Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 154 (2018) 222–226

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Computers and Electronics in Agriculture

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compag

Original papers

Cutaneous evaporative thermolysis and hair coat surface temperature of T

calves evaluated with the aid of a gas analyzer and infrared thermography
⁎
João Batista Freire de Souza Jr.a, , João Paulo Araújo Fernandes de Queiroza,
Victoria Julia Silva dos Santosa, Maiko Roberto Tavares Dantasb, Renata Nayhara de Limac,
Patrícia de Oliveira Limad, Leonardo Lelis de Macedo Costaa
a
Laboratory of Biometeorology and Environmental Biophysics, Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido, Mossoró, Brazil
b
Laboratory of Animal Germplasm Conservation, Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido, Mossoró, Brazil
c
Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Rio Grande do Norte, Ipanguaçu, Brazil
d
Department of Animal Sciences, Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido, Mossoró, Brazil

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The aim of this study was to assess the cutaneous evaporative thermolysis (CET) of different body regions of
Heat stress calves and its relationship to microclimate and coat surface temperature with the use of a gas analyzer and
Hot environments infrared thermography. Our study addresses two questions: (1) Is CET related to surface temperature and/or
Ruminants ambient temperature? (2) Is CET distributed heterogeneously over the body surface, as observed in adult ani-
Thermoregulation
mals? For the purposes of this study, we used twenty-three confined, crossbred calves (Holstein × Zebu). The
microclimate was evaluated for air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and black globe temperature. Air
temperature was analyzed as temperature classes (< 25 °C, 25–29 °C, and > 29 °C). CET was determined using a
ventilated capsule coupled to a CO2/H2O analyzer. Hair coat surface temperature was measured using infrared
thermography. We chose the same body regions that were analyzed for CET. Body surface temperature did not
differ between the flank and hindquarters, but both these areas differed from the neck, which had the highest
mean temperature. CET did not differ between body regions. No statistical difference was found for mean CET
between TA classes < 25 °C and 25–29 °C. However, there was a significant increase in CET when the air tem-
perature was > 29 °C. Under conditions of high temperature and shading, CET is positively related to en-
vironmental temperature and is homogeneously distributed over the body surface of calves.

1. Introduction
Significant changes in the annual distribution and volume of pre-
cipitation, as well as higher ambient temperatures, have shown that
climatic changes have occurred in recent decades (Giannini et al.,
2017). Climate change could cause a rise in the planet’s mean surface
temperature of between 0.4 °C and 2.6 °C by mid-century, relative to
1986–2005 (IPCC, 2014). In the future, breeding of production animals
in extensive and semi-extensive systems may be negatively affected by
direct exposure to abiotic factors such as solar radiation, temperature,
humidity, and wind.
Understanding the mechanisms by which excess body heat gained
from the environment is dissipated is essential. Knowledge of these
mechanisms could advance the creation and implementation of new
management techniques with the objective of minimizing productive
losses (Araujo et al., 2017; Santana et al., 2017; Torres et al., 2017).
It is well known that the entire body surface of an animal is involved
in the thermal exchanges with the environment by evaporative and
non-evaporative pathway. Small animals such as calves have a greater
ability to thermal exchange than adult cattle because of its larger body
surface area in relation to their body volume. The body surface area of
cattle has been estimated as a function of body mass by predictive
equations, from newborn calves to adult animals (Brody, 1945; Johnson
et al., 1961).
In this context, cutaneous evaporative thermolysis (CET) plays a key
role in the adaptation of cattle thermoregulation to high temperature
environments (Berman, 1957). This heat loss pathway is related to
environmental factors, as well as some physiological responses of ani-
mals to environmental stimuli. The sweating rate has been reported to
be higher in Bos indicus and its crossbreds than in Bos taurus (Amakiri

⁎
Corresponding author at: Laboratory of Biometeorology and Environmental Biophysics, Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido, Francisco Mota Avenue, 572,
Mossoró 59625-900, Brazil.
E-mail address: souza.jr@ufersa.edu.br (J.B.F. de Souza).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2018.09.004
Received 1 May 2018; Received in revised form 20 August 2018; Accepted 8 September 2018
0168-1699/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
J.B.F. de Souza et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 154 (2018) 222–226

and Onwuka, 1980; Blackshaw and Blackshaw, 1994; Jian et al., 2015).
The apocrine sweat glands of cattle (Collier et al., 2008) have the same
perimeter between B. indicus and B. taurus (Carvalho et al., 1995).
However, B. indicus glands are more baggy-shaped and more active
(Jian et al., 2014). Zebu breeds also have a higher density, size and
volume of sweat glands than in European breeds (Dowling, 1955; Nay
and Heyman, 1956; Jian et al., 2014).
In tropical environments, solar radiation is responsible for raising
the coat surface temperature (CST) and increasing CET in cattle
(Hillman et al., 1998). Shading minimizes overheating by blocking di-
rect solar radiation, but does not abolish the effects of radiant heat load
over livestock (West, 2003). Some studies have found a strong re-
lationship between CET and CST of adult cattle (Finch, 1985;
Gebremedhin et al., 1981; Maia et al., 2005a) and calves (Taneja,
1958). These authors suggest that CST may be a physiological trigger of
high CET rates. However, CET may not be homogeneously distributed
over the body surface (de Melo Costa et al., 2014; Scharf et al., 2008;
Silva et al., 2013); the same has been observed with CST (Hoffmann
et al., 2013).
Thus, the aim of this study was to assess the CET of different body
regions of calves and its relationship to microclimate and CST with the
use of a gas analyzer and infrared thermography.

2. Material and methods

2.1. Study location
The study was carried out in Mossoró, northeast Brazil (05°11′S,
37°22′W, 18 m altitude) at the Dairy Cattle Sector of the Universidade
Federal Rural do Semi-Árido. This study was approved by the Ethics
Committee on Animal Use (Protocol number 23091.002083/2011-66)
of the Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido.
Fig. 1. Design of the system for cutaneous evaporative thermolysis mensuration
(A), adapted from Maia et al. (2005a,b), and ventilated capsule used manually
on the body surface of calves (B). In Fig. 1A: A is the air intake tube, B is a
thermocouple sensor (type K), C is the air outlet tube, D is a CO2/H2O analyzer
and E is a digital thermometer (Minipa, MT-600, São Paulo, Brazil).
2.4. Cutaneous evaporative thermolysis

A 7 cm diameter ventilated capsule (Fig. 1B) coupled to a CO2/H2O

2.2. Animals and data collection protocol
Twenty-three crossbred calves (3/4 Holstein and 1/4 Zebu), with
predominantly black hair coats, were evaluated when they were be-
tween 30 and 90 days old. The animals were confined in pens mea-
suring 3.00 × 3.90 m, with concrete floors, ceramic roofs, 0.90 m high
short walls and 2.50 m high ceilings. The calves were fed twice a day
with Tifton 85 hay (94.64% dry matter, 7.85% mineral matter, 7.33%
crude protein, 1.77% ethereal extract, 75.01% neutral detergent fiber,
and 36.78% acid detergent fiber) and commercial ration (94.78% dry
matter, 9.86% mineral matter, 18.98% crude protein, 5.62% ethereal
extract, 36.78% neutral detergent fiber, and 6.00% acid detergent
fiber). Water was freely available. Data (animal and environmental)
were collected during eight days, between 0700 and 1800 h, with a one-
hour interval between data collections. Three calves were evaluated per
day, and on the last day only two calves were evaluated, totaling
twenty-three animals.
2.3. Microclimate evaluation
The measured environmental variables were air temperature (TA;
°C), relative humidity (RH; %), wind speed (U; m s−1) and black globe
temperature (TG; °C). To measure TA and RH, a digital thermo-
hygrometer (Model HT-300, Instrutherm, Sao Paulo, Brazil) was used;
to measure U, a precision anemometer was used (Model YK-2005AH,
Lutron, Kolkata, India). Black globe temperature was measured using a
thermosensor (Type K, Salcas, Sao Paulo, Brazil), which was connected
to a digital thermometer (Model MT-600, Minipa, Sao Paulo, Brazil)
and inserted in the center of a black globe (a hollow copper sphere with
0.15 m diameter) that was placed in the center of the pen, 0.5 m above
the floor. The mean radiant temperature (MRT; °C) was estimated ac-
cording to the equation proposed by Silva et al. (2010).
analyzer (Model Li-7000, LI-COR, Nebraska, USA) was used to de-
termine the CET (W m−2) of the calves, as proposed by Maia et al.
(2005a,b). This analyzer was connected to a computer which provided
measurements of atmospheric pressure (PATM; kPa), partial vapor
pressure (PAIR; kPa) and partial vapor pressure inside the capsule (PCAP;
kPa) (Fig. 1A). To standardize the estimates of water loss through the
skin, the airflow of the ventilated capsule was kept constant at 1.88 L
min−1, making the BST inside and outside the capsule equal (Maia
et al., 2005b). Three distinct body regions (hindquarters, flank, and
neck) were evaluated. The values for CET were obtained through the
equation
CET = A−1λΦ(ΨS−ΨA)
where A represents the cutaneous surface area under the capsule (m2),
λ is the latent heat of water vaporization (J g−1), Ф is the rate of air
flow through the capsule (m3 s−1), and ΨS and ΨA are the absolute air
humidity at the outlet of the capsule and in the atmosphere respectively
(g m−3) (Maia et al., 2005a).
2.5. Hair coat surface temperature
Thermal images (Fig. 2) were taken by an infrared thermocamera
(Model ThermaCAM b60, FLIR® Systems Inc., Massachusetts, USA; re-
solution 0.01 °C with 2% accuracy), which was calibrated at atmo-
spheric temperature and emissivity of biological tissues ɛ = 0.98. FLIR
QuickReport 1.2 software (FLIR® Systems Inc.) was used to analyze the
infrared images. We used the same body regions that were analyzed for
CET.
2.6. Data analysis
Descriptive statistics for the environmental variables were obtained

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region (j = 1, …, 3), Iij is the effect of the interaction between the ith TA
class with the jth body region and, ɛijk is the residual effect. A com-
parison of means was performed using a Tukey-Kramer test (P < 0.01).

3. Results

The environmental variables shown in Table 1 reveal amplitude

greater than 10 °C for TA, with a mean of 28.61 °C. The MRT range was
even higher (greater than 14 °C), with a mean of 30.55 °C. The RH was
shown to be medium to high, with a maximum value of 88.60% and U
values were low during the study, with a mean of only 0.32 m s−1.
Diurnal variation of CST, CET and TA are shown in Fig. 3. The CET
increased at 1100 h and remained high in the afternoon shift, following
the increase in TA and CST.
Air temperature class was the only source of variation with a sig-
nificant effect on CET (P < 0.01). The ANOVA also showed a sig-
nificant effect of TA class and body region on CST (P < 0.01). There
was no effect of the interaction between TA Class and body region on
the study variables.
Fig. 4A shows that all surface temperature means differed from each
other when compared between TA classes. A linear increase in CST was
observed as the TA rise, with an average increase of approximately
2.0 °C between TA classes. No difference in CST was found between the
flank and the hindquarters (P = 0.734), but both areas differed from
the neck, which had the highest mean temperature (31.92 °C; Fig. 4C).
The CET did not differ between body regions (Fig. 4D). No statistical
difference was found for the CET means between TA classes < 25 °C
and 25–29 °C (Fig. 2B). There was, however, a significant increase in
CET when the air temperature was > 29 °C (P < 0.01), with a mean of
70.40 W m−2.
There was a low correlation between CET and hair coat surface
temperature (r = 0.30; P < 0.01). A moderate correlation was found
with TA (r = 0.43; P < 0.01) and a negative correlation was found
with RH (r = −0.40; P < 0.01). The correlation with MRT was only
r = 0.36 (P < 0.01).

4. Discussion

Thermal equilibrium between homeothermic animals and their en-

Fig. 2. Thermal images of calves used in this study.
vironment is a practically unattainable condition in hot environments
because the ambient temperature is high throughout the day. In this
Table 1 situation, sensible heat loss is ineffective, as it depends on a tempera-
Characterization of the microclimate (environmental variables) during the ture differential between the animal and its environment. Thus, under
study. natural conditions, evaporative heat loss becomes the only way for
Variable Mean Minimum Maximum thermal equilibrium to be achieved (da Silva and Maia, 2013).
In adult cattle, heat loss through cutaneous evaporation corresponds
Air temperature (°C) 28.61 ± 0.08 21.90 32.30
to approximately 80% of the total evaporative loss. The importance of
Relative humidity (%) 65.85 ± 0.37 41.30 88.60
Mean radiante temperature (°C) 30.55 ± 0.10 22.67 36.71 this thermolysis pathway is not yet known in young animals. In our
Wind speed (m s−1) 0.32 ± 0.02 0 2.40 study, we have, therefore, attempted to elucidate the answers to two
questions: (1) Is CET related to coat surface temperature or ambient
temperature? (2) Is CET distributed heterogeneously over the body
and are presented in Table 1. All graphics were created using Origi- surface, as observed in adult animals?
nPro® 8 software (OriginLab Corporation, Northampton, MA). A Pear- A strong correlation between CST and high rates of CET has been
son’s correlation test (P < 0.01) was performed to verify the re- described in adult cattle (Gebremedhin et al., 2008; Hillman et al.,
lationship between CET, the environmental variables, and CST; we used 1998; Maia et al., 2005a; Santos et al., 2017). On the other hand, our
the PROC CORR procedure in SAS software (SAS, 1999). Analysis of data show that, in shaded calves, elevation of the ambient temperature
variance (ANOVA) was performed using the least-squares method may be the main mechanism that activates cutaneous evaporation.
(PROC GLM procedure in SAS software) and air temperature (TA) was Despite the linear elevation of CST in calves between TA classes < 25 °C
included as a fixed effect in the statistical model. For this, TA was di- and 25–29 °C, cutaneous evaporation did not differ significantly be-
vided into classes, which are described as follows: < 25 °C (n = 70), tween these classes. Scharf et al. (2008) reported that in steers sub-
25–29 °C (n = 376) and > 29 °C (n = 341). The statistical model used is jected to a short-term heat stress, ambient temperature is a better
Yijk = μ + TACi + Rj + Iij + εijk predictor of cutaneous evaporation than surface temperature. In addi-
tion, Thwaites and Moore (1989) observed that sweating rate tends to
where Yijk is the kth observation of CET and CST measured in the ith TA be negatively related to BST in calves exposed to an ambient tem-
class and jth body region, μ is the general mean, TAC is the fixed effect perature of 39 °C.
of the ith TA class (I = 1, …, 3), Rj is the fixed effect of the jth body Analyzing the effect of the body region on CST and CET, we

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Fig. 3. Diurnal variation of the coat surface temperature (CST), cutaneous evaporative thermolysis (CET) and air temperature (TA).

Fig. 4. Least square means of coat surface temperature (CST) and cutaneous evaporative thermolysis (CET) according to air temperature (TA) class (A and B) and
according to body region (C and D). The different letters in the same variable indicate a significant difference (Tukey-Kramer, P < 0.01).

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observed that both varied independently, as reported by Murray
(1966). Regional differences in bovine cutaneous evaporation have
been attributed to variation in the number of sweat glands (Silva et al.,
2012). Of the body regions analyzed, the neck is the one with the lar-
gest number of glands, followed by the flank and hindquarters (taken
here as the average number of sweat glands between the gluteus and
upper foreleg regions) (Findlay and Yang, 1950). If CST was responsible
for activating cutaneous evaporation, the neck should have a superior
CET to the other regions because it is the one with the highest surface
temperature and a higher number of sweat glands. However, we ob-
served that there was no significant regional variation in CST, sup-
porting the hypothesis that TA is the trigger for CET in shaded calves.
5. Conclusions
In natural conditions of high temperature and shading, CET is po-
sitively related to environmental temperature and is homogeneously
distributed across the body surface of calves. Infrared thermography
and gas analyzer are useful technologies for detecting changes in the
calves' coat surface temperature and sweating, respectively, in response
to the thermal environment.
Conflicts of interest
We confirm that we have no conflicts of interest.
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