Analysis of repaired cracks with bonded composite wrap in pipes under bending

e-mail : bachirbou@yahoo.fr

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Abstract :

In this study, the behaviour of circumferential through cracks in repaired pipe with bonded

composite wrap subjected to bending moment is investigated using three dimensional finite

element analysis. The stress intensity factor is utilized as a fracture criterion. The effects of the

mechanical and geometrical properties of the adhesive on the variation of the stress intensity

factor at the crack front were also analyzed. The obtained results show that the presence of the

bonded composite repair reduces significantly the stress intensity factor, which can improve the

residual lifespan of the pipe. Meanwhile, the stress intensity factor is also reduced as the elastic

and the geometrical wrap properties are improved , particularly when the Young Modulus of the

adhesive and the wrap thickness are increased .

Key words:

Pipe, Crack; Bonded composite repair; Stress intensity factor; Finite element method.

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1. Introduction

Composite materials have been used to structurally repair piping and other facilities for many

years. However, the original use of composite materials was for repairing corroded pipelines

where the intent was to restore strength to the damaged section of the pipeline. In addition to

repairing corrosion, composite materials have successfully been used to repair dents, wrinkle

bends, induction bends, and pipe fittings including elbows and tees as well as repair of offshore

risers. Today most pipeline companies use composite materials as part of their rehabilitation

programs. However, one of the challenges that confronts the industry is determining when

composite materials can be used and what systems are best-suited for repairing a given damage

mechanism.

Significant body of work has been conducted to assess the use of composite materials in

offshore applications [1 -4], primarily addressing risers, choke and kill lines and spoolable

tubular. In parallel for more than a decade, composites were also considered and adopted to repair

damaged pipelines. The majority of this remediation work focused on the repair of onshore

pipelines to restore hoop strength due to localized wall thickness loss in the steel.

In the last 15 years, glass fiber hoop reinforced composite systems emerged as an

acceptable, successful method for repairing corroded and mechanically-damaged onshore

pipelines where the primary load is internal pressure [5]. The feasibility of extending these

repairs to offshore pipes such as risers require a thorough understanding of the complex

combined load profiles; overlay of significant tension, bending, internal and external pressure.

The Gas Research Institute (GRI, now known as the Gas Technology Institute) prepared a

final report, “Development of Fibreglass Systems for Natural Gas Pipeline Service,” for

evaluating the repair system. This document spanned a period of time from January 1987 to

March 1994. In the mid-1990s, industry began using wet lay-up systems. This system has
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undergone extensive testing, including full-scale testing to address its use in repairing mechanical

damage. In 1997, Armor Plate Pipe rap system is started [6]. This system employs a fiber glass

material that is field-impregnated with unique epoxy systems to withstand specific environmental

conditions, including underwater applications, high temperatures, and cold weather. Once the

2000-edition of the Office of Pipeline Safety (OPS) ruling came out, use of composite materials

in repairing pipelines increased significantly. Consequently, the number of manufacturers

interested in this repair technology also increased. In 2000, started a testing program to assess

the capabilities of Perma-Wrap, which is a system similar to Clock Spring in that it employs a

hard shell with an adhesive installed between layers [6]. Later, the Black-Diamond Composite

Wrap is developed. Although similar in nature to Armor Plate’s Pipe Wrap in its use of epoxy

products, this system has the added strength advantage of using carbon fibers, which on average

have an elastic modulus that is on the order of two times that of conventional E-glass. Numerous

other works continued to pursue the development of products of this repair genre.

At present, both the ASME B31.4, Liquid Transportation Systems for Hydrocarbons,

Liquid Petroleum Gas, Anhydrous Ammonia, and Alcohols and ASME B31.8, Gas Transmission

and Distribution Piping System [7] pipeline codes approved their use to re-rate corroded pipelines

to restore operating pressure partially or fully. Additionally, mechanical damage (e.g. dents with

gouges) has been repaired in situ using composite materials and validated experimentally using

both burst and cyclic pressure fatigue testing. Alexander and Francini [8] present the history of

onshore pipeline repairs using composite materials. Even though the long-term performance of

composites incorporating physical and chemical degradation is of great importance in pipeline

applications, yet the data reflecting relevant environmental conditions is still sparse [9, 10].

Toutanji and Dempsey [6] worked on establishing fiber reinforced polymer composites as

an effective mean for the repair and rehabilitation of pipelines. They developed a theoretical
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model with stress expressions and circumferential stress curves. This study focused on the

application of fiber reinforced polymer on steel pipes.

In the design of a composite repair system for offshore pipes, fatigue loads, impact and

the potential for galvanic corrosion form the basis for additional consideration. Factors such as

wave motion and contact with other structures, such as ships and other risers are realistic sources

for impact damage. Galvanic corrosion which may result due to electrochemical coupling of

carbon fibers with steel alloys is another mechanism where design of interfaces, treatment

technology, and environmental conditions are carefully characterized. The effect of cyclic

pressure loads on the performance of a composite repair system is quite important in tailoring its

stiffness and strengths especially for hoop and off-axis fiber reinforcements. Numerous studies

have been performed that address damage initiation and propagation during fatigue of composite.

There is no general agreement on what validation testing a repair system should have

undergone prior to use on a pipeline. It is not the aim of this document to set those standards and

so it is recommended that the method of supply and installation of each system be considered on

its own merits. Each supplier should be able to provide test reports sufficient to demonstrate the

performance of their repair system in a similar situation and application to that being considered.

A track record of use in similar repairs is desirable. These note highlights critical areas that

should be addressed if composite repairs are to be used.

In this study, A complete finite element model and analysis of the crack repair with

composite wrap of circumferential through cracks in pipes subjected to bending moment is

presented. Also, the evaluation of the long-term performance of composite repair systems will be

addressed. Finally, an attempt will be made to provide industry with an overview of the current

state of the art in composite repair technology and how the integrity of pipeline systems is being

restored using composite materials.

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.

2. GEOMETRICAL AND FINITE ELEMENT MODELS

This study presents a three dimensional finite element analyses by the code Abaqus for semi

circular complete cracks in pipes repaired with Carbone/epoxy wrap. The pipe is subjected to

bending moment giving an applied stress of =100 MPa, see Figure 1 . Figure 2 presents the

geometrical model of the pipe and the cracks. The geometrical characteristics of the cracked pipe

are :

- External Diameter D0=620 mm

- Internal diameter Di=480mm

- Equivalent diameter Dm=550 mm

The size of the crack is represented with the angle. The pipe material is the SA312

Type 304 stainless steel. The wrap repair is bonded to the pipe with the structural adhesive

FM73. Table 1 gives the elastic properties of the pipe, the wrap and the adhesive.

The analysis involved a three-dimensional finite element method to supplement and analyze the

experiments by using a commercially available finite element code ABAQUS [11]. The finite

element model consisted of three subsections to model the cracked pipe, the adhesive, and the

composite wrap. The model consisted of 41526 eight-node brick elements having 62289 nodes

and total number of 103797 degrees of freedom: 17195 in the pipe, 9406 in the adhesive layer,

and 7998 in the wrap subsections. The plate had four layers of elements in the thickness

direction, the adhesive had only one layer of elements through thickness and the wrap had two

layers of elements through thickness. To generate crack front some brick elements are replaced

by « crack blocks ». These crack- blocks are meshes of brick elements which are mapped into the

original element space and merged with surrounding mesh. Boundary conditions and loads are

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transferred to the crack-block elements. The mesh was refined near the crack tip area with an

element dimension of 0.053 mm using at least fifteen such fine elements in the front and back of

the crack front . Figure 3 shows the overall mesh of the specimen and Figure 4 presents the mesh

refinement in the crack tip region. The stress intensity factor (SIF) at the crack front was

extracted using the virtual crack closure technique (VCCT). The VCCT criterion uses the

principles of linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) and, therefore, is appropriate for problems

in which brittle crack propagation occurs along predefined surfaces. VCCT is based on the

assumption that the strain energy released when a crack is extended by a certain amount is the

same as the energy required to close the crack by the same amount. In this technique, the stress

intensity factor are obtained for three fracture modes from the equation:

K i2
Gi  (1)
E

Where Gi is the energy release rate for mode i, Ki the stress intensity factor for mode i, E the

elastic modulus. When the stress intensity factor increases, the energy at the crack tip increases

too and consequently the crack growth becomes more significant which lead to a reduction of the

residual lifespan of the structure. The residual lifespan of the pipe is defined from the crack

initiation to the critical crack length which require that the damage pipe must be replaced.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Comparison between repaired and un-repaired crack

SIF calculations were conducted for repaired and un-repaired cracks in pipe under bending

moment in order to estimate the repair performances. Figure 5 presents the distribution of the

stress intensity factor along crack front for repaired and un-repaired cracks. The crack angle  is

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taken equal to (30°). It can be seen that, for unrepaired crack, the difference in the stress intensity

factor between the external and the internal crack tips is not sensitive enough. This difference is

about 5%. The presence of the bonded composite wrap reduces significantly the stress intensity

factor at the crack front particularly at the external crack tips. The reduction of the SIF at the

internal crack tip is almost negligible. This behaviour is because the external crack tip is directly

in contact with the adhesive layer and the composite wrap. The stress Transfer from the cracked

pipe to the composite wrap throughout the adhesive layer is maximal at the external crack tip,

what explains the significant reduction of the SIF at this tip. Quantitatively, the SIF id reduced at

the external crack tip from 17 MPa (m)1/2 to 7.8 MPa (m)1/2 , the relative reduction is about 54%.

The rate of reduction of the SIF decreases proportionally to the distance along crack front.

The highest difference in the SIF between external and internal crack tips presents a major

disadvantage for repairing pipe and makes the prediction of the path of crack propagation very

difficult. In the aeronautical application, this problem is solved by the technique of double-sided

composite wrap. This technique allows the equilibrium of stresses transfer between the faces of

the repaired plates. The application of this technique for damaged pipe is practically impossible.

One can confirm that the repair of external cracks in pipe more efficient than the internal cracks.

In addition, the detection of external cracks is simpler. These observations can be generalised to

the case of corroded pipes. Indeed, the repair of corroded pipes with bonded composite wrap is

more efficient for external corrosion under stresses. The composite wrap attenuates the stresses

intensity in the corroded region of the pipe what reduce the risk of crack initiation and

propagation. According to the precedent observations, one can conclude that the repair

performances are better for thin walled pipes.

3.2 Effect of the crack size

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It is known that the durability of bonded composite repairs in damaged structures depends

essentially on the nature of the defects and their sizes. The application of this technique will be

not effective if the size of the defect to be repaired exceeds a critical value. In this section, the

effect of the crack size represented by the crack angle  on the SIF variation is analysed.

Figure 6 presents the variation of the SIF at the external crack tip according to the crack

angle for repaired and un-repaired cracks. The reduction of the SIF by the wrap is very

significant for this crack tip , which confirm the results of Figure 5. This reduction is more

significant when the crack angle increases. The rate of reduction of the SIF is about 45% when

the crack angle is less than 25° and about 75% when the crack angle exceeds the value of 45°.

According to the results of Figure 7, one cane note that the variation of the SIF for repaired crack

according to the crack angle is approximately linear with weak slope. This behaviour differs

from the case of repaired plate in tension where the SIF exhibits an asymptotic behaviour as the

crack length increases [12-15]. The difference is due to the fact that for repaired plate subjected

to tension loading there is pure mode I of crack propagation and the SIF at the crack front is very

significant, what allows a high stress transfer from the cracked plate to the composite wrap [16-

17].

Since the extraction of analytical exact solution is very difficult because of the significant number

of parameters which affect the behaviour of repaired cracks and in order to help the designers of

pipe repair we have tried to extract from the FE results a semi-analytical formulations of the

stress intensity factor for repaired cracks in pipe under bending moment.

 R  
K I  F   o , ( /  ),    ( .Ro ) (2)
 t  

Where :

8
 1 1 1
 ( /  )  ( /  ) 2 - ( /  ) 
4 3 100
and


 E  E e  
   r1   a  r  p
 Gr12   E p  ea 

Er1 : The longitudinal Young modulus of the composite wrap

Gr2 : The longitudinal Shear modulus of the composite wrap

Ea and Ep : are respectively the Young modulus of adhesive and the pipe

er and ep : are respectively the thicknesses of the composite and the pipe

The comparison between this semi analytical expression and the finite element calculations

showed maximum difference of 7.2132%.

Several calculations were carried out to compute the mode II and the mode III SIFs , all these

calculations showed that the values of KII and KIII are weak compared to the KI values. This is

why our study was limited to the mode I stress intensity factor.

Figure 7 presents a comparison of the SIF variation between the internal and external cracks tips

for repaired pipe. It is shown that the difference in the SIF between the two crack tips is

significant for weak crack angle. The relative difference is about 30%, for =10° and this

difference becomes null when the crack angle is higher then 40°. This behaviour is due to the fact

that for higher crack angle, the stress transfer toward the composite wrap is very significant, what

allow quasi-uniform distribution of the stresses along the thickness of cracked pipes. The Stress

intensity factor at the external crack tip increase with the crack length, reaches a maximum for

40° and decreases beyond this crack angle. This behaviour can be explained by the fact that for

weak crack length the stress transfer between the composite and the cracked pipe is not very

9
significant, the stress intensity factor follow an upward path. When the crack angle reaches the

value of 40°, the stress transfer toward the composite wrap will be more significant and the stress

intensity factor at the repaired crack tip decreases as the crack length increases

3.3 Effect of the mechanical properties of the adhesive

It is known that the stronger adhesives are characterised by weak rigidity (weak young modulus),

which make it possible to attenuate the stresses transmitted to the adhesive. In the case of

repaired cracks, the objective is to transmit the maximum of the stresses to the adhesive and

consequently to the wrap in order to reduce them at the crack tip. Thus, theoretically it is

preferable to use adhesives with high shear modulus for repairing cracks or defects. Figure 8

presents the variation of the stress intensity along the crack front for various values of shear

modulus of the adhesive. The results displayed in this last figure confirm what was advanced

previously. Indeed, the stress intensity factor decreases as the Young modulus of the adhesive

increases, but the decrement of the SIF according to Ea tends to be cancelled as Ea increases

indefinitely as shown in Figure 9. Actually, an increase of the adhesive shear modulus reduces

the adhesive strength, which can generate the adhesion failure. The adhesive stresses are related

to the adhesive Young modulus by the following expression :

Ea (U 1  U 2 )
 (3)
2(1   )ea

Where U1 and U2 are the displacements in the adherends , is the Poisson ratio and ea is the

adhesive thickness. When the adhesive young modulus increases the stress transfer between the

repaired pipe and the composite wrap increases which reduce the stress around the crack front,

the stress intensity factor at the crack front decreases. The increase of the adhesive young

modulus can improve the residual lifespan of repaired pipes. The choice of the adhesive

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(characterised by its shear modulus) for repairing cracks in pipe under bending must be

optimised in order to allow the transmission of the stresses towards the wrap and to avoid the

adhesive failure due to the increase of the stresses in the adhesive layer.

3.4 Effect of the adhesive thickness

The adhesives used in bonded repairs are often required to carry a high level of stresses. The

effect of the adhesive thickness on the distribution of the stress on the adhesive layer is very

important. This effect will have a significant incidence on the repair performances. Figure 10

shows the variation of the stress intensity factors versus the adhesive thickness at the external

crack tip. It can be seen that a reduction in the adhesive thickness decreases the stress intensity

factor, when the adhesive thickness varies between 0.1 and 0.14 mm. This means that lower

adhesive thickness is desirable for repairing crack. Bachir Bouiadjra et al [12] highlighted this

effect for repaired aircraft structures. When the adhesive thickness exceeds the value of 0.14 mm,

its effect on the SIF variations becomes insignificant. In addition, it is recommended by the

designers of the bonded composite repair that the adhesive thickness must be ranged between 0.1

and 0.2 mm in order to avoid the increase peel stresses. This norm eliminates the effect of the

adhesive thickness on the thermal SIF variation.

4.5 Effect of the wrap thickness

Figure 11 illustrates this effect by displaying the SIF variation along the crack front for various

wrap thicknesses. It can be seen that the increase of the wrap thickness reduces significantly the

stress intensity factor at the crack front. For example, the relative reduction of the SIF is about

30% when the wrap thickness varies between 2 and 7. These results allow us to confirm that the

choice of thicker wrapes makes it possible to increase significantly their performances. For a

11
better distribution of the stresses, it is preferable to use a multiple layers of bonded composite

wraps for repairing cracks.

5. Conclusion

The reduction of the stress intensity by the composition wrap repair in pipe is very significant at

the crack tip, which improves the residual lifespan of repaired pipes. The main disadvantage of

the technique of bonded composite repair in pipe is the impossibility to bond double sided

composite wrap in order to equilibrate the stress transfer between the internal and external crack

tip. The optimization of the mechanical properties of the adhesive can improve significantly the

repair performances and durability. This optimization must equilibrate between the reduction of

the stress intensity at the repaired defect and the reduction of the risk of adhesive failure. The use

of multiple composite layers for repair can also improve the repair performances. In this case the

ply orientations must be optimized. A semi-analytical expression of the stress intensity factor

for repaired cracks was extracted from the FE calculation. The maximal difference obtained

between this expression and the FE calculations is about 7.213%

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 Figure 1 repaired pipe under moment

2c
crack

Crack propagation θ
direction
Ri
t

Rm

Figure 2 Geometrical m
Re

Figure 2 Geometrical model of the pipe and the crack

13
Figure 3 Typical mesh model of the global structure

Figure 4 Mesh model at the crack front

14
 External crack tip Internal crack tip
22

20

18

16

14

12
1/2
KI MPa.m

10

4 (without patch)
2 (with patch)

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

e
Normalised distance along the crack front

Figure 5 Distribution of the SIF along the crack front for repaired and un-repaired cracks

15
 18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11 % (With wrap)
10 % (Without wrap)
C

9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
10 20 30 40 50 60
A

Figure 6 SIF vs crack angle at the external crack tip

16
 14

12

10
)
1/2
KI (Mpa.m

4
Internal crack tip
2 Extrernal crack tip

0
10 20 30 40 50 60



Figure 7 SIF vs crack angle at the internal and external tips of the crack

17
 12.0 ECT ICP
Ea = 1000 MPa
11.5 Ea = 1500 MPa
Ea = 2000 MPa
11.0
Ea = 2550 MPa
10.5 Ea = 3000 MPa
Ea = 3500 MPa
10.0
K1 (MPa m )
1/2

9.5

9.0

8.5

8.0

7.5

7.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Normalised dsitance along the crack front

Figure 8 SIF distribution along the crack front for various Young modulus of the adhesive

18
 12.0

11.5

11.0
Internal crack tip
External crack tip
10.5
K1 (MPa m )
1/2

10.0

9.5

9.0

8.5

8.0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

Ea (MPa)

Figure 9 SIF vs the adhesive Young modulus

19
 14

13

12

11
KI(MPa(m) )
1/2
K1 (MPa m )
1/2

10

6
0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
ea(mm)

Figure 10 SIF vs adhesive thickness at the external crack tip

20
 11.0

10.5

10.0

9.5
K1 (MPa m )
1/2

9.0

8.5

8.0

7.5

7.0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
er (mm)

Figure 11 SIF vs wrap thickness at the external crack tip

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 Table 1. Materials properties

E1 E2 (GPa) E3(GPa) ν 12 ν 13 ν 23 G12(GPa) G23(GPa) G13(GPa)

(GPa)
Patch 150 25 25 0,21 0,21 0,21 7,2 5,5 5,5
Carbone /
Epoxy
Adhesive 2,55 0,32
FM73
Pipe 204 0,3
SA312 Type
304 stainless
steel

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