Laboratory Study on Moisture Susceptibility

of Dense Graded Mixes

Praveen Kumar1 and P. Anand2

Abstract: Moisture damage is the degradation of the mechanical properties of the material attributable to the presence of moisture in its
microstructure. To enhance the life of bituminous pavements, it is necessary to understand moisture’s damage on pavements and to evaluate
the effects of hydrated lime as moisture damage resisting agents. The basis of laboratory work was AASHTO T 283 test and it was performed
on two types of dense graded bituminous mixes that included dense bituminous macadam and bituminous concrete mix. The study was
carried out for mixes prepared without lime, and the same process was repeated with addition of 2% quantity of hydrated lime. The addition of
hydrated lime in the asphalt mix improves the tensile strength ratio. However, a well-controlled lime treatment is required to maximize
distribution and dispersion of lime particles on aggregate surfaces. This study also presents various causes of moisture damage and their
mechanisms. Attention is also given to the chemical and mineralogical composition of aggregates and effect of some important minerals on
moisture susceptibility of aggregates. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)TE.1943-5436.0000306. © 2012 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Moisture; Damage; Asphalts; Mixtures; Lime; Hydration; Laboratory tests.
Author keywords: Moisture damage; Asphalt mixtures; Mechanisms; Hydrated lime; Tensile strength ratio; Stripping; Mineralogical.

Introduction
In India, approximately 98% roads are flexible types, probably
because of economy. There are two million miles of paved road-
ways in India. The hot mix asphalt (HMA) is used on approxi-
mately 98% of all paved surfaces. Over time, the existing
highway system has been taxed because of an increased level
of demand. Because of an increased demand from additional and
heavier traffic, lack of resources for additional roadways, and user
expectations regarding safety, HMA pavements must perform well
for longer periods of time, especially in light of budget shortfalls
to cover estimated costs for necessary development. These roads
have a dismal record on performance and durability despite elabo-
rate standards and specifications availability. These roads are
susceptible to deterioration because of reasons like stripping of
pavements. This highlights the need for experimental methods that
can evaluate the asphalt mixture components and analysis proce-
dures that reliably predict performance expectations under varying
moisture condition scenarios.
Bitumen and Aggregates Adhesion
One of the principal functions of a bituminous binder is to act as an
adhesive either between aggregates or between aggregates and the
underlying road surface. The adhesion of bituminous binder to
aggregates presents few problems in the absence of water, although
the excessive dust may create trouble. Because aggregates are
1
Professor, Civil Engineering Dept., Indian Institute of Technology,
Roorkee, India (corresponding author). E-mail: pkaerfce@iitr.ernet.in.
2
M.Tech. Student, Civil Engineering Dept., Indian Institute of Technol-
ogy, Roorkee, India.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on December 17, 2010; approved
on June 7, 2011; published online on June 10, 2011. Discussion period
open until June 1, 2012; separate discussions must be submitted for indi-
vidual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Transportation Engi-
neering, Vol. 138, No. 1, January 1, 2012. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-947X/
2012/1-105–113/$25.00.
wetted more easily by water than by a bituminous binder, the pres-
ence of water can lead to difficulties, either in the initial coating of
dry or wet aggregates or in maintaining an adequate bond between
the binder and the stone. Failure of a bond already formed is called
stripping, which is brought about by the displacement of the bitu-
minous binder from the stone surface of water.
Influence of Aggregate on Stripping
There are number of factors that influence the asphalt-aggregate
bond such as surface texture, penetration of pores and cracks with
asphalt, aggregate angularity, aging of the aggregate surface
through environmental effects, adsorbed coatings on the surface
of the aggregate, chemical and mineralogical composition of ag-
gregates, and the nature of dry aggregates versus wet aggregates.
Surface texture of the aggregate affects its ability to be properly
coated, and a good initial coating is necessary to prevent stripping.
Cheng et al. (2002) demonstrated that the adhesive bond, calcu-
lated from basic surface energy measurements of the asphalt and
aggregate, between certain granites and asphalt was higher than
between limestone aggregate and asphalt when the bond was
quantified as energy per unit of surface area. However, when the
bond was quantified as energy per unit of aggregate mass, the
bond energy was far greater for the calcareous aggregates than
for the siliceous. In addition to the importance of a good mechani-
cal bond promoted by the surface texture, stripping has been de-
termined to be more severe in angular aggregates because the
angularity may promote bond rupture of the binder or mastic
by leaving a point of intrusion for the water. Cheng et al. (2002)
substantiated this and showed that, regardless of the strength of
the bond between the asphalt and aggregate, the bond between
water and aggregate is considerably stronger. There is some evi-
dence that moisture damage can be minimal if stripping is re-
stricted only to the coarse aggregate. If the fine aggregate strips,
severe damage can occur because the fine aggregate constitutes
the basic matrix of the mixture.

JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2012 / 105

Void Structure and Moisture Damage Concept
Moisture transport in a porous medium such as asphalt mixtures is
influenced by the void structure. Therefore, to identify the modes
of moisture transport and their relationship to moisture damage, it
is important to characterize the void structure in asphalt mixtures.
Some transportation agencies attempt to control moisture damage
by limiting the percent of air voids. Air voids in surface asphalt
courses must be as low as possible to control moisture damage
(Mohamed et al. 1993). Nevertheless, even with a low percentage
of air voids, there is evidence of damage produced by infiltration of
water, which proves that total air void content does not provide a
comprehensive measure of the rate of moisture transport in asphalt
mixtures. The size and distribution of air voids in asphalt mixtures
depend mainly on the aggregate properties, mix design, and com-
paction processes. Chen et al. (2004) classified air voids in asphalt
mixtures into three categories: effective, semi-effective, and imper-
meable. However, the identification of these different types of air
voids in laboratory or field samples is difficult because of the
complex internal structure of the material and the limited ability
to explore its interior composition. There are various alternatives to
determine the void structure of porous specimens. Some common
techniques make use of two-dimensional images of the cross
sections of the material acquired by scanning electron microscopy,
spectroscopic imaging techniques (to determine the chemical
composition), and atomic force microscopy. Techniques for three-
dimensional characterizations of porous media include nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging, transmission electron micros-
copy visualization, and X-ray computed tomography (CT) recon-
struction. X-ray CT is a noninvasive technique that has gained wide
acceptance in the past few years. This technique has been success-
fully used to characterize the microstructure of porous materials
such as solid foam textiles, pharmaceutical granules, biological
materials, and asphalt mixtures. Image analysis can be used to
determine the void structure of the material. This nondestructive
procedure has three main advantages:
It allows probabilistic determination of the air voids by meas-
uring the size of individual voids.
It allows the determination of potential paths for moisture trans-
port by identifying interconnected air voids between different
sections. It can be used to compute the ratio of the true length
of a path to the length of the straight line between its ends.
Furthermore, most of the regular dense graded asphalt mix-
tures are designed with an air void content in the range of 5–10%,
which is the most likely range for the average size air voids.
Shanmugasundaram (2005) during laboratory mix design recom-
mends 3–5% of air voids. This range is the level desired after sev-
eral years of traffic. Because traffic also consolidates the pavement
to certain degree, this level will be achieved, if the percent air voids
after construction is approximately 8%. If the final air void content
is more than 5% or if the pavement is constructed with more than
8% air voids initially, then moisture will enter in due course, which
makes bituminous film brittle and develop cracks. If the final
air void content is less than 3%, the expansion of bitumen during
summer season develops bursting stresses and premature fine
cracks form on the pavement surface. Air void content below 3%
greatly increases the probability of premature rutting. It is also
important to mention that factors related to construction such as
mixture production, placement, and compaction also affect the void
structure of asphalt mixtures in the field. For example, Mohamed
et al. (1993) found that common compaction techniques in asphalt
layers generate cracks, commonly known as checks. These cracks
are 1–3 in. apart. Checks are normally not visible and are generated
during the first or second pass of conventional steel-wheel rollers.
106 / JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2012
Cracks act as links between air voids, generating new connected
paths. Studies have also been carried out to analyze the effect of
lift thickness and other construction characteristics in the void
structure of asphalt courses (Mohamed et al. 1993). The image
analysis techniques can be used to characterize the air void struc-
ture of asphalt mixtures prepared in the laboratory or of field cores.
Modes of Moisture Transport
Most of the research pertaining to moisture damage assumes the
presence of water in the material. Therefore, the modes by which
moisture reaches the mixture have usually been overlooked. The
three main modes of moisture transport are infiltration of surface
water, capillary rise of subsurface water, and permeation or diffu-
sion of water vapor.
Infiltration of water from the surface is the main source of mois-
ture in the pavement and is directly related to rainfall, drainage
conditions, and material properties. The main modes of moisture
transport in asphalt mixtures are water permeability, water capillary
rise, and vapor diffusion.
Aggregate-Binder Interface
Moisture in asphalt mixtures generates the cracks in the material.
Crack growth in asphalt mixtures can occur either within the binder
or at the binder-aggregate interface. The former is referred to as
cohesive cracking, and the latter is referred to as adhesive cracking.
Typically, adhesive failure will occur if asphalt binder film is very
thin and cohesive failure will occur if it is very thick. Compared
with cohesive bonds, adhesive bonds are considered to play a more
important role in moisture damage manifested as stripping of the
binder from the aggregate. Three types of interaction forces are
responsible for adhesion between the asphalt binders and aggre-
gate. The first type corresponds to electrostatic interactions
between ions and refers to forces between two separated charges,
resulting from Coulomb’s inverse-square law (i.e., Coulomb
forces). The second type corresponds to electrodynamic interac-
tions through van der Waals forces. The third type corresponds
to interactions through electron pair sharing (i.e., covalent bond).
In this case, the bonds result from the union of two components
when sharing an electron pair. The electrostatic and electrodynamic
interactions are regarded as physico-chemical bonds, and the inter-
actions in the last group are regarded as chemical bonds. Experi-
mental techniques can quantify the susceptibility of adhesive bonds
between the asphalt binder and aggregate to moisture damage.
Huang et al. (2005) presented a comprehensive evaluation of sev-
eral techniques to analyze the aggregate-binder interface system.
The writers analyzed the validity, limitations, and potential of five
techniques using eight binders [Strategic Highway Research
Program (SHRP) core asphalts] and some commonly used aggre-
gates. The techniques evaluated included a sliding plate rheometer,
differential scanning calorimetric, liquid chromatography, centrifu-
gation, and infrared spectroscopy. The writers found that all
techniques are rapid procedures that provide valuable information
about interactions occurring at the interface of the asphalt binder
with the aggregate (also recognized as a thin-film phenomenon).
These techniques are supported by theories that explain adhesive
bond mechanisms and are described subsequently (Hicks 2003;
Little and Jones 2003).
Weak Boundary Layers
The theory suggests that rupture always takes place at the weakest
link found at the interface between materials. These defects at the
interface are possible because of poor wetting, the presence of
voids, and dust at the interface. This theory does not explain
why materials adhere to one another but rather that adhesive bonds
fail in either the adhesive or substrate because of the presence of an
interface region of low cohesive strength.
Electrostatic Forces
The electrostatic theory attributes the adhesive strength between
two materials to the Coulombic forces of attraction at the surface
of the materials. Interactions between solid surfaces and liquid
media containing dissolved ions, such as water, are particularly
important to explain moisture damage in asphalt mixtures.
Chemical Bonding
Research on adhesion attributable to chemical bonding is important
in explaining the moisture damage mechanisms in some aggregate-
binder systems. Chemical bonding theory suggests that the adhe-
sive bond between the asphalt binder and aggregate results from a
chemical reaction between two materials. Bonding between two
materials because of their surface free energy or electrostatic inter-
actions is also based on the chemical nature of these materials.
Mechanical Interlock Theory
Mechanical theory describes the most intuitive adhesion phenome-
non and traditionally involves mechanical gripping of the adhesive
into the cavities, pores, and asperities of the solid surface on a mac-
roscopic scale. After an initial rapid wetting, the filling of micro
voids by the liquid takes place, followed by its solidification.
The resulting interlocking combines the cohesive strength of both
individual solids to form an interface that acts as a composite
material with properties intermediate to those of each material sur-
face. Such a lock and key mechanism of bonding can explain the
good resistance of some bonds to water damage.
Adsorption Theory
The theory can be applied to the vast majority of adhesion and ad-
sorption phenomena of liquids onto solids. Thermodynamic theory
is based on the concept that an adhesive will adhere to a substrate
because of established intermolecular forces at the interface
provided intimate contact is achieved. The magnitude of these
fundamental forces can generally be related to thermodynamic
quantities, such as surface free energies of the materials involved
in the adhesive bond. It describes wetting phenomena and is based
on the measurement of the contact angle between a liquid and
a solid.
Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of Aggregate
Aggregates constitute the biggest part of the mixture (over 94%
by weight) and provide a surface onto which the bitumen/mastic
adheres. The resistance of adhesive bonding to stripping relates to
aspects of the aggregate such as surface charge, polarity, porosity,
type of adsorption sites, and surface energy, which are directly
determined by the minerals and chemical elements present in the
aggregates. Consequently, aggregate composition probably influ-
ences resistance to moisture damage. The sticking of bitumen onto
an aggregate and its replacement by moisture depend partly on
interaction of the polar groups at the interface and interfacial van
der Waals forces, e.g., Keesom orientation forces, Debye induction
forces, and London dispersion forces (Curtis et al. 1993). Some of
these forces depend on the type and magnitudes of aggregate sur-
face charges, which themselves depend on the nature of minerals
and metallic ions present. Martens and Wright (1959) adequately
describe the mechanisms leading to the presence of polar compo-
nents on aggregate surfaces. Aggregate surfaces may also have bro-
ken bonds that result from a break in coordination bonds holding
together the aggregate atomic crystal lattices. This break in bonds
JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2012 / 107
happens during quarrying and crushing. Water or other contami-
nants in the air can be attracted to the fresh surfaces to satisfy bro-
ken bonds. Because water is normally available, the driving force
for the adsorption of water on the freshly crushed aggregate faces is
that it reduces the free energy of the system. These processes seem
to relate to aggregate mineralogy. The common minerals in aggre-
gates include silica, feldspars, carbonates, and clays (Roberts et al.
1991). Silica mineral (SiO2 ) abundant in quartz constitutes the bulk
of quartzite and granite. During quarrying, unsatisfied charges form
by breaking the silicon-oxygen bonds. Hydration occurs when
water vapor releases OH
and Hþ ions to the unsatisfied charges
on silicon and oxygen, respectively. This results in a hydroxyl Ted
surface with surface silanol groups. Equilibrium is established be-
tween these silanols and water depending on the pH of the contact
water. Water with a high pH (OH
ions) stimulates the dissociation
of Hþ ions from silanol groups, causing the surface to become more
negatively charged. At low water pH, silica surfaces become pos-
itively charged. Water molecules can form strong hydrogen bonds
with siliceous surface silanols that may cause replacement of the
bitumen polar parts. Feldspar minerals have mobile species within
their crystal structures (Jones et al. 2004). For example, orthoclase
(KAlSi3 O8 ), albite (NaAlSi3 O8 ), and anorthite (CaAl2 Si2 O8 ) have
alkaline earth metals such as potassium, sodium, and calcium,
respectively, as their mobile species. Other minerals with such
metallic elements include olivine ðMg; FeÞ2 SiO4 and augite
ðCa; Mg; FeÞðSi; AlÞ2 O6 . The nature of interaction between these
metallic elements and the bitumen components determines the
sensitivity of adhesion to moisture. Limestone mainly comprises
CaCO3 , which after crushing exposes electropositive surface char-
acteristics. This is because its interior bonds are broken, leaving
calcium and carbonate ions on the newly formed surfaces. Hydra-
tion of these ions by water vapor results in a characteristic electro-
positive surface. These surface species are available for competition
between water and bitumen polar functionalities. Clay minerals
acquire charges from structural imperfections attributable to ionic
isomorphous substitution. Depending on the valences of the sub-
stituting and substituted cations, a net negative or positive charge
may result on the clay. Hydroxyl groups present on the edges of
clay structures may lead to a pH-dependent charge in the presence
of water. Micas like biotite [KðMg; Fe2þ Þ3 ðAl; Fe3þ ÞSi3 O10 ðOHÞ2 ]
may be poor adherents. Micas are also friable, and this might lead
to premature damage in the presence of water. When moisture
enters the interface, its molecules, being more polar, can often be
more strongly adsorbed on the aggregate surface than the bitumen
component, thus displacing it. There can be cases in which ionic
bonds between bituminous carboxylic acids and metallic ions such
as calcium in the mineral surface (e.g., limestone) may not be
affected by water. It has been found that carboxylic acids in the
bitumen were strongly adsorbed on siliceous aggregates, but were
present in very small amounts. At the same time, carboxylic acids
tend to be displaced first from the aggregate in presence of mois-
ture. This background on previous fundamental research underlines
the dependence of moisture sensitivity on aggregate composition.
Although the influence of moisture damage on pavement perfor-
mance and maintenance costs is not clearly defined, the global
upsurge in use of antistripping additives and the use of many differ-
ent moisture sensitivity tests show that moisture damage is still an
important issue.
Stripping Mechanism
Moisture-related problems are accelerated by:
Adhesive Failure: Stripping of the asphalt film from the aggre-
gate surface.
Cohesive Failure: Loss of mixture stiffness.
 Adhesive failure in aggregates and asphalt occurs at an inter- Table 1. Types of Aggregates Used
face, whereas cohesive failure occurs directly within asphalt. These Serial no. State Region Aggregate
mechanisms can be associated with the aggregate, the binder, or the
interaction between the two ingredients. Stripping usually begins A Uttar Pradesh Jhansi Bundelkhand Granite
at the bottom of the HMA layer and travels upward. A typical sit- B Uttrakhand Dehradun Limestone
uation is a gradual loss of strength over a period of years, which C Rajasthan Jodhpur Sandstone
allows rutting and shoving to develop in the wheel path. D Uttrakhand Hardwar Quartzite
E Delhi NCR — Quartzite

Laboratory Work and Analysis

The foremost function of this laboratory work is to verify the strip-
ping potential of different types of aggregates having different
chemical and mineralogical composition using AASHTO T 283
and ASTM D 1075-54 tests. These tests were performed on com-
pacted bituminous mixture of dense bituminous macadam (DBM)
and bituminous concrete (BC). Marshall Stability method has
been used to determine the optimum bitumen content (OBC). The
Marshall samples were prepared using VG-30 grade bitumen and
different types of aggregate. The mixing temperature was in the
range of 150 to 170°C. The compaction temperature was main-
tained at minimum 90°C.
Procedure Followed for Laboratory Test
The procedure followed for laboratory work involved in this project
is categorized in Fig. 1.
The aggregates used in the study mainly belonged to the cat-
egory of quartzite, granite, limestone, and sandstone. Quartzite is
abundantly available in many parts of the country; therefore two
types of quartzite with different composition were used. These
stones were procured from Hardwar and Delhi. Granite was pro-
cured from Lucknow and it exists in granite reserves of Jhansi
Bundelkhand region. Limestone was procured from Dehradun,
and sandstone was procured from Phalaudi region of Jodhpur.
The limestone used was dark gray in color and to some extent re-
sembles the quartzite procured from Delhi region. Therefore the
limestone was treated with concentrated acid in the laboratory
and on testing it released a heavy amount of carbon dioxide, which
confirmed high content of calcium.
Initially, Marshall samples of each type of aggregate were pre-
pared without lime, and aggregate susceptibility to moisture was
assessed. Later, the same procedure was repeated with addition
of 2% lime as per IRC: 111 (2009) and improvement in resistance
to moisture was determined. Types of aggregates and their place of
origin are shown in Table 1.
The bitumen that in the study was VG-30 grade bitumen that
was characterized for physical properties, and these values were
compared with specified values as per BIS 73-2001 specifications.
Similarly all five types of aggregates and antistripping agent were
characterized for their physical properties and gradation require-
ments as per IRC: 111 (2009). The first four types of aggregates
given in Table 1 met the criteria for both the mixes of DBM and BC
but aggregate at Serial E’ satisfied the requirements for DBM mix
only. The gradation of selected component aggregates and their
proportioning was achieved by trial and error method.
Determination of OBC Using Marshall Stability Method
Optimum bitumen content was determined using Marshall stability
and flow method. Aggregate grading and bitumen content are pre-
sented in Table 2. Requirement of the dense graded bituminous mix
are given in Table 3.
From Table 4, it can be seen that for aggregates with specific
gravity more than 2.7, bitumen content reduces below the mini-
mum limit of 4.5% as in case of Delhi quartzite, whereas in the
case of limestone and sandstone, bitumen content is above 4.5%
despite specific gravity value being more than 2.7. From visual
inspection, it was observed that the fineness of limestone and sand-
stone aggregates was more than Delhi quartzite, therefore it indi-
cates that bitumen content value also depends on fineness of coarse
aggregate.
Table 2. Aggregate Grading and Bitumen Content
Specification DBM BC
Grading 1 2 1 2
Nominal maximum 37.5 26.5 19 13.2
aggregate size (mm)
Layer thickness (mm) 75–100 50–75 50 25=40
Cumulative percent by weight of total
Sieve size (IS) (mm) aggregate passing

Selection of aggregates having different chemical and mineralogical composition. 45 100

37.5 95–100 100
26.5 63–93 90–100 100
Sieve analysis of aggregate and proportioning of material 19 — 71–95 90–100 100
13 55–75 56–80 59–79 90–100
Determination of specific gravity of bitumen and
9.5 — — 52–72 70–88
4.75 38–54 38–54 35–55 53–71
2.36 28–42 28–42 28–44 42–58
1.18 — — 20–34 34–48
Preparation of Marshall samples and testing to determine OBC
0.6 — — 15–27 26–38
0.3 7–21 7–21 10–20 18–28
Ultimately conduct moisture susceptibility related tests 0.15 — — 5–13 12–20
0.075 2–8 2–8 2–8 4–10
Fig. 1. Flow chart for laboratory work procedure Bitumen content (%) 4 4.5 5.2 5.4

108 / JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2012

Table 3. Requirements of the Dense Graded Bituminous Mix
Properties Viscosity grade paving bitumen Test method
Compaction level (number of blows) 75 blows on eachface of the specimen
Minimum stability (KN at 60°C) 9.0 AASHTO T 245
Marshall flow (mm) 2–4 AASHTO T 245
% Air voids 3–5 MS-2 and ASTM D 2041
%Voids filled with bitumen (VFB) 65–75 MS-2
Tensile strength ratio 80% minimum AASHTO T283
Coating of aggregate particles with bitumen 95% minimum IS: 6241
%Voids in mineral aggregate (VMA)
Min % VMA related to designed % air voids
Nominal maximum particle size (mm) 3 4 5
9.5 14 15 16
13.2 13 14 15
19.0 12 13 14
26.5 11 12 13
37.5 10 11 12

Table 4. Summary of Marshall Stability Tests

Volumetric properties
Aggregate Specific gravity (CA) Type of mix Anti-strip agent Air voids (%) VMA (%) VFB (%) OBC (%)
Granite 2.64 DBM No 4.30 15.39 73.0 4.83
DBM Yes 3.30 14.90 82.0 4.98
BC No 5.00 17.40 71.0 5.34
BC Yes 3.90 16.44 76.5 5.45
Limestone 2.88 DBM No 3.80 15.26 76.0 4.58
BC No 3.00 15.10 85.0 4.94
Sandstone 2.73 DBM No 4.15 15.29 75.0 4.77
DBM Yes 3.40 15.08 77.3 4.82
BC No 3.95 16.23 76.8 5.13
BC Yes 3.70 15.73 79.6 5.22
Hardwar quartzite 2.66 DBM No 4.30 15.18 72.0 4.77
DBM Yes 3.00 14.88 78.3 5.01
BC No 3.70 16.56 75.2 5.32
BC Yes 3.30 15.74 79.1 5.35
Delhi quartzite 2.82 DBM No 4.30 14.76 72.3 4.35
DBM Yes 3.68 14.56 74.9 4.50

Also, from volumetric properties summary, it is concluded that
with addition of lime in the mix, air void content reduces but stays
within the prescribed limit of 3–5% that is necessary for drainage of
water. OBC of all BC mixes prepared with and without lime was
within the range prescribed in IRC: 111 (2009).
of 200°C and then allowed to cool at room temperature
for 5 min.
• The resulting solution was diluted with distilled water, filtered,
and analyzed using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer
(AAS). The chemical analysis of aggregates is given in Table 5.

Aggregate Characterization Tests

Table 5. Chemical Analysis of Aggregates Using AAS
The aggregates were characterized on the basis of chemical and
Chemical contents of the aggregates studied
mineralogical composition, and testing procedure is described sub-
(% by weight)
sequently in detail:
• Contents of potassium, sodium, iron, magnesium, calcium, and Aggregate Calcium Ca Iron Fe Magnesium Mg Potassium K
manganese are determined by digesting 200 mg of aggregate Granite 11.20 4.46 6.40 2.60
samples, ground to minus 100 mesh sieve, with 10 ml of hy- Limestone 30.41 6.63 12.2 1.00
drofluoric acid (concentration 40%) reagent mixed with 3 ml
Sandstone 6.66 22.57 3.55 2.20
of perchloric acid (concentration 70%).
Hardwar quartzite 1.82 15.54 23.90 10.60
• The mixture of the acids and the sample was heated in a
50-ml beaker for 1 h on a hot plate with a surface temperature Delhi quartzite 9.20 3.60 5.50 2.20

JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2012 / 109

Moisture Susceptibility Tests The results of these tests are given in Tables 6–12.

The moisture susceptibility tests were performed on loose and com- Limestone
pacted bituminous mixtures to assess the aggregate potential to It was observed during the vacuum saturation that Marshall samples
resist stripping. The following two tests were conducted to deter- prepared with limestone aggregate comparatively took more time
mine the potential of HMA mixture to stripping, and their results than other type of aggregates. In the case of granite, sandstone, and
are shown in Tables 6–12: quartzite the time taken for vacuum saturation of samples was
Test on loose or uncompacted mixtures; 25–30 min to achieve a saturation level of 55–70%, whereas in
10 min boiling water test (ASTM D 3625-91) shown in Table 6; limestone the time taken was 50–60 min to achieve the same level
Test on compacted specimens; of saturation.
Effect of water on cohesion of compacted bituminous mixes
(ASTM D 1075-54) shown in Table 7; Retained Marshall Stability DBM Mix with and without
Resistance of compacted asphalt mixtures to moisture damage Lime (ASTM D 1075-54)
(AASHTO T283) shown in Tables 8–12. From Table 7, it can be seen that all the surfaces have more than
required values of retained Marshall Stability for DBM mixes
prepared without the use of anti-stripping agent, i.e., lime. These
Table 6. Moisture Susceptibility Test Results on Loose Mixtures of values are ranging from 80.2 to 87.9%. These values are further
Granite, Sandstone, Limestone, and Delhi Quartzite
improved by 8–12% in all the aggregates on addition of 2% quan-
Moisture susceptibility tity of lime. In the case of limestone, the mix was prepared without
Aggregate Boiling water as per ASTM D 3625-91 the use of lime content, and the retained Marshall Stability value
obtained is 98.8%.
Granite < 5%
Sandstone < 5% Retained Marshall Stability of BC Mix with and without
Limestone < 5% Lime (ASTM D 1075-54)
Delhi quartzite < 5% From Table 7, it can be seen that all the surfaces have more than
Hardwar quartzite > 5% required values of retained Marshall Stability for BC mix prepared
without the use of anti-stripping agent lime. These values are rang-
ing from 86.5 to 89.1%. These values are further improved by
Table 7. Retained Stability as per ASTM D 1075-54 8–10% in all cases on addition of 2% quantity of lime. In the case
Retained Retained Retained Retained of limestone, the mix was prepared without the use of lime content,
stability stability stability stability and the retained Marshall Stability value obtained is 98%. The
(DBM (DBM (BC (BC Delhi quartzite was not tested for BC mix because its impact value
without without without without did not meet the design criteria of BC mix laid down by Ministry of
Aggregate type lime) % lime) % lime) % lime) % Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) specifications.
Granite 87.9 95.2 89.1 96.8
Tensile Strength Ratio of DBM and BC Mixes with and
Limestone 98.8 — 98.0 — without Lime (AASHTO T 283)
Sandstone 83 94 87.8 97
Hardwar quartzite 80.2 91.8 86.5 94.5
Tables 8–12 compare the TSR for samples with and without anti-
stripping agent for two conditioning methods. The results of the
Delhi quartzite 84.5 93.9 — —
AASHTO T 283 mixes demonstrate that two of the mixes for DBM

Table 8. Tensile Strength Ratio as per AASHTO T283 on Granite Aggregate

Type of Mix State of samples Number of samples Adjusted blows Avg air voids (%) Vacuum saturation (%) TSR (%)
DBM without Lime Conditioned 03 25 7.1 63–68 70.0
Unconditioned 03 25 6.9 —
DBM with Lime Conditioned 03 21 7.31 63–70 78.3
Unconditioned 03 21 7.32 —
BC without Lime Conditioned 03 24 6.7 57–65 72.8
Unconditioned 03 24 6.9 —
BC with Lime Conditioned 03 21 7.4 65–70 82.35
Unconditioned 03 21 7.2 —

Table 9. Tensile Strength Ratio as per AASHTO T283 on Limestone Aggregate

Type of mix State of samples Number of samples Adjusted blows Average air voids (%) Vacuum saturation (%) TSR (%)
DBM Conditioned 03 22 7.6 60–64 92.29
Unconditioned 03 22 7.2 —
BC Conditioned 03 22 6.3 56–58 93.1
Unconditioned 03 22 6.4 —

110 / JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2012

Table 10. Tensile Strength Ratio as per AASHTO T283 on Sandstone Aggregate
Type of mix State of samples Number of samples Adjusted blows Average air voids (%) Vacuum saturation (%) TSR (%)
DBM without lime Conditioned 03 26 7.08 65–70 74.29
Unconditioned 03 26 6.8 —
DBM with lime Conditioned 03 23 6.33 64–70 84.0
Unconditioned 03 23 6.25 —
BC without lime Conditioned 03 24 6.7 57–65 76.0
Unconditioned 03 24 6.9 —
BC with lime Conditioned 03 19 7.32 63–72 87.0
Unconditioned 03 19 7.14 —

Table 11. Tensile Strength Ratio as per AASHTO T283 on Hardwar Quartzite
Type of mix State of samples Number of samples Adjusted blows Avg air voids (%) Vacuum saturation (%) TSR (%)
DBM without lime Conditioned 03 31 6.8 61–66 68.0
Unconditioned 03 31 6.9 —
DBM with lime Conditioned 03 28 6.7 57–67 78.6
Unconditioned 03 28 6.4 —
BC without Lime Conditioned 03 27 7.0 60–66 71.6
Unconditioned 03 27 6.7 —
BC with Lime Conditioned 03 23 7.1 62–68 81.3
Unconditioned 03 23 7.3 —

Table 12. Tensile Strength Ratio as per AASHTO T283 on Delhi Quartzite
Type of mix State of samples Number of samples Adjusted blows Average air voids (%) Vacuum saturation (%) TSR (%)
DBM without lime Conditioned 03 24 6.9 61–63 72.2
Unconditioned 03 24 7.2 —
DBM with lime Conditioned 03 22 7.0 59–65 83.5
Unconditioned 03 22 7.3 —

do not meet MoRTH criteria even on addition of 2% lime in the
mix. Although two of the mixes failed the TSR requirement as
tested during this study, there are two mixes in which TSR values
were less than the prescribed limit but improved to meet the pre-
scribed criteria on addition of 2% lime. Limestone mix was tested
without the use of an anti-stripping agent and successfully met the
standards, which indicates high content of CaCO3 .
The results of the AASHTO T 283 mixes demonstrate that out of
four mixes tested for BC, three of the mixes could not meet the
prescribed value of 80% but ultimately met the prescribed criteria
on addition of 2% lime. Lime acts as water proofing agent and, after
addition of lime, the mixes responded favorably. Lime stone mix
was tested without the use of an anti-stripping agent and success-
fully met the standards, which indicates high content of CaCO3 .
Aggregate Washing and Mixing of Lime
After analyzing the AASHTO T 283 results, the granite aggregate
was washed with water and dried in oven at a temperature of 135 to
145°C for 1 h. This aggregate was used for the preparation of DBM
mix without the use of lime, and the AASHTO T 283 test was re-
conducted. With mere washing of granite aggregate, the value of
TSR increased from 70 to 72.9%. The number of blows applied
for compaction of specimen and average air voids was similar
to the mix of unwashed aggregates.

Table 13. Tensile Strength Ratio as per AASHTO T 283 on Washed Granite Aggregate
Type of mix State of samples Number of samples Adjusted blows Average air voids (%) Vacuum saturation (%) TSR (%)
DBM without lime (washed aggregate) Conditioned 03 25 7.2 63–69 72.9
Unconditioned 03 25 7.1 —
DBM with lime (washed aggregate) Conditioned 03 21 7.22 62–69 83.7
Unconditioned 03 21 7.30 —
BC without lime (washed aggregate) Conditioned 03 24 6.9 59–68 74.3
Unconditioned 03 24 6.8 —
BC with lime (washed aggregate) Conditioned 03 21 7.2 68–70 86.1
Unconditioned 03 21 7.2 —

JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2012 / 111


Fig. 2. Variation in mean TSR (%) with chemical composition of
aggregates
The DBM mix with lime for washed granite aggregate was
produced again but the process of mixing lime with the aggregate
was altered. In this case, the aggregate was washed and dry
hydrated lime was added on wet aggregate and mixed properly.
The aggregate was dried in an oven at a temperature of 135 to
145°C for 30 min. The addition of dry hydrated lime on wet ag-
gregate surfaces was typically more effective than addition of
dry lime during the preparation of mix. The AASHTO T 283 test
was conducted, and a sharp increase in TSR value was observed.
The value increased from 78.3 to 83.7%. The number of blows ap-
plied for compaction of specimen and average air voids was similar
to the mix of unwashed aggregates. The same procedure was re-
peated for BC mixes. The results obtained are given in Table 13.
Mean TSR and Chemical Analysis of Aggregates
Fig. 2 compares the mean TSR for samples with and without anti-
stripping agent for DBM and BC mixes. The results of the
AASHTO T 283 mixes demonstrate that mean TSR value varies
with chemical content present in the aggregates. Hardwar quartzite,
which contains a large amount of potassium and a small amount of
calcium, shows the lowest TSR value among all the mixes, whereas
limestone, which has high content of calcium and negligible
amount of potassium, shows maximum tensile strength. The study
indicates that aggregates containing alkali metallic elements such
as potassium exhibited relatively high moisture sensitivity for the
bitumen used in this study. There were very few indications of
moisture sensitivity for aggregates containing calcium, magnesium,
and iron.
Conclusions
The following conclusions are drawn from the study:
A correlation between the OBC of DBM mix and BC mix was
observed. In case the specific gravity of aggregate is more than 2.7
then the OBC of DBM and BC mix of same aggregate varies by an
amount of 0.4%, and if specific gravity of aggregate is less than 2.7
then the difference varies by an amount of 0.45 to 0.50% provided
aggregate is of the same source and having the same mineral and
chemical composition. In case of Hardwar aggregate, OBC values
were erratic because the aggregate was river shingle, which varies
in its mineral and chemical composition.
112 / JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2012
The OBC difference of mixes prepared with lime and without
lime generally lies between 0.10 and 0.15% provided aggregate is
of the same source and having the same mineral and chemical
composition.
Results obtained in this study indicate that the tensile strength
ratio of two DBM mixes (granite and Hardwar quartzite) did not
satisfactorily meet the MoRTH criteria even on addition of 2%
lime. These values were 78.3 and 78.6%; however, aggregates had
passed the physical requirements test and ASTM D 1075-54 test.
The tensile strength ratio of granite aggregate gets improved
from 70 to 83.7% by using washed aggregate and by modifying
the procedure of lime addition in the mix. The addition of dry
hydrated lime on washed and wet aggregate surfaces was typically
more effective than addition of dry hydrated lime in dried and
unwashed aggregates.
The tensile strength ratio of BC mix satisfactorily met the
MoRTH criteria on addition of 2% lime in the mix, and the tensile
strength ratio of granite aggregate improved from 72.8 to 86.3% on
washing the aggregate and by modifying the procedure of lime
addition in the mix.
Evenly distributed and well-dispersed treatment of hydrated
lime is necessary to maximize its beneficial effects on mixture
performance.
Mixes treated with hydrated lime performed better than untreated
mixes because of the following combined effects of hydrated lime,
i.e., because of increase in stiffness, strength, and toughness of mix
that induces better resistance of mix against degradation in the pres-
ence of moisture and also because of the enhancement of asphalt-
aggregate interfacial bonding that produces better resistance to
stripping.
It was observed during the vacuum saturation that Marshall sam-
ples prepared with limestone aggregate comparatively took 25 to
30 min more than other type of aggregates to achieve a saturation
level of 55–70%.
The presence of calcium carbonate in aggregate can be verified
in field conditions by treating the aggregate with acids used for
domestic purposes to avoid addition of lime in the mix and also to
have economical use of bitumen.
Mixtures from aggregates containing alkali metallic elements
like potassium exhibited relatively high moisture sensitivity for the
bitumen used in this study. Potassium gives the surfaces that are
more reactive with highly polar water. Therefore the Hardwar
aggregate, having high potassium content, exhibited less tensile
strength ratio. On the other hand, there were comparatively fewer
indications of moisture sensitivity for aggregates containing cal-
cium, magnesium, and iron.
A minimum 2% of hydrated lime as a filler in asphalt mixes
would reduce the moisture susceptibility of aggregates as specified
in IRC: 111 (2009); however, chemical analysis of aggregates
should also be carried out or area specific mineralogical data should
be procured from the geological departments.
Notation
The following symbols are used in this paper:
BC = bituminous concrete;
CA = coarse aggregate;
DBM = dense bituminous macadam;
HMA = hot mix asphalt;
MoRTH = Ministry of Road Transport and Highways;
OBC = optimum bitumen content;
VFB = voids filled with bitumen; and
VMA = voids in mineral aggregate.
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