1. How does the ship floats?

- Any object placed in water experiences two forces: gravity, which pulls
it down because of its weight, and the buoyancy force, or up thrust,
which pushes it up. When these forces are balanced, the object floats. A
ship also experiences these two forces. But because of its body design,
which contains a lot of air, it displaces (pushes aside) enough water so
that the buoyancy force is equal to its gravity force. That is why a
ship floats.

- In the third century BC, the Greek mathematician and philosopher

Archimedes discovered the principle of buoyancy while relaxing in a
bathing pool. When he entered the pool he noticed that water spilled
over the sides and that he felt lighter. Archimedes realised that the
amount of water that spilled was equal in volume to the space that his
body occupied, and concluded that an object in a fluid experiences an
upward force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
Because the upward force equals the weight of the fluid displaced, an
object must displace a greater weight of fluid than its own weight in
order to float. That means that in order to float an object must have a
lower density than the fluid. If the object's density is greater than
that of the fluid, it will sink.
- Although ships are made of materials that are much denser than water,
the density of a ship itself is its total weight (including, cargo,
bunkers, stores, crew, etc.) divided by the external volume of the hull.
This means that the hull must have an external volume that is big enough
to give the whole ship a density that is just less than that of the
water in which it floats. Ships are therefore designed to achieve
that. Much of the interior of a ship is air (compared with a bar of
steel, which is solid), so the average density, taking into account the
combination of the steel, other materials and the air, can become less
than the average density of water. When the metal hull of a ship is
breached, water rushes in and replaces the air in the ship's hull. As a
result, the total density of the ship changes and depending on the
extent of the change, the ship may sink.
- In the past, ships built and loaded in Europe would sometimes sink when
they reached the tropics for the first time. Cargo would have
been loaded in cold, salty waters, but then when the ship reached
warmer, less salty seas, it would sink. This was because Archimedes'
principle, described above, would not have been taken into account. When
the ship was first loaded it would float because cold, salty water has a
higher density than fresh water, which meant that less water had to be
displaced to equal the mass of the ship. Once the ship entered warmer,
less salty waters, more water had to be displaced to maintain
equilibrium. The ship would drop lower in the water - and if it dropped
to below the water line (the line where the hull of a ship meets the
water surface) it would sink. This problem was overcome in the 1870s by
Samuel Plimsoll, who marked ships with what became known as the Plimsoll
Line, a marking positioned amidships, which indicates the draft of a
ship and the limit to which a ship may be loaded for specific water
types and temperatures. A safety margin between the deck and the water
line was made mandatory by the 1930 Loadline Convention (now replaced by
the 1966 Loadline Convention, as amended). This safety margin is created
by increasing the external volume of the hull so the deck line rises
well above the water line. This safety margin is known as freeboard.
 Where a freeboard is incorporated, the density of a ship becomes the
total weight of the ship divided by the external under water volume of
the hull (including the shell plating, propeller and rudder).
- A ship's displacement is the volume of water it displaces when it is
floating, and is measured in cubic metres (m3), while its displacement
tonnage is the weight of the water that it displaces when it is floating
with its fuel tanks full and all stores on board, and is measured in
metric tons (MT, equivalent to 1,000 Kg). The displacement tonnage is
the actual weight of the ship, since a floating object displaces its own
weight in water.

- In order to establish why ships float one needs to look at the principle
of density. Everybody has an idea of what density is. Density describes
how much something weighs relating to its size, or mass per unit
volume. In technical terms, the density of a body is defined as the
weight (mass) of the body in kilograms (kg) divided by its external
volume in cubic metres (m3). The formula for density is: density =
weight/volume (kg/m3).
Some examples of density for different fluids and materials are:
- Fresh water: 1,000 kg/m3
- Salt water: around 1,025 kg/m3
- Certain oils: around 850 kg/m3
- Steel: 8,000 kg/m3
- Wood: around 700 kg/m3
From the above, only oil and wood naturally float in water. This is
because fluids and materials that float in water have densities that are
less than the density of water. In other words, an object's buoyancy is
determined by its density in relation to the density of the surrounding
liquid.
2. Watertight integrity of the ships.
- The watertight integrity of a ship is established when the ship is
built. “Watertight integrity” is defined as closures or fittings that
prevent the ingress of water to certain compartments. This original
watertight integrity may be reduced or destroyed through, storm damage,
collision, stranding, or negligence. The damage control officer
(engineer officer) is responsible for ensuring that the ship’s
watertight integrity is not impaired through negligence. Any impairment
that occurs must be corrected as soon as possible. The ship’s material
condition of readiness in effect will also increase or decrease the
ship’s level of watertight integrity.

- Watertight doors are special types of doors found on the ships which
prevent the ingress of water from one compartment to other during
flooding or accidents and therefore act as a safety barrier. It limits
the spread of water inside the vessel. These doors are used onboard in
many ships such as in the fore and aft passageways underdeck and in
engine room bulkheads leading to shaft tunnels in container vessels,
large passenger ships, offshore vessels, oil exploration vessels. They
are used in areas where chances of flooding are high. Areas such as
engine room compartments and shaft tunnel and some of such places.
Therefore, it is important that crew members are familiar with the
system as well as the location of different powered watertight doors
aboard ship.
 TYPES OF WATERTIGHT CLOSURES
1. Quick-Acting Watertight Door — Used for routine passage and
access/egress into superstructure from weather decks, main passageways,
or manned spaces, such as Combat Information Center, Radio Central,
Machinery Room, or Damage Control Central. These doors are usually
placed in high traffic areas.

2. Individually Dogged Watertight Doors —Watertight doors are either 4-,6-

,8-,10-,or 12-dogged doors. They provide access/egress to compartments
that are not high usage spaces, which do not require rapid access, such
as paint lockers, deck gear lockers, or store rooms. Ten-dog doors are
usually found below the water line in order to maintain a higher degree
of watertight integrity.

3. Raised Watertight Hatch — Installed in interior and exterior areas

where rapid access/egress is not required. Usually found in a low
traffic area and offset in a corner of a passageway or compartment.
These hatches are usually installed in compartments, which provide
egress by other means. These hatches do not have escape scuttles.
Usually used for stores onload/offload and access for heavy equipment.

4. 4. Raised Watertight Hatch with Scuttle - Installed in interior and

exterior areas where rapid access/egress are required. This hatch is
usually provided in higher traffic areas than the raised watertight
hatch and is offset in a corner of a passageway or compartment. These
hatches have escape scuttles to provide rapid access/egress. Usually
found above berthing compartments, unmanned spaces, and all deck levels
requiring rapid access/egress.

Watertight as defined in SOLAS is: capable of preventing the passage of

water in any direction under the head of water likely to occur in intact and
damaged conditions. A watertight door can prevent the passage of water in both
directions when subjected to a head of water i.e. it can withstand water
pressure from both sides. They are designed to withstand continuous submersion
and are therefore located below waterline like shaft tunnels, ballast tanks,
bow thruster compartments etc. all openings below the waterline has to be
watertight.

Weathertight is defined as that in any sea conditions water will not

penetrate the ship. Weathertight doors, on the other hand, is designed to
withstand brief submersion. They are located above the waterline and can
withstand the weather condition as found offshore which means from the outside.

TYPE A: This type of doors may be left open and are to be closed only during an
emergency.
TYPE B: This type of watertight doors should be closed and are made to remain
open only when personnel are working in the adjacent compartment.
TYPE C: This type of watertight doors is to be kept closed all the time. It may
be opened only for sufficient time when personnel are passing through the door
compartment.
TYPE D: This type of watertight doors is not SOLAS compliant. These doors shall
be closed before the voyage commences and shall be kept closed during
navigation. These doors cannot be upgraded to another category.
Hazardous Condition for the Ship When the Doors Need to be Closed
a) When there is restricted visibility.
b) In ports where the port limits off compulsory pilotage limits.
c) Required to be closed when the depth of water is less than 3 times the
draught.
d) High traffic density.
e) Other factors when the master feels that the condition is dangerous.

Watertight doors can be further classified into the following types:

Hinged type: A door having a pivoting motion about one vertical or horizontal edge.

Sliding type: A door having a horizontal or vertical motion generally parallel to the plane of the door powered by hydraulic
cylinders or electric motors.