14th International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference, EPE-PEMC 2010
Modern Instruments for increasing the Efficiency
of the Energy Transfer in Electric Vehicles
Petr Chlebis*, Ales Havel†, Petr Vaculik*, Zdenek Pfof*
* Department of Electronics, VŠB – Technical University of Ostrava, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer
Science, 17. listopadu 15, 708 33 Ostrava – Poruba, Czech republic
E-Mails: petr.chlebis@vsb.cz, ales.havel@vsb.cz, petr.vaculik@vsb.cz, zdenek.pfof@vsb.cz
Abstract — This paper describes the high efficiency drive
unit for an EV, which is designed with accessible solutions
for the efficiency increasing. Synchronous utilization of
ultracapacitors and three-level inverter brings considerable
power savings and enhancement longevity for a lithium
battery pack. The total loss and EMI comparison between
the two-level and three-level inverter and power
measurements on the EV drive unit are presented at the
conclusion part of this paper.
Keywords — DC power supply, Electric vehicle, Efficiency,
EMC/EMI, Power converters for EV, Supercapacitor, Voltage
Source Inverters.
I. INTRODUCTION
An electric vehicle is an actual subject matter for the
research and development. An EV drive unit has to meet
some specific requirements, which are not demanded from
ordinary power source – converter – drive system. Main
requirement is high efficiency. First of all, high efficiency
increases the landing run, because it leads to lower power
losses.
Low power losses bring another advantage. Demand for
a heat sink is smaller, because of lower power losses,
which convert into a heat. Large heat sink causes an
increase of a converter capacity and weight; hence,
decrease of a converter power density.
There is another reason why to cut back the power
losses of an EV drive unit. Cooling-system of a car is
depending on car motion. A standing or slowly moving
car isn’t cooled by natural cooling but mainly by forced
cooling. If the dissipation of power is larger, then forced
cooling has to make considerable efforts for cool down the
drive unit. This is no problem for a drive unit with low
power losses or with water cooling, which is, however,
more exacting to operate.
Power losses in the EV power converter can be divided
into switching power losses and conducting power losses.
Conducting power losses can be reduced by suitable
semiconductor devices, i.e. with low collector-emitter
saturation voltage VCE(sat) for IGBTs or low static drain-
source on-resistance RDS(on) for MOSFETs. Switching
power losses can be reduced by soft-switching, which is
the most effective method for reducing switching losses
with preservation of high switching frequency.
Second way of an achievement of high efficiency drive
unit is the utilization of ultracapacitors. Ultracapacitors
increase drive unit efficiency, because of their dynamic
properties, i.e. they can deliver and/or store a large amount
of energy in a very short time.
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II. POWER SOURCES FOR A DRIVE UNIT
The drive unit designed on our Department of
Electronics (Fig. 1.) has two different power sources,
which can be called as a primary and a secondary power
source.
Both power sources are cooperating between each
other, i.e. the power flow is possible between them in both
directions. This cooperation is useful for the supply unit
like a battery or fuel cell, which cannot deliver a high peak
power in dynamic conditions while maintaining its
nominal efficiency.
A. Primary Power Source
The primary power source delivers the steady (nominal)
current value and has to provide the stabilized voltage
value. A fuel cell or a LiFePO4 battery pack can be used
as a primary power source.
LiFePO4 batteries
or
Converter for
Three-level inverter Three-phase motor
ultracapacitors
Fuel cell
Fig. 1. An example of high efficiency drive system
Fuel cells are still under development, and it is
assumed, that their parameters will be improved in the
future. Above all, the price of fuel cells is still very high.
Fuel cells have many disadvantages, but when the main
disadvantages will be removed, fuel cells may become
better solution than the ordinary batteries for supplying
electric vehicles.
Main advantages of LiFePO4 batteries can be
summarized as follows: higher current or peak-power
rating, fast charging, large overcharge tolerance and safer
performance, self balance, higher longevity and high
temperature performance. This battery has lower
environmental impact when compared with cobalt
(LiCoO2) battery, due to use of less toxic iron phosphate.
B. Secondary Power Source
The secondary power source delivers high peak current
value to the load when necessary and stores the
regenerative braking energy, so it is determined for
dynamic processes.
 14th International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference, EPE-PEMC 2010
Ultracapacitors are mainly used as an auxiliary power
source/storage to the batteries or fuel cells, which helps to
achieve higher efficiency with the existing primary power
sources. To be able to utilize ultracapacitors in the EV
power unit, it is necessary to use a converter.
C. Electromotor
The last block of this concept represents the three-phase
electromotor. Mainly is used the synchronous permanent
magnet motor for its high efficiency above 95%, but there
are also some conceptions using asynchronous motors,
which have slightly less efficiency, but their advantages
are in simpler control, better reliability and cheaper price.
Another advantage of AM consists in fact, that is not
necessary to install clutch between the motor and driven
axle, which requires the SMPM conception.
III. A CONVERTER FOR ULTRACAPACITORS
The conception of a converter for ultracapacitors was
designed as a converter that consists of a buck converter,
ultracapacitors and a two-quadrant boost converter. This
configuration is shown on Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Schematic conception of converter for ultracapacitors
On the input side, there is a buck converter charging up
the ultracapacitors from the LiFePO4 battery pack. Buck
converter controls the charging rate of ultracapacitors and
value of the current that flows directly to the load. The
maximum voltage value of the ultracapacitor pack is
limited by the total voltage of the LiFePO4 battery pack.
Therefore is on the output side used a two-quadrant
boost converter, which increases the output voltage value.
The boost converter can operate in two quadrants, which
means, that it can generate power to the load or
regenerate power from the load back to the ultracapacitor
pack. The realization of the ultracapacitor converter is
shown on the Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. A converter for ultracapacitors
IV. THREE-LEVEL INVERTER FOR A DRIVE UNIT
After careful comparison of the construction demands,
count of the needed IGBT modules and control heftiness
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of the matrix converter [6], it was on our Department of
Electronics decided to build a laboratory sample of the
three-level inverter (3-LI).
The 3-LI is through the converter for ultracapacitors
primarily supplied from the LiFePO4 battery pack with the
brought-out neutral point. In our laboratory conditions
were used 2x 50 LiFePO4 battery packages as a primary
power source of a nominal voltage of ± 180V
approximately.
The main circuit of the 3-LI is built of IGBT modules
and ultra-fast-recovery diodes. The IGBT is the modern
efficient switching element for medium power inverter
applications. So IGBT devices with the nominal
parameters of 130A, 600V (SKM100GB063D) were
selected for the switching elements of the inverter. Ultra-
fast-recovery diodes SKKD150F are used in the inverter
as the clamping diodes. These diodes have soft recovery
characteristic and low forward voltage drop that satisfies
operating requirements and reduces the power losses. The
SKKD150F blocking voltage is 1200V, and the average
forward current rating is 150A. Precise design of power
part cooler is presented in [4].
The new direct torque control method (N-DTC) with
special techniques for induction motor control, as in [1],
[2] and pulse width modulation direct torque control
method (PWM-DTC) have been implemented in the DSP
TMS320F2812 [5].
Construction of the power part is shown on the Fig. 4.
The IGBT modules and clamping diodes were mounted on
two large finned aluminum heat sinks with active coolers.
The power bus bar permits a compact and clearly
arranged mechanical construction. Main advantage of this
construction is that overvoltages are reduced due to
minimal stray inductance. This has the added benefit of
reduction stray magnetic flux and electromagnetic
interference.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig. 4. Laboratory testing of three-level inverter with control system
Description of Fig. 4:
1 Control PC
2 Torque measure
3 DSP – TMS320C2812 by Texas Instrument
4 Three-level inverter
5 Induction motor
6 Load
T9-90
 14th International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference, EPE-PEMC 2010

V. POWER LOSS AND EMI COMPARISON BETWEEN THE 2- 1

LEVEL INVERTER AND THE 3-LEVEL INVERTER
The total power loss evaluation and comparison is 0.5

based on the theoretical proposal of identical power class

f_2(x)
and loading of both two- and three-level inverters (2-LI 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
and 3-LI). Specifications of used semiconductor
components are presented in the tables below. The total 0.5

power losses were calculated as a sum of conducting,

switching and DC-link power losses using (1). 1
Fig. 5. Reconstruction of line voltage of the 2-LI
PTOT = 3 ⋅ ( PCON + PSW ) + PDC [W ;W ] (1)
1
TABLE I.
PARTICULAR SPECIFICATION OF THE 2-LI POWER COMPONENTS
0.5
Component Type Count Specification
IGBT IC = 130A,

f_3(x)
SKM145GB123D 3pcs
module UCES = 1200V 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
electrolytic capacitor
Capacitor PEH200TX4270M 6pcs
2200μF/550V 0.5

TABLE II.
1
PARTICULAR SPECIFICATION OF THE 3-LI POWER COMPONENTS
Fig. 6. Reconstruction of line voltage of the 3-LI
Component Type Count Specification
IGBT IC = 130A, UCES =
SKM100GB063D 6pcs
module 600V 1
electrolytic capacitor
Capacitor PEH200TX4270M 8pcs
6800μF/360V
Clamping IFAV = 150A, i( n)
SKKD150F 3pcs
diode URRM = 1200V
As presented in the Table 3, it can be seen, that 0.1
utilization of the 3-LI with clamping diodes instead of
conventional 2-LI has reduced the total power losses of
about 25%. Total efficiency of the 3-LI is also higher,
because of better power parameters of used lower voltage
class transistors. The total harmonic distortion factor 0.01
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(THD) of the 3-LI is almost half sum lower when n

compared with the 2-LI. It is caused due to added voltage Fig. 7. Amplitude-frequency spectrum of line voltage of the 2-LI
level, which is shown and compared on Fig. 5 and Fig. 6.
For the 2-level inverters and rectifiers so typical 5th and
7th harmonics are markedly represented in the 3-LI’s
1

amplitude frequency spectrum of line voltage, compared

and shown on Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. Lower harmonic content i( n)

of the 3-LI has positive influence on the lifetime of the

load, which is in most cases represented by the 0.1

electromotor.
TABLE III.
COMPARISON OF POWER LOSES BETWEEN THE 2-LI AND 3-LI
0.01
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
2- level inverter 3- level inverter n
PCON [W] 246 399 Fig. 8. Amplitude-frequency spectrum of line voltage of the 3-LI
PSW [W] 372 66
PDC [W] 670 520 VI. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
PTOT [W] 2522 1915 In this chapter are presented main waveforms to compare
THD [%] 30,5 16,3
both measured inverters. On the Fig. 9 and 10 can be seen,
In the economic aspect, the 3-LI with clamping diodes that the output line voltage and the phase current quality
is more expensive; of course. It is caused due to double are smoother for the 3-LI in comparison with the 2-LI. It is
count of the power switches and more complex control due to 27 vs. 8 switching combinations, which are
algorithm, which requires sophisticated and fast DSP unit available by the control of the 3-LI, in detail described in
to control, especially in case of full recuperative drive literatures [3] and [7]. This is the reason, why the output
system of large power, when is necessary to control 24 phase current isn’t almost rippled and of course, due to
power switches in real time. Another technical modern methods of direct torque control, also the motor
inconvenience of the 3-LI system is the problem of the torque is better smoothed as well.
voltage balancing in the middle of the DC link.

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 14th International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference, EPE-PEMC 2010

Speed of the vehicle

Motor current
during drive away

Fig. 9. The two-level inverter – main waveforms

Description of Fig. 9 (from above): Fig. 11. Speed and current waveforms during the drive away
C2 (red waveform) output phase current 1 2 3 4
C4 (green waveform) output line voltage
C1 (yellow waveform) output motor torque

Fig. 10. The three-level inverter – main waveforms

Fig. 12. Testing an EV with a high efficiency drive system
Description of Fig. 10 (from above):
C1 (yellow waveform) output phase current Description of Fig. 12:
C2 (red waveform) output phase voltage 1 Test bench for function and power analysis
C3 (blue waveform) output line voltage 2 LiFePO4 battery pack
C4 (green waveform) output motor torque 3 Three-level inverter
4 Electric vehicle
VII. TESTING RIDES
The testing rides in several different driving maneuvers
with the CityEL and other electromobiles supplied from Speed [km/h]
the ultracapacitor converter unit and the LiFePO4 batteries
as the power sources proved the usefulness of the
ultracapacitors utilization in traction. The measured
Torque [Nm]
waveforms for particular two tested maneuvers are shown
below on Fig. 14 and 15 (Channel A - 20A/div, Channel B
- 50A/div). Fig. 11 evidences how motor current (Channel
B - 50A/div) dependences on the speed variation of the
vehicle (Channel A - 35km.h-1/div).
Power losses Wheel Power Motor Power
VIII. POWER MEASUREMENTS ON THE BRAKE BENCH [kW] [kW] [kW]
The brake bench room measures the power directly on
the vehicle, while the motor stays in the car and the
wheels are situated on the test benches, whose turning
measures the speed of the vehicle (Fig. 12). The benches
are braked by the electrodynamic eddy-current brake
connected to the tensometer, which senses the readings of Fig. 13. EV torque and power measurements on the brake bench room
the transferred torque to the road – see Fig. 13.

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 14th International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference, EPE-PEMC 2010
A current peak
during acceleration A voltage depression of
the UC converter unit
Fig. 14. Voltage and current waveforms for drive maneuver 1
The current peaks during
acceleration and uphill driving
A voltage depression of
the UC converter unit
Fig. 15. Voltage and current waveforms for drive maneuver 2
IX. POSSIBLE INNOVATION OF THE PREVIOUS CONCEPTION
The difference in configuration, shown on Fig. 16, in
comparison with the ordinary drive conception battery –
ultracapacitor – power converter – electromotor is that
the power sources in this case are connected together only
on the alternate voltage side, precisely on the
electromotor.
Fig. 16. High efficiency drive system with two power converters
The alternate side of the ultracapacitor converter is
realized as a soft switched inverter, utilizing the
technology of zero voltage switching and/or zero current
switching. This conception exceeds with high efficiency,
low power losses and lower demands on the output power
filters. The main task of the ultracapacitor converter is to
cover the peak power if needed, synchronize it with the
main drive converter and finally add the current from the
978-1-4244-7854-5/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE
ultracapacitors together with the current vector of the
three-level inverter. The recuperative energy (i.e. during
braking or downhill driving) is primarily stored in the
ultracapacitor battery; only in case of long time supply it
is stored in the LiFePO4 battery pack too. During normal
operational conditions is the ultracapacitor converter
controlled as a parallel active filter, thereby it increases
the efficiency of the whole drive system and decreases
the accumulator battery current ripple, which leads to its
longer effective life. Despite of considerable hardware
and software heftiness of this drive system, which has its
economic consequences during the development, this
conception makes unique challenge for propulsion
systems of the future electric vehicles.
X. CONCLUSION
The measurements on the ultracapacitor converter unit
showed that the ultracapacitors utilization decreases the
battery loading from the electromotor starting power peaks
and leads to higher efficiency during fast regenerative
breaking in comparison with the ordinary battery.
The three-level inverter is not very suitable for low
power drive applications, because it has complicated
connection to the power circuit and complex control drive
algorithm, however, applied technology DTC (direct
torque control) for three-level inverter greatly improves its
EMI (electro magnetic interference) and brings
considerable power savings.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The research described in this paper was supervised by
Prof. Ing. Petr Chlebiš, CSc., Department of Electronics,
VŠB - TU Ostrava and supported by GAČR project
102/08/0775: New structures and control algorithms of
mobile hybrid systems.
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