ADVANCE

COMPUTER SYSTEM
FREE ELECTIVE 3

Caoile, Nicole Jean

Collado, Shane Camille
Sormillo, Jerry Mae
Osoteo, Bryan Cedric
Tecson, Renz Keanu
Tolejano, Lalaine

BSAIS 4-2

Submitted to:
Mr. Bely Apostol
 Storage Devices
• A storage device is used in the computers to store the data.
• Provides one of the core functions of the modern computer.

1. Computer Data Storage

2. Types of Storage
3. Storage Device Features
4. Other Examples of Storage Device

Types of Storage
There are four type of storage:

• Primary Storage
• Secondary Storage
• Tertiary Storage
• Off-line Storage

Primary Storage
 Also known as main memory.
 Main memory is directly or indirectly
connected to the central processing
unit via a memory bus.
 The CPU continuously reads instructions
stored there and executes them as required.

•Example:

– RAM
– ROM
– Cache
RAM

 It is called Random Access Memory because any of the data in RAM

can be accessed just as fast as any of the other data.
 There are two types of RAM:
– DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
– SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)

Static RAM Dynamic RAM

 Faster  Slower
 More expensive  Less expensive
 More power consumption  Less power consumption
 does not nee d to be  needs to be refreshed
refreshed thousands of times per
second

ROM

 This memory is used as the computer begins to boot up.

 Small programs called firmware are often stored in ROM chips on
hardware devices (like a BIOS chip), and they contain instructions the
computer can use in performing some of the most basic operations
required to operate hardware devices.
 ROM memory cannot be easily or quickly overwritten or modified.
Cache
 Cache is a high-speed access area that can be either a reserved
section of main memory or a storage device.
 Most computers today come with L3 cache or L2 cache, while older
computers included only L1 cache.

Secondary Storage
 It is not directly accessible by the CPU.
 Computer usually uses its input/output channels to access secondary
storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in
primary storage.

Example:

– Hard disk
 The hard disk drive is the main, and usually largest, data storage
device in a computer.
 It can store anywhere from 160 gigabytes to 2 terabytes.
 Hard disk speed is the speed at which content can be read and
written on a hard disk.
 A hard disk unit comes with a set rotation speed varying from 4500 to
7200 rpm.
 Disk access time is measured in milliseconds.
Tertiary Storage

 Typically, it involves a robotic mechanism which will mount (insert)

and dismount removable mass storage media into a storage device.
 It is a comprehensive computer storage system that is usually very
slow, so it is usually used to archive data that is not accessed
frequently.
 This is primarily useful for extraordinarily large data stores, accessed
without human operators

Examples:

– Magnetic Tape
– Optical Disc

Magnetic Tape
 A magnetically coated strip of plastic on which data can be encoded.
 Tapes for computers are similar to tapes used to store music.
 Tape is much less expensive than other storage mediums but
commonly a much slower solution that is commonly used for backup.
Optical Disc

 Optical disc is any storage media that holds content in digital format
and is read using a laser assembly is considered optical media.
 The most common types of optical media are
– Blu-ray (BD)
– Compact Disc (CD)
– Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)

Off-line Storage

 Also known as disconnected storage.

 Is a computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under
the control of a processing unit.
 It must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a
computer can access it again.
 Also known as disconnected or removable storage.
  Is a computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not
under the control of a processing unit.
 It must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a
computer can access it again.

Examples:

– Floppy Disk
– Zip diskette
– USB Flash drive
– Memory card

Floppy Disk

 A soft magnetic disk.

 Floppy disks are portable.
 Floppy disks are slower to access than hard disks and have less
storage capacity, but they are much less expensive.
 Can store data up to 1.44MB.
 Two common sizes: 5 ¼” and 3 ½”.

Zip Diskette

 Hardware data storage device developed by Iomega that functions

like a Standard 1.44" floppy drive.
 Capable to hold up to 100 MB of data or 250 MB of data on new
drives.
 Now it less popular as users needed larger storage capabilities.
USB Flash Drive
 A small, portable flash memory card that plugs into a computer’s USB
port and functions as a portable hard drive.
 Flash drives are available in sizes such as 256MB, 512MB, 1GB,
5GB, and 16GB and are an easy way to transfer and store
information.

Memory Card
 An electronic flash memory storage disk commonly used in consumer
electronic devices such as digital cameras, MP3 players, mobile
phones, and other small portable devices.
 Memory cards are usually read by connecting the device containing
the card to your computer, or by using a USB card reader.
Storage Device Features
 Volatility
 Accessibility
 Mutability
 Addressability

Volatility
• Two types of volatility:
– Volatile Memory
– Non-Volatile Memory

Volatile Memory
 Requires constant power to maintain the stored information.
 The fastest memory technologies.
 All contents are erased when the system's power is turned off or
interrupted.
 It has been more popularly known as temporary memory.

Non-Volatile Memory
 Will retain the stored information even if it is not constantly supplied
with electric power.
 Non volatile memory is the device which keeps the data even when
the current is off.
 It is suitable for long-term storage of information.

Accessibility
 Refers to reading or writing data records
 Two types of accessibility:
– Random access
– Sequential access
Random Access
 Any location in storage can be accessed at any moment in
approximately the same amount of time.
 Such characteristic is well suited for primary and secondary storage.

Sequential Access
 The accessing of pieces of information will be in a serial order, one
after the other; therefore the time to access a particular piece of
information depends upon which piece of information was last
accessed.
 Such characteristic is typical of off-line storage
Mutability
 Allows information to be overwritten at any time.
 A computer without some amount of read/write storage for primary
storage purposes would be useless for many tasks.
 Three types of mutability:
– Read/write storage or mutable storage
– Read only storage
– Slow write, fast read storage

Read/Write Storage or Mutable Storage

 Allows information to be overwritten at any time.
 A computer without some amount of read/write storage for primary
storage purposes would be useless for many tasks.

Read Only Storage

 Retains the information stored at the time of manufacture, and write
once storage (WORM) allows the information to be written only once
at some point after manufacture.
 These are called immutable storage.

Slow Write, Fast Read Storage

 Read/write storage which allows information to be overwritten
multiple times, but with the write operation being much slower than
the read operation.
Addressability
 Three types of addressability
– Location-addressable
– File addressable
– Content-addressable

Location-addressable
 Each individually accessible unit of information in storage is
selected with its numerical memory address.

File addressable
 Information is divided into files of variable length, and a particular
file is selected with human-readable directory and file names.

Content-addressable
 Each individually accessible unit of information is selected based
on the basis of (part of) the contents stored there.
 Content-addressable storage can be implemented using software
(computer program) or hardware (computer device), with hardware
being faster but more expensive option.
 Hardware content addressable memory is often used in a
computer's CPU cache.

Other Example of Storage Devices

 Punch card
 Cloud storage
 RAID
Punched Card
 Early method of data storage used with early computers
 Punch cards also known as Hollerith cards
 Containing several punched holes that represents data
Cloud Storage
 Cloud storage means "the storage of data online in the cloud,"
wherein a data is stored in and accessible from multiple
distributed and connected resources that comprise a cloud.
 Cloud storage can provide the benefits of greater accessibility
and reliability; rapid deployment; strong protection for data
backup, archival and disaster recovery purposes.

Cloud Storage
 Examples:
– Google Drive
– Flickr
– Microsoft Sky Drive

RAID
 RAID is short for redundant array of independent (or inexpensive)
disks.
 It is a category of disk drives that employ two or more drives in
combination for fault tolerance and performance.
 RAID disk drives are used frequently on servers but aren't
generally necessary for personal computers. • RAID allows you to
store the same data redundantly (in multiple paces) in a balanced
way to improve overall storage performance.
 POWER SUPPLY
A power supply is an electrical device that supplies electric power to
an electrical load. The primary function of a power supply is to
convert electric current from a source to the correct voltage, current,
and frequency to power the load. As a result, power supplies are
sometimes referred to as electric power converters. Some power supplies
are separate standalone pieces of equipment, while others are built into the
load appliances that they power.

Overview
 In this chapter, you will learn to
– Explain the basics of electricity
– Provide proper power and cooling to the PC
– Troubleshoot electrical problems

Understanding Electricity

Measuring Electricity
• Voltage—force or pressure caused by the separation of electrons and
protons
– Unit of measurement: Volts (V)
• Current—the free flow of electrons in an electrical circuit
– Unit of measurement: Ampere (amp)
– When voltage (electrical pressure) is applied and there is a path,
electrons floproducing current.
• Resistance—impedance or opposition to the flow of electrons:
conductor=low resistance insulators=high resistance
– Unit of measurement: ohms (Ω)

Two Types of Current

• Alternating Current (AC)—electrical current flows in both directions;
positive and negative terminals continuously trade places (polarity)
– Example: Electricity provided by AmerenUE
– Frequency at which AC electricity alternates is measured
in cycles per second, or hertz (Hz)
• Direct Current (DC)—electrical current flows in one direction; negative to
positive
– Example: Electricity provided by batteries

Powering the PC

Type of Power
• PCs use DC voltage but power companies supply AC voltage
• The power supply in a computer converts high-voltage AC
power to low-voltage DC power

Safety Ground Wire

• Safety Ground Wire prevents electrons from energizing metal
parts of the computer
• Without grounding, severe shock and fires can occur
• Safety grounds are connected to the exposed metal parts of the
computer’s chassis
• Do not use ungrounded plugs in PCs

AC Power
• In the U.S. 115 V and 60 Hz
– PCs may have a small switch on the back to choose 115 or
230 V (used in other countries)
• Hot and neutral provide the path for AC
• Four wires to the fuse box:
– Bare wire that goes to ground and not the pole
– Two 115-volt hot wires (black) from the pole to the fuse box
– Neutral wire from the pole (black or striped)
• House gets 230 V AC from the pole

Uninterruptible Power Supply

 An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) provides protection against a
power dip or power outage
– Contains a battery that provides AC power to the computer
– Online is true protection and power conditioning battery is
constantly being charged and system is running off the battery at all
times
– Stand-by uses AC until the voltage drops enough to switch over to
the battery – no power conditioning and a fail-over time required
– All uninterrupted power supplies are measured in watts

Surge Suppressors
• Surge suppressors provide protection against power
fluctuations
• Insert between the power supply and the outlet
• Joule is a unit of electrical energy, and the joule rating of a
surge suppressor needs to be checked before purchasing one
• Surge suppressors with modem protection are also available
The Power Supply
• The power supply acts as a step-down transformer converting high
voltage AC into 5, 12, and 3.3 V DC
– PCs use a 12V current to power motors on devices such as the
hard drives, and CD-ROM drives
– PCs use a 5-volt/3.3-volt current to support onboard electronics

The Power Supply

• AT and ATX are the two types of power supplies that can be
installed in any PC
• The ATX form factor motherboard, with its unique ATX power
supply, dominates today’s systems
• All power supplies share a number of common features such as the
power connection, motherboard power, power switch, peripheral
connections, and the fan.

Power Connections
• The power supply connects to the power cord through a
standard IEC-320 connector
• Each power supply must have standard AC power from the
company.
DC Power
• DC power comes out of the computer’s power supply, and
provides electricity to all the components in the PC
– Flows in one direction, from negative to positive
– All PC power supplies provide both positive and negative
voltages

AT Power Connectors
• P8 and P9 are a pair of connectors that link the AT power supply to
the AT motherboard
• As they are ‘faced’, they cannot be installed backwards

ATX Power Connector

• Uses a single P1 power connector
• The P1 has a notched connector to ensure proper installation
P4 Connector
• Many motherboards require a second, four-wire connector to push
more 12-volt power into the board

P1 and P4 Voltages

Power to Peripherals
• Motherboards require power from the power supply as we’ve already
seen
• Peripherals like hard drives, floppy drives, CD-ROM drives, and fans also
require power from the power supply
Molex Connectors
• Primarily used for devices that require 12V and 5V of power
• A Molex connector uses ‘chamfers’ (notches) for easy installation
• Installing a Molex backwards can destroy the device into which the Molex
is connected

Mini Connectors
• Primarily for 3.5- inch floppy drives
• Care should be taken when installing mini connectors

SATA power connector

Splitters and Adapters
• Occasionally, there are not enough connectors to power all the devices
inside a PC
• Splitters are used to create more connections

Wattage
• Power supplies are rated in watts
– A PC requires sufficient wattage to run properly
– An average desktop with two hard drives and a CDROM drive requires
about 115-130 watts while running, and up to 200 watts when booting up
– Buy 230 to 250-watt power supplies
– Power requirements may be calculated by adding up the power required
by each peripheral and the motherboard and CPU

Sizes
• Power supplies are available in a variety of shapes and sizes depending
on the form factor
• Most desktop and mini-tower PCs use the standard ATX power supply
• Take the defective power supply with you when getting a replacement
Power Supply Issues
• A bad power supply causes intermittent lockups and reboots, as well as
intermittent bootup difficulties
• Bad power supplies erase CMOS information and sometimes even erase
data on mass storage devices

Power Supply Test

• Put the black lead onto any black wire connection
• Put the red lead onto a yellow +12V connection
– 11-13 V is good
– 10.5-11 V indicates a new power supply is needed
– Less than 10.5 V and your PC won’t boot

• The computer must be turned on

• Do not touch any chips or circuit boards to prevent damage
• Do not touch a probe to the hot circuit and to ground at the same time!
• Do not allow both probes to touch each other while one is touching hot
and one is touching ground
• Make sure a probe only touches one metal object or pin at a time
 Circuit Boards

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically

connects electrical or electronic components using conductive tracks, pads
and other features etched from one or more sheet layers
copper laminated onto and/or between sheet layers of a non-
conductive substrate. Components are generally soldered onto the PCB to
both electrically connect and mechanically fasten them to it.

Overview
 A basic PCB consists of a flat sheet of insulating material and a layer
of copper foil, laminated to the substrate. Chemical etching divides
the copper into separate conducting lines called tracks or circuit
traces, pads for connections, vias to pass connections between
layers of copper, and features such as solid conductive areas
for electromagnetic shielding or other purposes. The tracks function
as wires fixed in place, and are insulated from each other by air and
the board substrate material. The surface of a PCB may have a
coating that protects the copper from corrosion and reduces the
chances of solder shorts between traces or undesired electrical
contact with stray bare wires. For its function in helping to prevent
solder shorts, the coating is called solder resist or solder mask.

 A printed circuit board can have multiple copper layers. A two-layer

board has copper on both sides; multi layer boards sandwich
additional copper layers between layers of insulating material.
Conductors on different layers are connected with vias, which are
copper-plated holes that function as electrical tunnels through the
insulating substrate. Through-hole component leads sometimes also
effectively function as vias. After two-layer PCBs, the next step up is
usually four-layer. Often two layers are dedicated as power supply
and ground planes, and the other two are used for signal wiring
between components.
"Through hole" components are mounted by their wire leads passing
through the board and soldered to traces on the other side. "Surface
mount" components are attached by their leads to copper traces on the
same side of the board. A board may use both methods for mounting
components. PCBs with only through-hole mounted components are now
uncommon. Surface mounting is used for transistors, diodes, IC chips,
resistors and capacitors. Through-hole mounting may be used for some
large components such as electrolytic capacitors and connectors.

Through-hole devices mounted on the circuit board of a mid-1980s

Commodore 64 home computer

Surface-mount technology

 Surface-mount technology emerged in the 1960s, gained momentum

in the early 1980s and became widely used by the mid-1990s.
Components were mechanically redesigned to have small metal tabs
or end caps that could be soldered directly onto the PCB surface,
instead of wire leads to pass through holes. Components became
 much smaller and component placement on both sides of the board
became more common than with through-hole mounting, allowing
much smaller PCB assemblies with much higher circuit densities.
Surface mounting lends itself well to a high degree of automation,
reducing labor costs and greatly increasing production rates compared with
through-hole circuit boards. Components can be supplied mounted on carrier
tapes.

Circuit properties of the PCB

 Each trace consists of a flat, narrow part of the copper foil that
remains after etching. Its resistance, determined by its width,
thickness, and length, must be sufficiently low for the current the
conductor will carry. Power and ground traces may need to be wider
than signal traces. In a multi-layer board one entire layer may be
mostly solid copper to act as a ground plane for shielding and power
return. For microwave circuits, transmission lines can be laid out in a
planar form such as strip line or microstrip with carefully controlled
dimensions to assure a consistent impedance.
Materials
 The European Union bans the use of lead (among other heavy
metals) in consumer items, a piece of legislature called the RoHS, for
Restriction of Hazardous Substances, directive. PCBs to be sold in
the EU must be RoHS-compliant, meaning that all manufacturing
processes must not involve the use of lead, all solder used must be
lead-free, and all components mounted on the board must be free of
lead, mercury, cadmium, and other heavy metals.

Laminates
 Laminates are manufactured by curing under pressure and
temperature layers of cloth or paper with thermoset resin to form an
integral final piece of uniform thickness. The size can be up to 4 by 8
feet (1.2 by 2.4 m) in width and length. Varying cloth weaves (threads
per inch or cm), cloth thickness, and resin percentage are used to
achieve the desired final thickness and dielectric characteristics.
Available standard laminate thickness are listed in ANSI/IPC-D-275.
Key substrate parameters
 The circuit board substrates are usually dielectric composite
materials. The composites contain a matrix (usually an epoxy resin)
and a reinforcement (usually a woven, sometimes nonwoven, glass
fibers, sometimes even paper), and in some cases a filler is added to
the resin (e.g. ceramics; titanite ceramics can be used to increase the
dielectric constant).
 The reinforcement type defines two major classes of materials:
woven and non-woven. Woven reinforcements are cheaper, but the
high dielectric constant of glass may not be favorable for many
higher-frequency applications. The spatially nonhomogeneous
structure also introduces local variations in electrical parameters, due
to different resin/glass ratio at different areas of the weave pattern.
Nonwoven reinforcements, or materials with low or no reinforcement,
are more expensive but more suitable for some RF/analog
applications.
Design
 Initially PCBs were designed manually by creating a photomask on a
clear mylar sheet, usually at two or four times the true size. Starting
from the schematic diagram the component pin pads were laid out on
the mylar and then traces were routed to connect the pads. Rub-
on dry transfers of common component footprints increased
efficiency. Traces were made with self-adhesive tape. Pre-printed
non-reproducing grids on the mylar assisted in layout. The finished
photomask was photolithographically reproduced onto a photoresist
coating on the blank copper-clad boards.

Manufacturing
PCB CAM
Manufacturing starts from the fabrication data generated by computer aided
design, and component information. The fabrication data is read into the
CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) software. CAM performs the
following functions:

1. Input of the fabrication data.

2. Verification of the data
3. Compensation for deviations in the manufacturing processes (e.g.
scaling to compensate for distortions during lamination)
4. Penalization
5. Output of the digital tools (copper patterns, drill files, inspection, and
others)
Copper patterning

The first step is to replicate the pattern in the fabricator's CAM system on a
protective mask on the copper foil PCB layers. Subsequent etching
removes the unwanted copper. (Alternatively, a conductive ink can be ink-
jetted on a blank (non-conductive) board. This technique is also used in the
manufacture of hybrid circuits.)

1. Silk screen printing uses etch-resistant inks to create the protective

mask.
2. Photoengraving uses a photomask and developer to selectively
remove a UV-sensitive photoresist coating and thus create a
photoresist mask. Direct imaging techniques are sometimes used for
high-resolution requirements.
3. PCB milling uses a two or three-axis mechanical milling system to
mill away the copper foil from the substrate.
4. Laser resist ablation Spray black paint onto copper clad laminate,
place into CNC laser plotter.
5. Laser etching the copper may be removed directly by a CNC laser.
Like PCB milling above this is used mainly for prototyping.

Large volume

 Silk screen printing – Used for PCBs with bigger features

 Photoengraving – Used when finer features are required
Small volume

 Print onto transparent film and use as photo mask along with photo-
sensitized boards, then etch. (Alternatively, use a film photoplotter)
 Laser resist ablation
 PCB milling
 Laser etching
 Peripheral Power Cable
A peripheral power cable is used to connect the older IDE hard drives and
cd/dvd drives to the power supply. There are four cables (1 yellow, 2 black
and 1 red). Sometimes there are eight cables, this happens when there is
another cable coming out of it to connect to another hard drive or cd drive.

 These peripheral power connectors were

the original power cables in a computer and
were used most commonly for hard drives
or cd drives. However, they are sometimes
used in an array of tasks in the computer:
additional motherboard power, video card
power, fans, lighting etc.

 This cable is commonly called the 4 pin

Molex power cable, but this can be
confused with the 4 pin main power cable
which is a Molex cable too. This power
cable can sometimes be found with only
two cables. This version of the power cable
is for fans in the case so do not attach it to
your hard drive or cd drive.

Power Computer Cable Types

1. VGA Cable
Also known as D-sub cable, analog video cable

 Connect one end to: computer monitor,

television (PC input port)
 Connect other end to: VGA port on
computer (see image below)
2. DVI Cable

Connect one end to: computer monitor

Connect other end to: DVI port on computer (see image below)

however there are 2 types of DVI, DVI-I and DVI-D.

DVI-D does not have the extra pins around the long pin, this is also a pure
digital signal over DVI-I.

3. HDMI Cable

Connect one end to: computer monitor, television

Connect other end to: HDMI port on computer (see image below)
Note: If you're hooking up a television to your computer, then we would
recommend that you use a HDMI cable as your PC cable connection since
it is able to transmit both display and sound - So you can not only use your
TV screen as a monitor, but also make use of your TV speakers to play PC
audio.

4. PS/2 Cable

Connect one end to: PS/2 keyboard, PS/2 mouse

Connect other end to: PS/2 ports on computer (see image below)

 Purple PS/2 port: keyboard

 Green PS/2 port: mouse
5. Ethernet Cable
Also known as RJ-45 cable

Connect one end to: router, network switch

Connect other end to: Ethernet port on computer (see image below)

6. 3.5mm Audio Cable

Also known as phone connector (since 3.5mm jacks are often found on
mobile phones too)

Connect one end to: computer speakers, 3.5mm headphones, 3.5mm

microphone
Connect other end to: audio ports on computer (see image below use
Green socket)
  Green audio port: computer speakers or headphones
 Pink audio port: microphone
 Blue audio port: MP3 player, CD player, DVD player, turntable,
electric guitar etc (line-in port to play and record sounds from the
above devices)

7. USB Cable
For USB computer cable connections, there are two popular formats: USB
2.0 and the newer USB 3.0

How to tell USB 2.0 and 3.0 cables apart: USB 3.0 cables have a blue tip,
and sometimes you can find a SS "Super Speed" label on it.

Since USB was intended to be the one computer cable connection to

replace them all, it's no surprise that the possible uses for a USB port are
quite mind-blowing. For this computer cable guide, we have listed its more
common uses below:
Connect one end to: USB device

 Storage devices: USB flash drive, external hard drive, external optical
drive
 Input devices: USB keyboard (wired and wireless), USB mouse
(wired and wireless), webcam, scanner, gamepad
 Output devices: printer, all-in-one office machine, USB speaker
 Wireless adapters: network (Wi-Fi) adapter, Bluetooth adapter, 3G
adapter
 Data (and charging) cable for mobile devices such as mobile phone,
tablet, MP3 player

Connect other end to: USB ports on computer (see image below)

How to tell USB 2.0 and 3.0 ports apart: USB 2.0 ports have black tips
while USB 3.0 ports come with blue tips. See image below:

USB 3.0 is backwards-compatible... meaning that you can connect a USB

2.0 device to a USB 3.0 port and vice versa (but the USB 3.0 devices
hooked up to a USB 2.0 port will perform at lowered rates)
There are also USB cables which connect new external backup drives (see
below), these are described as USB-A to Micro-B
8. Computer Power Cord (Kettle Plug)

Connect one end to: AC power socket

Connect other end to: power supply unit (see image below), computer
monitor
Note: Always turn off your power supply unit (with the 1-0 switch at the
back) before connecting a power cord to it.

9. Thunder Bolt/USB-C

Mostly seen on laptops and Apple Macs these cables are high speed and
are capable of carrying Data, video and other information.

There are 2 current types of Thunderbolt, the older version Thunderbolt 2 is

seen below but this can also be confused with Mini Display ports as they
look identical and only visual difference is the picture beside the port.
Thunderbolt 2 (left) has a lightning symbol and carries Data and video.
The Mini Display Port (right) will only carry Video.

And Thunderbolt 3 also known as USB-C on Apple Macs.

10. Display Port

Display Port is the best to use if you require a fast, high-resolution image.
The cable has better quality over HDMI and is the best option if you have
this interface.
 North Bridge and South Bridge
Northbridge

 Northbridge is an Intel chipset that communicates with

the computer processor and controls interaction with memory, the
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus, Level 2 cache, and all
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) activities. Northbridge is one part of
a two-part chipset called Northbridge/Southbridge.

 The northbridge is a chip inside a computer that connects the central

processing unit (CPU) to other primary components in the system.
These components include RAM (a.k.a. system memory), the
frontside bus (FSB), PCI Express cards, and the AGP card.

 Alternatively referred to as the PAC (PCI/AGP Controller) and nb,

the Northbridge is an integrated circuit responsible for
communications between the CPU interface, AGP, and the memory.
Unlike the southbridge, the northbridge is directly connected to these
components. It acts as a "bridge" for the southbridge chip to
communicate with the CPU, RAM, and graphics controller.

Functions

- The Northbridge chip is used to connect all the major components of

the motherboard with each other. It is used to connect the CPU to the
memory, cache, PCI express bus etc.

- In order to communicate the chips make use of the system bus in

this case it makes use ofthe Front Side Bus or the FSB.

- The Southbridge chip is used to handle all the communication

between various input and output devices. Both the northbridge and
the southbridge together form a chipset for a motherboard. The
southbridge also makes use of the bus as a communication channel.
Southbridge

 Southbridge is a reference to a chipset on a PC motherboard. It is a

group of microchips designed for a single function and manufactured
as a single unit. This chipset controls or manages input and output
(I/O). Examples of I/O interface connections controlled by southbridge
are USB, serial, IDE and ISA. These are the slower capabilities of the
motherboard. It is located on the northbridge of the PCI bus and is not
directly connected to the CPU, but connected to the CPU through the
northbridge.

 Southbridge is one of two chipsets commonly referred to as

northbridge/southbridge. Northbridge is a chipset controlling the
processor, memory, PCI bus, level 2 cache and AGP (accelerated
graphics port) functions.

 The name comes from the original 1991 Intel motherboard design. This
design had the PCI local bus (the backbone) in the center and the CPU,
memory/cache and other high performance-critical components
located above or to the north. The less performance-critical
components were located below, or to the south of, the PCI local bus.
Bridges to these two sets of components from the backbone are often
called southbridge and northbridge, even though current architecture
has replaced the PCI bus backbone with faster I/O buses.

Functions

- In Northbridge/Southbridge chipset architecture designs,

the Southbridge is the chip that controls all of the computers I/O
functions, such as USB, audio, serial, the system BIOS, the ISA bus,
the interrupt controller and the IDE channels. In other words, all of the
functions of a processor except memory, PCI and AGP.
Differentiate of Northbridge and Southbridge

 The main difference between northbridge and southbridge is that

the northbridge is a chip in the chipset of a motherboard that
directly connects to the CPU while the southbridge is a chip in the
chipset of a motherboard that does not directly connects to the
CPU.
Microprocessor
 A microprocessor is the most important unit within a computer system
and is responsible for processing the unique set of instructions and
processes. A microprocessor is designed to execute logical and
computational tasks with typical operations such as
addition/subtraction, inter process and device communication,
input/output management, etc. A microprocessor is composed of
integrated circuits that hold thousands of transistors; exactly how
many depends on its relative computing power.

 Microprocessors are generally classified according to the number of

instructions they can process within a given time, their clock speed
measured in megahertz and the number of bits used per instruction.

 The microprocessor is the heart of any normal computer, whether it is

a desktop machine, a server or a laptop. The microprocessor you are
using might be a Pentium, a K6, a PowerPC, a Sparc or any of the
many other brands and types of microprocessors, but they all do
approximately the same thing in approximately the same way.

Function
 A microprocessor controls all functions of the CPU, or central
processing unit, of a computer or other digital device. The
microprocessor functions as an artificial brain. The entire function of
the CPU is controlled by a single integrated circuit. The
microprocessor is programmed to give and receive instructions from
other components of the device. The system can control everything
from small devices such as calculators and mobile phones, to large
automobiles.
Proper Handling of Micro processor

The microprocessor is often both the most delicate and the most expensive
part of a homebuilt computer. As such, it deserves and requires special care.

Handle processors gingerly, and never touch the pins or conductors with
your fingers. Don't drop them and don't set them down on anything other
than the packing pad they came with or an anti-static pad.

Processors are extremely sensitive to static charges and physical shock. A

static charge that's too small for a human being to even feel can completely
destroy a processor. In addition, processors can be damaged by rough
handling or being dropped

Never handle a processor roughly, never touch the pins, and never handle it
unless you are using proper anti static precautions. Note that the wrist in the
picture has an anti-static wrist band wrapped around it.

Handle the processor carefully, holding it only by the edges. Set it down only
on an anti-static mat or on the foam pad that it was shipped in. Be kind to
your processor, and your processor will be kind to you.
 SIMM
A SIMM (single in-line memory module) is a module containing one or
several random access memory (RAM) chips on a small circuit board
with pins that connect to the computer motherboard. Since the more RAM
your computer has, the less frequently it will need to access your
secondary storage (for example, hard disk or CD-ROM), PC owners
sometimes expand RAM by installing additional SIMMs. SIMMs typically
come with a 32 data bit (36 bits counting parity bits) path to the computer
that requires a 72-pin connector. SIMMs usually come in memory chip
multiples of four megabytes.

The memory chips on a SIMM are typically dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips.
An improved form of RAM called Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) can also
be used. Since SDRAM provides a 64 data bit path, it requires at least two
SIMMs or a dual in-line memory module (DIMM).
 DIMM
A DIMM or dual in-line memory module comprises a series of dynamic
random-access memory integrated circuits. These modules are mounted
on a printed circuit board and designed for use in personal
computers, workstations and servers. DIMMs began to
replace SIMMs (single in-line memory modules) as the predominant type of
memory module as Intel P5-based Pentium processors began to gain
market share.

While the contacts on SIMMs on both sides are redundant, DIMMs have
separate electrical contacts on each side of the module. Another difference
is that standard SIMMs have a 32-bit data path, while standard DIMMs
have a 64-bit data path. Since Intel's Pentium, many processors have a 64-
bit bus width, requiring SIMMs installed in matched pairs in order to
populate the data bus. The processor would then access the two SIMMs in
parallel. DIMMs were introduced to eliminate this disadvantage.

Variants
Variants of DIMM slots support DDR, DDR2, DDR3 and DDR4 RAM.
Common types of DIMMs include the following:
 DDR, DDR2 and DDR3

DDR
Stands for "Double Data Rate." It is an advanced version of SDRAM, a type
of computer memory. DDR-SDRAM, sometimes called "SDRAM II," can
transfer data twice as fast as regular SDRAM chips. This is because DDR
memory can send and receive signals twice per clock cycle. The efficient
operation of DDR-SDRAM makes the memory great for notebook
computers since it uses up less power.
DDR is memory that was first introduced in 1996 and has since been
replaced by DDR2. DDR utilizes both the rising and falling edge of the
system clock, potentially doubling the speed of the memory. Today, DDR
technology is found on high-end video cards and computer memory such
as DDR-SDRAM. (Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random-
Access Memory)

DDR2
Double Data Rate 2 Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory,
officially abbreviated as DDR2 SDRAM, is a double data rate synchronous
dynamic random-access memory interface. It superseded the original DDR
SDRAM specification, and is superseded by DDR3 SDRAM (launched in
2007). DDR2 DIMMs are neither forward compatible with DDR3 nor
backward compatible with DDR.
DDR3
Double Data Rate 3 Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory,
officially abbreviated as DDR3 SDRAM, is a type of synchronous dynamic
random-access memory (SDRAM) with a high bandwidth ("double data
rate") interface, and has been in use since 2007. It is the higher-speed
successor to DDR and DDR2 and predecessor to DDR4 synchronous
dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM) chips. DDR3 SDRAM is neither
forward nor backward compatible with any earlier type of random-access
memory (RAM) because of different signaling voltages, timings, and other
factors.