Anatomy & Physiology
organs that work together closely
Chapter 1
•Anatomy - the study of the structure and shape
of the human body.
•Physiology – the study of the function of the
human body (physio = nature; ology = the study
of )
•”The complimentary of structure and function”
Levels of Structural Organization
•Chemical Level – atoms combine to form
molecules
• Subatomic Particles – electrons, protons,
and neutrons
• Atom – hydrogen atom, lithium atom,
etc.
• Molecule – water molecule, glucose
molecule, etc.
• Macromolecule – protein molecule, DNA
molecule, etc.
• Organelle – mitochondrion, Golgi
apparatus, nucleus, etc.
•Cellular Level – cells are made up of molecules.
All Cells have some common structures and
functions, but individual cells vary widely in size,
shape and their particular roles in the body.
• Cell – muscle cell, nerve cell, etc.
•Tissue Level – consist of similar types of cells.
• Tissue – epithelia, connective, muscle
and nerve
•Organ Level – Organs are made up of different
types of tissues.
• Organ – skin, femur, heart, kidney, etc
•Organ System Level – consist of different
• Organ system – skeletal system,
digestive system, etc.
•Organismal level – Human organisms are made
up of many organ systems.
• Organism – the human
Homeostasis - Maintaining of a stable
internal environment (homeo = the same ; stasis
= standing still)
•Homeostatic Control Mechanisms – monitors
aspects of the internal environment and corrects
as needed. Variations are within limits. There are
three (3) parts:
- Receptor - provides information about the
stimuli
- Control Center - tells what a particular value
should be (called the set point)
- Effector - elicits responses that change
conditions in the internal environment
Components of Homeostatic Control
Mechanism
•Receptors(input) – sensor that monitors and
responds to changes in the environment.
-stimuli – the changes
-afferent pathway – pathway from receptor to
control center.
•Control center(set point) – analyzes the
information it receives and determines the
appropriate response or course of action
•Effector(output) – provides control center’s
responseto the stimulus;
-efferent pathway – pathway from control
center to effector
Feedback Mechanism •Proximal - close to the origin of a body part or
the point of attachment of a limb to the body
•Negative Feedback
trunk
• Prevents sudden, severe changes in the
•Distal - farther from the origin of a body part or
body
to the point of attachment of a limb of a body
• Corrects the set point trunk

• Causes opposite of bodily disruption to •Superficial - toward or at the body surface

occur, i.e. the ‘negative’
•Deep - away from the body surface; more
• Most common type of feedback loop internal

• Examples: body temperature, blood Body planes

pressure & glucose regulation
•Sagittal section - lengthwise or longitudinal
•Positive Feedback
•Median section(midsagittal) - right and left
• Increases (accelerates) the actions of the
•Frontal section(coronal) - lengthwise that
body
divides anterior and posterior
• short-lived
•Transverse section - horizontal; divide superior
• do not require continuous adjustments and inferior
• Examples: blood clotting and child birth Other Body Section
Anatomical Position – reference point for •Cross-section
regional and directional terminology;
•Oblique section
Directional Terms
•longitudinal section
•Superior - toward the head end or upper part of
Body Cavity
a structure of the body; above
-provide different degrees of protection to the
•Inferior - away from the head end or toward the
organs within
lower part of a structure or the body; below
•Dorsal Cavity
•Anterior - toward or at the front of the body; in
front of • Cranial cavity - space inside the bony
skull; protects brain
•Posterior- toward or at the back side of the
body; behind • Spinal cavity - from cranial cavity to the
end of spinal cord; protects spine
•Medial - toward or at the midline of the body;
on the inner side of •Ventral Cavity
•Lateral - away from the midline of the body; on • Thoracic Cavity - protects heart and
the outer side of lungs
•Intermediate - between a more medial and a • Abdominopelvic Cavity - inferior to the
more lateral structure diaphragm
 • Abdominal Cavity - protect stomach,
liver, intestines and other organs
• Pelvic Cavity - protect reproductive
organ, bladder and rectum
Other Body Cavity
• Oral and Digestive Cavity - contains mouth,
teeth and tongue and continuous to the
digestive organs to the anus
•Nasal Cavity - within and posterior to the nose
•Orbital Cavity - skull house the eyes
•Middle Ear Cavity - medial to the eardrums; has
tiny bones that transmit sound vibration to the
hearing receptions in the inner ears
Chapter 2
Matter
-anything that occupies space and has mass
•Weight - measure of gravity pulling on mass
•Solid - have definite shape and volume; bone
and teeth
•Liquid - have definite volume but conforms to
the shape of container; blood plasma and
intestinal fluid
•Gas - have neither definite shape nor volume;
air we breathe
Element
-composed of chemically identical atoms
● Bulk elements - required by the body in
large amounts
●Trace elements - required by the body in
small amounts
●Ultratrace elements - required by the body
in very minute amounts
Atoms
-smallest particle of an element
●Proton - positive charge
●Neutron - no charge
●Electron - negative charge
Nucleus
-central part of an atom; composed of
protons and electrons; electrons move
around the nucleus
●Atomic number - no. Of protons in the
nucleus; equal number to electrons; unique
atomic number each element
●Mass number - no. of protons plus the no.
of neutrons
●Atomic weight - average mass number of
the isotopes of an element
●Isotopes - atoms with same atomic number
but different mass number; oxygen often
form isotopes
Molecule
-particle formed when two or more atoms
chemically combine
Compound
-particle formed when two or more different
elements chemically combine
Bonding of Atoms
- when two atoms combine
-if 18 atoms or less:
• First shell - 2 electrons
• Second - up to 8 electrons
• Third - up to 18 electrons
●Electron shells - orbits; region of space
which circle the nucleus
●Ions - electrically charged atom; gains or ●Robert Hooke
loses electrons to be stable
●Major parts:
●Cation - positive ion; when an atom lose
• Nucleus
electrons
• Cytoplasm
●Anion - negative ion; when an atom gains
electrons • Cell membrane(plasma membrane)
Ionic bonds Cell membrane
-attraction of cation and anion; when -outer limit of cell; controls what moves in
electrons transfer from atom to another and out of the cell
Covalent bond -cholesterol stabilizes the membrane

-when atoms share electrons ●Phospholipid bilayer:

• Carbon - form four bonds • Hydrophilic - Water-soluble “heads”

from surface
• Hydrogen - form single bonds
• Hydrophobic - water-insoluble “tails”
• Oxygen - form two bonds from interior
• Nitrogen - form three bonds • Parmeable to lipid soluble substance
●Polar molecule - slight negative end and ●Proteins:
slight positive end; when electrons are not
shared equally in covalent • Receptors

Hydrogen bonds • Cell Adhesion Molecule (CAMs)

-weak attraction of positive end of polar • Pores, channels and carriers

molecule and negative end of another;
Cell Adhesion Molecule
important for protein and nucleic acid
structure -guide cells on the move; important for growth
of embryonic tissue and nerve cells
Chemical composition
●Integrin - guides white blood cells through
●Inorganic Compound - lack carbon and tend
capillary walls
to be small, simple molecule
●Selectin - allows white blood cells to
●Organic Compound - contain carbon; fairly
“anchor”
large covalent molecules
Cytoplasm
●Acid - sour taste; can dissolve metal
●Base - bitter taste; slippery -”factory floor”; site of most cellular activities
-3 major components
Chapter 3
• Cytosol
●Cell - basic organizational structure of
human body; 50-100 trillion cells ; differ in • Inclusions
size and shape
• Organelles
Organelles
-metabolic machinery of the cell
●Endoplasmic Reticulum(ER) - transport
system; connected, membrane-bound sacs,
canals and vesicles
●Rough ER - studded with ribosomes
●Smooth ER - arriving from rough ER; break
down of drugs; lipid synthesis
●Ribosomes - free floating or connected to
ER; provide structural support and enzyme
activity to amino acids to form proteins
●Golgi apparatus - stack of flattened,
membranous sacs; modifies, packages and
delivers proteins
●Vesicles - membranous sacs;
substances
●Mitochondria - powerhouse of the cell;
membranous sacs with inner partitions
●Lysosomes - enzyme containing sacs;
digest worn out cell parts
●Perixosomes - enzyme containing sacs;
break down organic molecules
●Centrosomes - two rod-like centrioles; used
to produce cilia and flagella; distributes
chromosomes during cell division
●Cilia - short hair-like projections; propel
substance on cell surface
●Flagellum - long tail-like projection;
provides motility to sperm
●Microtubules &microfilaments - thin rods
and tubules; support cytoplasm; allows for
movement of organelles
●Inclusions - temporary nutrients
pigments
●Cell Nucleus - control center of the cell
●Nuclear envelope - porous double
membrane; separates nucleoplasm from
cytoplasm
●Nucleolus - dense collection of RNA and
proteins; site of ribosome production
●Chromatin - fibers of DNA and proteins;
stores information for synthesis of proteins
●Microvilli - tiny projections on the free
surface of some epithelial cells; increase
surface area for absorption
Passive Process (Physical)
-no cellular energy
• Simple diffusion - movement of
substances from regions of higher
concentration to lower concentration;
store
oxygen, carbon dioxide
• Faciliated diffusion - diffusion across
a membrane with the help of a
channel or carrier molecule; glucose
and amino acids
• Osmosis - the diffusion of water(a
solvent) through a membrane from a
dilute solution into a more
concentrated one
• Filtration - passive process of forcing
water and solutes through a
membrane using a fluid pressure
gradient
Active Process (Physiological)
-require cellular energy
• Endocytosis - cell engulfs a
substance by forming a vesicle
around the substance
and  Three types:
 Pinocytosis - substance is mostly water
 Phagocytosis - substance is a solid
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis -
requires the substance to bind a
membrane-bound receptor
• Exocytosis - reverse of endocytosis;
connects released outside the cell;
substances in a vesicle fuse with cell
membrane; release of
neurotransmitter from nerve cells
• Transcytosis - transports a substance
rapidly through a cell; HIV crossing a
cell layer
The Cell cycle
- series of changes a cell undergoes from
time it forms until the time it divides
●The three stages:
• Interphase
• Mitosis
• Cytokinesis
●Interphase - very active period; cell grows,
maintains routine functions, replicates
genetic material to prepare for nuclear
division and synthesizes new organelles to
prepare for cytoplasmic division
• G phase - cell grows and synthesizes
structure other than DNA
• S phase - cell replicates DNA
●Mitosis - produces two daughter cells from
an original somatic cell
●Karyokinesis - Nucleus divides
●Cytokinesis - Cytoplasm divides
●Phases of Nurclear division
• Prophase - chromosomes form;
nuclear envelope disappears
• Metaphase - chromosomes align
midway between centrioles
• Anaphase - chromosomes separate
and move to centrioles
• Telophase - chromatin forms; nuclear
envelope forms
●Cytokinesis - division of cytoplasm that
occurs after the cell nucleus has divided
●Protein synthesis -
• Fibrous proteins(structural) -
important in binding structures
together and provide strength in
certain body tissues; collagen in
bones and cartilages and keratin in
hair and nails
• Globular proteins (functional) -
functional structure is basically
spherical; hemoglobin, enzyme and
hormones
●Genes - DNA segment that carries the
information for building one protein
●RNA(ribonucleic acid) -
• rRNA(Ribosomal RNA) - helps form
ribosomes, where proteins are built
• mRNA(Messenger RNA) - carry the
“message” containing instructions for
protein synthesis from DNA in
nucleus to ribosomes in cytoplasm
• tRNA(Transfer RNA) - escort amino
acids to ribosomes
●Transcription - transfer of information from
sequence of bases in DNA to complementary
sequence of mRNA
• Triplet - three-base sequence
sspecifying a particular amino acid on
the DNA
• Codons - three-base sequence on
mRNA
●Translation - translation of nucleic acids
language to proteins’s language
 • Anticodons - three-based sequence
that temporarily binds to
complementary codons
Body Tissues
- group of cells that are similar in structure
and function
Epithelial Tissue or Epithelium
- (epithe = laid on; covering; plural epithelia)
lining, covering and glandular tissue in the
body; protection, absorption, filtration,
secretion
●Apical surface - exposed to body’s exterior
or to the cavity of an internal organ
●Basal or basement surface - a structureless
material secreted by both epithelial and
connective tissue; protection
Classification of Epithelium
●Simple Epithelium - single layer;
absorption, secretion and filtration
●Stratified Epithelium - two or more cell
layer;
●Squamous - cells wider thet their height; flat
fish scale like
●Cuboidal - has cells whose height and width
the same (cube)
●Columnar - has cells taller that its width
(column)
●Simple squamous epithelium - found in
lungs and heart; forms serous membrane
●Simple Cuboidal epithelium - common in
glands and associated with ducts; kidney and
ovaries
●Simple Columnar epithelium -goblet cells
produce lubricating mucus; digestive tract to
anus
●Pseudostratified Columnar epithelium -
trachea and upper respiratory system
●Stratified squamous epithelium - skin,
mouth, esophagus
●Stratified Cuboidal & columnar epithelium -
ducts of large glands
● Transitional Epithelium - stretched; urinary
bladder, ureters and urethra
●Glandular epithelium - secretion
• Exocrine glands - retain ducts; sweat
• Endocrine glands - ductless
Connective Tissue
- connects body parts; protecting,
supporting, binding together
●Extracellular Matrix - consist of ground
substance and fibers that separate living
cells
●Bone(osseus) - composed of osteocytes
(bone cells)
●Cartilage - less hard and more flexible that
bone; chrondrocytes (cartilage cells)
• Fibrocartilage - cushionlike disk
between vertebrae of spinal cord
• Elastic cartilage - elastic; ears
●Dense Connective Tissue - strong, ropelike
• Tendons - attach skeletal muscle to
bone
• Ligaments - connect bone to bone at
joints
●Loose Connective tissue - softer, have
more cells and fewer fibers
• Areolar Connective tissue - soft,
“cobwebby”; wraps and protects
organs
• Adipose connective tissue - fat;
protects body from bumps, heat and
cold
 • Reticular connective tissue - Chapter 4
interwoven;
●Blood (Vascular Tissue) - consist of blood
cells surrounded by blood plasma
Muscle Tissue
- specialized to contract in order to produce a
force that causes movement
●Skeletal Tissue (Voluntary muscle) -
attached to body’s skeleton
●Cardiac Tissue(Involuntary muscle) -
specialized muscle of the heart with striations
and intercalated disks
●Smooth Muscle (visceral) - consist of
spindle-shaped, unstripped muscle cells,
stomach, uterus, blood vessels
Nervous Tissue
-specialized for irritability and conductivity:
brain, spinal cord, nerves
●Tissue Repair - techniques from protecting
the body from uninvited guest or injury
• Inflammation - non specific body
response that attempts to prevent
further injury
• Immune response - specific and
mounts a vigorous attack against
invaders like bacteria, virus and toxin
●Regeneration - replacement of destroyed
tissue by the same kind of cells
●Fibrosis - repair by dense connective tissue
by formation of scar tissue
●Neoplasm (new growth) - abnormal cell
mass
●Metastasis - formation of new masses at
other body sites
●Carcinogens(cancer-causer) - radiation,
mechanical trauma, viral infection, chemicals
●Integumentary System (covering) - skin and
its various structures
●Skin Cells - help produce Vitamin D needed
for normal bone and tooth development
●Keratinocytes - produce substance that
stimulate development of some white blood
cells
●Layers of Skin:
●Epidermis - keratinized; ;lacks blood
vessels; rests on basement membrane;
stratified squamous epithelia
• Thinnest on palm (0.5 mm)
• Thickest on sole (4mm)
5 Layers of Epidermis
• Stratum corneum
• Stratum lucidum
• Stratum granulosum
• Stratum spinosum
• Stratum basale
●Heredity and environment determine skin
color
●Genetic Factors - varying amounts and size
of melanin; albinos lack melanin
●Environment Factors - sunlight, x-rays, UV
light from sunlamps; darkens melanin
●Physiological Factors - dilation and
constriction of dermal blood vessels;
accumulation of carotene; jaundice
●Dermis(1.0-2.0 mm) - binds epidermis to
underlying tissue; nerve cell process;
specialized sensory receptors; blood
vessels, muscle cells, glands, hair follicles
2 Layers of Dermis
 • Papillary Layer - thin, superficial;
dermal papillae
• Reticular Layer - 80% of dermis;
cleavage, tension of Langer’s lines
located
●Hypodermis or Subcutanous Layer
(superficial fascia) - Major blood vessels
present; adipose tissue present
Active body cells and heat producers:
• Skeletal Muscle
• Cardiac Muscle
• Cells of certain glands like liver
●Radiation - primary means of heat loss
●Hypothermia - abnormally low body temp.

Accessory Structures of the Skin ●Hyperthermia - abnormally high body temp.

-originate from the epidermis ●Inflammation - normal response to injury or

stress
●Hair Follicles - epidermis to dermis; tube-
like depression; arrector pili muscle Inflamed skin may be:

●Necrotic - death of cells or tissue • Reddened, Swollen, Warm, Painful

3 Parts of Hair Follicles: ●Types of Burns

• Hair Root • First Degree - superficial; partial

thickness
• Hair Shaft
• Second Degree - deep; partial-
• Hair Papilla thickness
●Nails - protective covering • Third Degree - full-thickness
3 Parts of Nail: Rules of Nine for Adults (÷ 2 for infants)
• Nail plate Perineum - 1%
• Nail bed
Posterior Anterior
• Lunula
Head 41 2 % 41 2 %
●Sweat Glands(sudoriferous glands) -
originate in deeper in dermis or hypodermis; Trunk 18% 18%

●Sebaceous Glands - holocrene glands; Upper 41 2 % 41 2 %

secrete sebum(oil); associated with hair extrimities
follicles
Lower 41 2 % 41 2 %
●Hypoxemia - blood inadequate extremities
●Hypoxia - tissue inadequate

Regulation of Body Temperature

- vitally important because even slight shifts

can disrupt metabolic reactions.
●Heat - a product of cellular metabolism;