallisation when it should be left to cool and for the rest of
the water to evaporate off
Paper Chromatography; paper with a pencil line drawn across is partially dipped into a solvent
so that the pencil line is above the water. The pencil line has an array of ink dots on it. The
solvent will move up the paper as it is absorbed, carrying the inks with it until it reaches the
solvent front, when the paper stops absorbing it.
1.11
The substances within the ink will move up the paper at different rates, according to their
solubility. Their Rf points can be compared against known Rf values to determine which
substances the ink contains.
1.12
Rf point = distance moved by solute / distance moved by solvent

C) Atomic Structure
1.14
Atom = a single particle of an element
Molecule = atoms chemically bonded together (eg via sharing of electrons)
1.15
Atom contains a nucleus, containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by shells of
electrons (containing 2,8,8,2 electrons in the first four shells)
Proton; 1, +1
Neutron; 1, no charge,
Electron; 1/1840, -1
1.16
Atomic number; number of protons (determines which element a substance is)
Mass number; number of protons + neutrons
Isotopes; two (or more) versions of an element where they have the same proton number but
different mass numbers
Relative Atomic Mass (Ar); the approximate accurate mass number of an element with
regards to the differing isotopic abundances, as isotopes will have different mass numbers
1.17
Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) = ((mass I x abundance) + (mass II x abundance)) / sum of
abundances

D) The Periodic Table

1.18
Atomic number increases horizontally
Group number increases horizontally (‘down the group’)
Period number increases vertically (‘across the period’)
1.19
Group number is equal to how many electrons are in the outer shell
1.20
Non-metals are generally not conductive (except for graphite), but metals can be
Non-metal oxides are acidic, metal oxides are alkaline
1.21
Every element to the right of B, Si, As, Te, At (inclusive) is a non-metal
1.22
Add up 2,8,8,2 until one reaches the atomic number of the element to figure out how many full
shells there are and how many electrons in the outer shell
1.23
Elements in the same group all have the same number of electrons in their outer shells, so
are equally reactive (eg one electron in the outer shell = all likely to have the electron pulled
away and become ionised)
1.24
Noble gases (Group 0) have no free electrons so have nothing which other substances can
react with

E) Chemical Formulae, Equations and Calculations

1.26
Relative formula mass of a compound = sum of relative atomic masses of each atom
1.28
Mass = Mr x moles
 mol x (6x10^23) = number of particles
 grams of a mole of a substance = 1 x Mr of substance
 Mr of compounds = Mrs of each element added together (small numbers only, big numbers
refer to ratio of substances in an equation)
1.30
Yield = (amount received / amount calculated w Mass = Mrmol) x 100
1.31
1.32
Empirical formula; simplest whole number ratio of elements present in a compound eg CH2O
Molecular formula; actual number formula of elements in a compound eg C6H12O6
1.34
Concentration = mol / volume (dm^3)
1.35
- one mole of gas occupies 24 dm^3 of space
- volume (dm^3) = moles of gas x 24
- dm^3  cm^3 = x1000

F) Ionic Bonding
1.37
Ions are formed from the loss or gain of electrons i.e when there are unequal numbers of
electrons to protons
1.38
Group 1 = +1 Group 2 = +2 Group 3 = +3 Group 5 = -3 Group 6 = -2 Group 7 = -1
Ag = 2+ Cu = 2+ Fe = 2+, 3+ Pb = 2+ Zn = 2+
Hydrogen = H+ Hydroxide = OH- Ammonium = NH4 +
Carbonate = CO3 2- Nitrate = NO3 2- Sulphate = SO4 2-
1.40/1.41
Ionic bonding; giant ionic lattice; metal + non-metal bonded together via electron transfer
so all have full shells and become ionic – Na + Cl  Na+Cl-  Na transferred its single
outer shell electron to Cl so Na becomes positively charged (one more proton than
electrons), so that Cl, which has 7 outer shell electrons, becomes negatively charged (one more
electron than protons) and both have full outer shells  electrostatic forces of attraction
between cations and anions in a regular repeating lattice pattern

1.42
Giant ionic lattices have high melting points and high boiling points because they have
strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged ions, which require
lots of energy to break
1.43
Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity when solid but do when molten or aqueous, as
conduction requires free moving charged particles, and the ions only become free when
liquid

G) Covalent bonding
1.44
Covalent bonding; non-metal + non-metal, giant or simple molecular, sharing of electrons
so all elements have full outer shells
3 H bond to 1 N by sharing their electrons, such that each H has 2 outer shell electrons, and
the N has 8 outer shell electrons
1.45
There are electrostatic forces of attraction between the positive nuclei and the electrons of
both itself and of the other molecules, so the nuclei are attracted to the other electrons and
‘pull’ the two molecules together
1.47
Simple molecular structures are held together by weak intermolecular forces of attraction,
which require little energy to break  the molecules themselves are held together by
strong covalent bonds, but the molecules are bonded to other molecules with weak forces
of attraction, which do easily break but the covalent bonds inside molecules won’t be broken
1.48
There are more bonds present in larger substances (with a higher relative Mr) so more
bonds need to be overcome for the substance to melt, even though the bonds are weak, so the
melting point increases as the substance gets larger
1.49
Giant covalent lattices have high melting points because they are held together with strong
covalent bonds, which require lots of energy to break
1.50
Diamond – each C is covalently bonded to four other C atoms, in a lattice structure; the
strong covalent bonds (due to having no free electrons or ions) and the rigid regular
structure make diamond very hard and have a high melting point
Graphite – each C is covalently bonded to three other C atoms, to form hexagonal rings
which join to form layers. The layers are not covalently bonded to each other and instead
only have intermolecular forces of attraction holding them together, enabling them to ‘slide’
over each other, so graphite is very soft. Between the layers there is a sea of delocalised
electrons (each atom has one unbonded electron, as they are only bonded to three C atoms,
not 4, so the electrons collect between layers) – because there are charged particles (electrons)
which are free to move (unbonded), graphite does conduct electricity
C60 fullerene (buckminsterfullerene) – 60 C atoms covalently bonded together into a sphere,
these molecules are very hard because covalent bonds are strong, but the forces of
attraction between molecules of Buckminsterfullerene are very weak, so it is ‘slippery’ – it
has delocalised electrons but they aren’t free to move so it is a poor conductor
1.51
Covalent bonds can’t conduct electricity because they do not have overall charge, as ions are
not formed (all elements have full outer shells by necessity to be covalently bonded)

(H) Metallic Bonding

1.52/1.53
Metallic lattice
- giant structure, with electrostatic attraction between
cations and delocalised electrons
- bonded cations surrounded by a sea of delocalised
electrons
1.54
- delocalised electrons (free to move) so god conductor, as
charge can flow
- heat can easily and quickly be transferred due to free
electrons
- very malleable, as layers of ions can slide over each other

(I) Electrolysis
1.55
Covalent compounds don’t have free ions to conduct electricity
1.56
Ionic compounds can be electrolysed but only when aqueous or molten, when the ions are free
to move
1.58
Electrolysis – breaking down of a substance using electricity
- Ionic solid is dissolved or melted, ions can move freely
- Inert (unreactive, graphite or platinum) electrodes are placed into the solution, with a
current flowing through them (cathode = negative, anode = positive)
- Cations move towards the cathode, anions move towards the anode
- At the electrode the ion will become neutral via the transfer of electrons, either gain
or loss eg cathode is negative (has extra electrons) so transfers some to the cation in
order to neutralise the ion
- IN MOLTEN; the neutralised atom will be produced from the electrode eg lead
bromide will form lead and bromine at the electrodes
- IN AQUEOUS;
o AT CATHODE
  If metal more reactive than hydrogen, hydrogen produced
 If metal less reactive than hydrogen, layer of metal produced
o AT ANODE
 If halide present, halogen will form
 If no halide present, oxygen will form
1.59
Half equations
- At cathode; metal ion + e-  metal (reduction, gain of electrons)
- At anode; metal ion  metal + e- (oxidation, loss of electrons)
- Must be balanced eg remember if diatomic, two metal ions and two electrons needed
to balance (2Cl + 2e-  Cl2)
- 2H+ + 2e-  H2
- 4OH-  O2 + 2H2O + 4e-

Inorganic
A) Group 1 – alkali metals
Lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, francium
2.1
Form metal hydroxides when reacted with water, which are alkaline
Produce hydrogen (so fizzing can be seen)
Form metal oxides when reacted with air
2.2
Reactivity increases down the group – Li is least reactive, Fr is most reactive; eg some will
tarnish in air when cut, so must be stored in oil whilst the less reactive ones won’t
- can test reactivity by timing how long a similarly sized lump of each takes to disappear in
water or for it to tarnish (form its metal oxide) in air
2.3
Reactivity increases down the group, so below K, the reactions in air and water are more
violent
2.4
- All elements in Group 1 have 1 outer shell
- down the group the number of shells increases, with one electron in that outer shell
- the further away the outer shell is from the nucleus, the weaker the attraction between the
electrons and the nucleus
- therefore in larger elements electrons react easily (are more reactive) as less energy is needed to
overcome that attraction
 B) Group 7 – halogens
Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine
2.5
State and colour at rtp
Fluorine (F) – pale yellow gas
Chlorine (Cl) – pale green gas
Bromine (Br) – dark red liquid (easily sublimes)
Iodine (I) – dark grey solid, sublimes easily to lilac gas
2.6
Melting point increases down the group (F has lowest melting point, I has highest melting
point), reactivity increases up the group (F most reactive, I least reactive)
2.7
In displacement reactions, the less reactive element will be displaced from its compound if
there is a solo element present which is more reactive than it, so performing a displacement
reaction on halogen will prove its reactivity eg reacting Br in air will result in BrO2 forming, so
Br is reactive
2.8
- all group 7 elements need to gain one electron to become stable
- down group 7 the elements are larger, with more shells, so the attraction is weakened between
the outermost electrons and the nucleus
- therefore, it is harder for the larger elements to react and gain that extra electron due to weaker
attraction

C) Gases in the atmosphere

2.9
Nitrogen gas (N2) – 78%
Oxygen gas (O2) – 21%
Argon, CO2, water vapour etc - ~1%
2.10
2.11
Magnesium + oxygen  magnesium oxide (basic), reacts with a bright white flame
2Mg + O2  2MgO
Hydrogen + oxygen  water, can be explosive with an orange flame
2H2 + O2  2H2O
Sulphur + oxygen  sulphur dioxide (acidic), reacts with a weak blue flame
S + O2  SO2
2.12
CuCO3  CuO + CO2
2.13
CO2 is a greenhouse gas, so as its quantity increases in the atmosphere it contributes to climate
change  radiation is trapped by it or is radiated back onto the Earth rather than being able to
pass through it and radiate into space

(D) Reactivity Series

Acid + metal  salt + hydrogen
Metal + water  metal hydroxide + hydrogen
Metal + steam  metal oxide + hydrogen
2.16
More reactive displaces less reactive (redox or displacement reaction)
I.e. metal I oxide + more reactive metal II  metal II oxide + metal I
Metal I salt + less reactive metal II  no change
2.17
Most reactive to least
K, Na, Li, Ca, Mg, Al, C, Zn, Fe, Cu, Ag, Au
2.18
Rust – damp, in the presence of oxygen
2.19
Barrier method – coating with substances to prevent contact with water and/or oxygen eg
plastic, oil
Sacrificial – covering of a more reactive metal, which will degrade first to protect the iron as it
reacts with the oxygen or water e.g. large blocks of zinc are bolted to ship hulls
Galvanising – form of sacrificial, in which a thin coating of zinc is sprayed across the iron
2.20
Oxidation – gain of oxygen, loss of electrons
Reduction – loss of oxygen, gain of electrons
Reducing agent – reduces the metal, is oxidised
Oxidising agent – oxidises the metal, is reduced
(E) Extraction of Metals
2.22
Most metals are found in ores (reaction with oxygen) due to being reactive except for extremely
unreactive metals such as gold and silver which are more commonly found native
2.23
Pure metals can be extracted from their oxides by performing a displacement with oxygen – if
they are less reactive than oxygen than you will be left with the pure metal and oxygen
- ZnO + O2  Zn + O2
Anything more reactive than carbon can only be extracted via electrolysis as they cannot be
displaced
2.25
Aluminium – car/engine parts, electrical appliances, lightweight, strong
Copper – electrical wires, coins, high tensile strength, ductile, conductive, unreactive to water
and electricity, cheaper than gold or platinum
Iron – construction, tools, cheap, strong
Mild steel – car bodies, reinforced concrete, strong, malleable
High-carbon steel – drill bits, very hard, can withstand high temperatures
Stainless steel – cutlery, watch straps, surgical tools, antimicrobial, unreactive to water
2.26
Alloy – mixture of a metal and another metal or carbon
2.27
Alloys
- make metals harder, less malleable, stronger
- in a pure metal, all the particles are the same shape and size, so when force is applied, they
easily slide over each other (easily scratched, break easily)
- in an alloy, the particles of each element are different shapes and sizes, disrupting the structure
such that when force is applied they cannot slide over each other and remain in place

(F) Acids, Alkalis and Titrations

2.28
Litmus – red in acidic, blue in alkaline
Phenolphthalein – colourless in acidic, pink in alkaline
Methyl orange – red in acidic, yellow in alkaline
2.29/2.30
UI
- 0 – 3, red
- 4-6, orange
- 8-10, blue
-11-14, purple
2.31
In aqueous solution; acids are a source of H+, alkalis are a source of OH-

(G) Acids, Bases and Salt Preparations

Solubility rules
Soluble
- Na, K, NH4 compounds
- NO3 compounds
- Cl, except Ag and Pb
- SO3, except Ba, Ca and Pb
Insoluble
- CO3 except Na, K, NH4
- OH except Na, K, NH4
2.35/2.36
Acids are proton donor, bases are proton acceptor
2.37
Acid + metal oxide  salt + water
Acid + metal hydroxide  salt + water
Acid + metal carbonate  salt + water + carbon dioxide
Acid + base  salt + water
2.39
Acid + insoluble base  soluble salt
Sulfuric acid + copper oxide  copper sulfate + water
2.40
Acid + alkali (exact volumes found via titration)  soluble salt + water
2.41
Precipitation
Soluble + soluble  insoluble salt + soluble solute
Lead nitrate + magnesium sulfate  lead sulfate + magnesium nitrate

(H) Chemical Tests

2.44
Hydrogen: Lit split  squeaky pop
Oxygen: glowing splint  relight
Carbon dioxide: bubble through limewater  limewater turns cloudy
Ammonia: add carbon hydroxide and heat, LM paper turns blue
Chlorine: add magnesium oxide and heat, blue LM paper turns red then bleaches
2.46
Li+ - red
Na+ - yellow
K+ - lilac
Ca2+ - orange red
Cu2+ - blue green
2.47
Addition of NaOH:
NH4+ - ammonia forms, pungent smell
Cu2+ - blue
Fe2+ - green
Fe3+ - brown red
2.48
Addition of nitric acid and silver nitrate (precipitates):
Cl- - white
I- - creamy
Br- - yellow
Addition of barium chloride and hydrochloric acid:
SO42- - white, misty precipitate
Addition of hydrochloric acid (test for carbonates):
CO32- - CO2 released
2.49
Anhydrous copper sulphate turns blue in the presence of water

Physical
A) Energetics
3.1
Exothermic – energy released, substance loses energy (energy decreases), surroundings gain
energy (energy increases), -dH, reactants’ J > products’ J eg test tube heating up
Endothermic – energy taken in from surroundings, substance gains energy (energy
increases), surroundings lose energy (energy decreases), +dH, reactants’ J < products’ J eg
substance rapidly cooling
3.2
Displacement – Add a known volume of CuSO4 (aq) to a well-insulated container (a
polystyrene cup) and measure its starting temperature. Add a known excess (>1g) of Zn
powder (s) and stir together. Note the highest temperature reached and calculate temperature
change – will result in a negative dH
Neutralisation – Add a known volume of citric acid (aq) to a well-insulated container and
measure its starting temperature. Add a known excess (>10g) of NaHCO3 (s) and stir
together, Note the lowest temperature reached and calculate temperature change – will result
in a positive dH
Combustion – Measure a known volume of water and transfer to a copper calorimeter ( not
insulated so releases energy easily) and record the initial temperature. Weigh a spirit lamp,
containing a known alcohol, and light below the copper calorimeter of water. Wait for the
water’s temperature to rise by 30C then extinguish the spirit lamp and immediately weigh.
Record highest temperature reached by the water and calculate temperature change.
Calculate change in mass of spirit lamp
3.3
Heat energy change (kJ) = mass (g) x specific heat capacity x temperature change (J)
Q = mcT
Q = m x 4.2 (or 4.18) x T
 mass used is of the solution (normally)
3.4
Enthalpy change = heat energy change / moles
dH (kJ / mol) = Q (kJ) / moles
Moles used are whatever was NOT in excess, as that is the substance which affects the
reaction
Remember to always include a + or – sign to indicate if the enthalpy change is positive or
negative
3.5
Exothermic - - dH, energy released

Endothermic - +dH, energy absorbed

3.6
Bond-making – exothermic, releases energy
Bond-breaking – endothermic, requires energy, energy absorbed
3.7
dH = total energy absorbed to break bonds – total energy released to make bonds
+dH = endothermic (more energy absorbed than released)
-dH = exothermic (more energy released than absorbed)

B) Rates of Reaction
In order to react, particles must collide with energy greater than or equal to
activation energy
3.9
- Marble chips + hydrochloric acid – change in SA and conc. Of acid
CO2, CaCl and H2O produced
Slower: with large chips
Faster: with high concentration acid
Experiment: in a conical flask with cotton wool bung (to avoid spitting, so no acid is lost, only
gas), add marble chips and acid together, either changing the size of the chips or the
concentration of the acid. Measure decrease in mass as gas is produced and lost OR
measure volume of gas produced with a tap funnel and gas syringe, or water trough and
measuring cylinder
- Catalytic Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide – using a manganese dioxide catalyst
Decomposes to H2O and O2
Slower: without catalyst
Faster: at a higher temperature
Experiment: in a tap funnel, H2O2 added slowly to catalyst and gas collected via tube into
measuring cylinder in water trough. Measure volume of gas produced in a known time
Disappearing cross – sodium thiosulfate + hydrochloric acid, change in temperature
Faster: at higher temperatures
Experiment: Warm the sodium thiosulfate to a known temperature then add to the acid in
a conical flask. Record initial temperature and swirl over a black cross drawn on paper. Time
how long it takes for the black cross to ‘disappear’ (ie cannot be seen when viewed form
above because the reaction has made the liquid opaque). Repeat at different temperatures.
NB steepness of a graph relates to the rate (steeper = faster rate) whilst height the graph
reaches relates to the quantity of the reactants (higher = more reactants)

3.10/3.11/3.12/3.13
Changing Rate of Reaction:
Temperature
- Particles have more energy – frequency of collisions increases, and more of those
collisions will have E > Ea
- Twofold increase in rate
Pressure (in gas) or concentration (in solutions)
- More particles in the same area/volume – frequency of collisions increases
Surface area
- More particles exposed to the reactant so frequency of collisions increases
Catalysts
- Increases rate of reaction, but it itself does not affect the reaction, is not used up.,
and remains chemically unchanged after the reaction
- Increases rate of reaction by providing an alternative pathway with a lower
activation energy for the reaction to take place, so the substance requires less
 energy to reach activation energy – more collisions will have sufficient energy
(above Ea) so more collisions will be successful
3.14
Catalysts lower activation energy needed

C) Reversible Reactions and Equilibria

3.17
Some reactions are reversible ie the reaction can take place in either direction and go from
reactants to products and vice versa
3.18
Ammonium chloride (white solid)  ammonia + hydrogen chloride
Hydrated copper sulphate (blue)  dehydrated copper sulphate (white)
3.19/3.20
Reversible reactions can reach dynamic equilibrium in a sealed container
- dynamic = reactions constantly occurring at the same rate
- equilibrium = concentration of reactants to products is constant, so the overall
difference made by the dynamic reactions is nil (forward and backwards reactions cancel)
3.21
Catalysts will speed up both the forwards and backwards reactions so the equilibrium is
maintained
3.22
Temperature;
- increase in temperature = shift in poe to favour the endothermic reaction (reaction
which requires heat) ie if forwards reaction is exothermic (dH is negative), poe shifts to
the left
- reduce in temperature – shift in poe to favour the exothermic reaction (reaction which
releases heat) ie if forwards reaction is exothermic, poe shifts to right
Pressure; one side will have more moles of gas than the other (count big numbers in front of
elements and compounds)
- increase in pressure = poe shifts to side with fewer moles of gas
- decrease in pressure = poe shifts to side with more moles of gas

D) Organic Chemistry
a) Introduction
4.1
Hydrocarbon is a compound which ONLY contains hydrogen and carbon
4.2
Empirical formula – simplest whole number ratio of atoms of elements in a compound
Molecular formula – actual number of atoms of elements present in a compound
General formula – a generic formula represented algebraically to refer to all members of a
homologous series
Structural formula – denotes arrangement of atoms in a compound, presented carbon by
carbon, with each carbon followed by its own bonds
Displayed formula – shows arrangement of the atoms in a compound as a drawing, with
drawn bonds
4.3
Homologous series – group of compounds that share a general formula
Functional group – specific characteristic which determines how a compound will react
and is shared throughout a homologous series
Isomer – compounds with the same molecular formula but a different structural formula
4.4
Prefix No. of carbons
Meth- 1
Eth- 2
Prop- 3
But- 4
Pent- 5
Hex- 6
4.6
b) Crude Oil
4.7
Crude oil is a mixture (they are not chemically connected to each other) of hydrocarbons
with different carbon chain lengths which means each hydrocarbon has a different viscosity,
colour, boiling point etc. It is a non-renewable resource as it is obtained from fossilised
remains
4.8
It is necessary to separate the different fractions in crude oil, as
each has a different use, via fractional distillation, which works
because each fraction has a different boiling point.
1. The oil is heated to approximately 350C – some of the
hydrocarbons will still be liquid at this temperature so will settle
on the bottom of the fractionating column.
2. The other fractions will have boiled and become gases – as
they rise they cool down and condense into liquid once they
reach their boiling point (which is the same as the condensation
point).
3. As they cool into a liquid they will settle along the bottom of
their own level and can be siphoned off from there
4.9
Refinery Gases – domestic use, cooking, heating
Gasoline – fuel in cars
Kerosene – fuel in aircraft
Diesel – fuel in trains, lorries
Fuel Oil –fuel in ships, power stations
Bitumen – road surfacing
4.10
Refinery gases       Bitumen
Viscosity increases
Carbon chain length increases
Boiling point increases
Colour darkness increases
4.12
Complete combustion
- C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
- Products are carbon dioxide and water
Incomplete combustion, occurring without adequate oxygen
- Products are carbon monoxide and water
4.14/4.15/4.16
When crude oil fuels are burnt, they produce nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides (reaction of
sulphur impurities with oxygen, occurring at high temperatures), as the temperature in car
engines and power stations is high enough – this forms acid rain as they mix with water vapour
in the clouds, which causes waterways to become acidic and kills plants and fish
4.17/4.18
Cracking
- It is necessary to ‘crack’ long-chain hydrocarbons, which are in greater abundance,
in order to form shorter chain hydrocarbons, which have more uses
- This breaks the hydrocarbon into a shorter chain alkane and an alkene
- It is done at 600-700C, with a silica or alumina catalyst

(C) Alkanes
4.19
CnH2n+2
4.20
Saturated hydrocarbon – only containing single bonds
4.22
Alkane + halide + UV light  halo-alkane + hydrogen halide
One H atom is substituted for one halide atom, creating a halo-alkane
UV light breaks the H-C bond, enabling the halide atom to bond in its place

(D) Alkenes
4.23
Functional group is a C-C double bond
4.24
CnH2n
4.25
Unsaturated – contains double bonds
Number in name denotes position of double bond ie but-2-ene means the double bond is
between the second and third C atoms
4.27
Alkene + halide  haloalkene
Double bond is broken, allowing halide to bond to new bond creating a saturated
compound, not a hydrocarbon
Number in name refers to which C atoms now are also attached to halide atoms ie 1,2
dibromoethane means that both the first and second C atoms have bromine bonded to it
1,1 dibromoethane means that the first C atom has 2 bonded bromine atoms
4.28
When an unknown hydrocarbon is shaken with bromine water, it will not bond to an alkane
due to it being saturated (no free bonds) but it will bond to an alkene (double bond can be
broken and replaced with a bromine, forming a bromoalkane)

(E) Alcohols
4.29
Functional group is an OH bond
4.30
Prefix + number of bond at which the OH bond is present eg butan-2-ol
4.31
Oxidation of Ethanol
Complete Combustion
- C2H6O + 3O2  3H2O + 2CO2
- Incomplete will form CO instead of CO2
Microbial Oxidation
- C2H6O + 2C  C2H4O2 + H2O
- occurs when ethanol is left to stand due to inevitable reaction with oxygen in the air
Formation of Ethanoic Acid
- C2H6O  C2H4O2
- Sulfuric acid catalyst, heated with potassium dichromate
4.32/4.33
Production of Ethanol
Fermentation
- C6H12O6  2C2H6O + 2CO2
- addition of yeast, promoting anaerobic respiration to produce ethanol
- optimum temperature of 35C, so yeast don’t die
- done in an oxygen free environment to prevent oxidation (formation of ethanoic acid/vinegar)
- cannot form ethanols above 17%, as ethanol is poisonous to yeast  must be distilled to make
stronger alcohol
- does not require complex equipment or energy
- renewable, as glucose doesn’t run out
- yeast must be filtered out
Hydration of Ethene
- C2H4 + H2O  C2H6O
- 300C, phosphoric acid catalyst, 60-70atm
- not renewable as ethene comes from crude oil, which is a limited resource
- requires specialised equipment
- reversible reaction
- can make higher proof, purer alcohol

(F) Carboxylic Acids

4.34
Functional group is a O=C and an -OH bond
4.36
Carboxylic acid + metal carbonate  salt + H2O + CO2
Carboxylic acid + metal  salt + H2

(G) Esters
Functional group is a C=O and C-O bond
4.39/4.41
Alcohol + carboxylic acid  ester + H2O w/ acid catalyst
Ethanol + ethanoic acid  ethyl ethanoate
Butanol + propanoic acid  butyl propanoate

(H) Synthetic Polymers

4.44
Polymer – many bonded monomers
4.46
Monomer  repeat unit of polymer
- Remove double bond and place brackets around it, with bonds carrying on through the
brackets
- Only ever two C atoms in the horizontal part of the repeat unit, the others will be
bonded up or down but not across
Polymer  monomer
- Add double bond between C atoms and transfer all other C atoms onto the horizontal
4.47
- non biodegradable, as they are inert due to strength of the C-C bond so cannot be broken
down by bacteria or other processes
- cannot be burnt, as can release toxic gases
4.48
Condensation Polymers
Dicarboxylic acid + diol  polyester + H2O
(diol/dicarboxylic = two functional groups)
- Removal of -OH bonds (become water), alkane connected to carboxylic acid by an O
bond