Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
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Symmetries
• Symmetry: if a set of transformations, when applied to a system,
leaves system unchanged →
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Example of a symmetry:
Translation Invariance
• Lagrangian of system with n degrees of freedom (could also use the Hamiltonian)
- n-coordinates; n-velocities
pi = ∂L / ∂qi i = 1,...n
• Dynamical equations of motion
d ∂L
dt ∂q i − ∂∂qLi = 0 ⇒ dpi
dt = ∂∂qLi
• If Lagrangian of this system is independent of a particular coordinate qm
∂L
∂qm =0⇒ dpm
dt =0
• Independent of a particular coordinate ⇒ translation invariant ⇒ conjugate
momentum conserved 4
Symmetry: Definition
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Set of All Symmetry Operations ⇒ GROUP
• Non-Abelian Group: Ri , Rj ≠ Rj Ri
- rotations in three dimensions do not commute
a b
• U= with a, b, c, d …. complex
c d
a b
• U= * * with |a| + |b| = 1 ;
2 2 3 free parameters
−b a
iT (θ )
• U (ϑ ) = e θ ⇒ elements of group; 3 Hermitian, lin. independent traceless matrices
θi
i σ
• U=e 2 i ⇒ Pauli Matrices, transformation in spinor space
0 1 0 −i 1 0
σ1 = ; σ2 = ; σ3 =
1 0 i 0 0 −1 10
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Example for SU(2): Spin 2
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Spin 2
: most important spin system: proton, neutron, electron, quarks
- particle with s = 12: mS = 1
2 (‘spin up’), mS = − 12 (‘spin down’)
- states can be presented by arrow: ;
- better notation: two-component column vector, or spinor
1 1 = 1 ; 1 − 1 = 0
2 2 0 2 2 1
1
- most general case of spin 2 particle is linear combination
α 1 0
= α + β ; α , β complex numbers
β 0 1
• Noether’s theorem
strong interactions is invariant under rotation in isospin space ⇒ isospin is
conserved in all strong interactions
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Extension of Isospin Concept
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Caveat in this Hierarchy
• Isospin, SU(2), symmetry is very good symmetry; mass of members of
isospin multiplets differ by only few %
• Discrepancies become very large, when including the heavier quarks in this
concept ⇒ can be traced to the bare quark masses
• Study decay of 60
Co → 60 N i + e − +ν e
• polarized matter
- 60Co at 0.01 Kelvin inside solenoid
- high proportion of nuclei aligned
• 60Co (J=5) → 60Ni* (J=4) (similar to β-decay
s•p s • (− p )
cos ϑ = → P =
s p s p
s•p
− cos ϑ = − = − cos ϑ
s p
β detection
Co60
sample
Chien-Shiung Wu
• ‘Helicity’ of neutrinos
- particles with spin s travelling with velocity v along z-axis
- Sign of projection of the spin vector on momentum vector = helicity of
particle
- particle with spin ½ can have
- helicity 1 (ms = ½) (‘right-handed’)
- helicity -1 (ms = -½) (‘left-handed’)
• Photons can have helicity +1 or -1, representing left and right circular
polarization (feature of Lorentz invariance)
• Neutrinos are found to be always left-handed (helicity H= -1)
Antineutrinos are found to be always right-handed (helicity H= 1)
• Parity violation in weak interaction is a consequence of this fact
- Mirror image of neutrino does not exist
• Observation of neutrino helicity : π − → µ− + νµ
- pion at rest ⇒ µ and ν energy back-to-back; spin of pion s=0 → spin of
muon and antineutrino must be oppositely aligned
- μ- muon is always observed to be right-handed ⇒ ν must be right-handed
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Helicity of Neutrino:
a marvellous landmark experiment
Experiment carried out by Goldhaber et al in
1958
152Eu + (K-capture) e- → 152Sm* + ν
e
152Sm* emits ) 0.96 MeV γ →
1) measurement of direction of γ →
measurement of direction of neutrino (back-
to-back)
2) measurement of helicity of γ determines
helicity of neutrino
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Charge Conjugation
(Particle –> Antiparticle)
• Classical electrodynamics
- invariant under charge in sign of all electric charges
- potential, fields reverse sign
- forces are invariant (charge factor in Lorentz law)
• Elementary particle physics: generalization of ‘changing sign of charge’
- Charge conjugation C converts particle into antiparticle C p = p
• More precisely Cn = n
- C changes sign of ‘internal’ quantum numbers
o charge, baryon number, lepton number, strangeness, charm,
o BUT: mass, energy, momentum, spin NOT affected
- C2 = 1 ⇒ eigenvalues of C are +1, -1
• Note: most particles are NOT eigenstates of C
• Only particles which are their own antiparticles are eigenstates –> photon, π0, η,
ϕ, … ψ
• C is multiplicative, conserved in electromagnetic and strong processes
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Charge Conjugation
Parity
left-handed right-handed
neutrino neutrino
CP
X
Parity
Charge
CP Charge
In weak interactions P and C are particle-antiparticle
right-handed conjugation
“maximally violated” while the antineutrino
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Puzzle, Mystery, Beauty of the
K-Meson System
• Gell-Mann and Pais (Phys. Rev. 97, 1387,1955)
• noticed that K0 (S= +1) can turn into antiparticle K 0 (d , s ) ⇔ K 0 ( d , s ) ,
through second order weak interaction
Feynman diagrams in
modern formulation
CP K 0 = − K 0 CP K 0 = − K 0
• Conclusion: K1 → 2π , K2 → 3π 37
K1, K2
• 2π – decay is much faster (more energy, i.e. more phase space available)
• In Cronin’s memoirs
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What is a ‘Particle’ ?
40
The Cultural Revolution: CP violation
• Observation:
- observed: 22700 3π-decay
45 2π-decay
KL =
1
( K 2 + ε K1 ) K S = 1
( K1 + ε K 2 )
1+ | ε |2 2
1+ ε
spark chambers
scintillators
Cherenkov detectors
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Time Reversal and CTP Theorem
• Classic example:
- electric dipole moment d of elementary particle (neutron)
- d points along spin S
- d is vector, S is pseudovector
- d ≠ 0 ⇒ violation of P
- S changes sign under T, d does not
- d ≠ 0 ⇒ violation of T
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Neutron Electric Dipole Moment (nEDM)
K0 → K0 K0 → K0
?
=
M. Jeitler
Direct measurement of T-violation by
CPLEAR at CERN
M. Jeitler