8609 2

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Allama Iqbal Open University

Course: Philosophy of Education (8609)
Semester: Autumn, 2019
Level: B.Ed (1.5 years)
Assignment 2
Q- Describe salient feature of dialectical method.

In 300 BC, Socrates (470-399BC) engaged his learners by asking questions (now known as the
Socratic or dialectic method). He often insisted that he really knew nothing, but his questioning skills
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allowed others to learn by self-generated understanding.
Plato (428-348 BC), who was a student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle, wrote down the
Dialogues, which have inspired thinkers for more than two thousand years. Plato called this process
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the dialectic, and considered it the pinnacle of learning. One of the significant features of the
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dialogical (dialectic) method is that it emphasizes collective, as against solitary activity. This is a
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question and answer form of arguing with an “expert” on one side and a “searcher” on the other. In
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the dialogues, the questioning of the expert by the searcher often exposes gaps in the reasoning. It is
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through this back and forth argument amongst friends (or adversaries) that understanding grows and
becomes revealed to the learners. Such philosophical pursuit alongside and within a full education
allows humans to transcend their desires and sense in order to attain true knowledge.
Plato founded what is said to be the first university — his Academy (near Athens) in around 385 BC.
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He also believed that all knowledge is innate at birth and is perfectible by experiential learning
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during growth. This was an early suggestion to the current theory of constructivism.
Along with many others in his time, Aristotle (384-322 BC) placed a strong emphasis on an all-
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round and balanced development. Play, physical training, music, debate, and the study of science and
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philosophy were to all have their place in the forming of body, mind and soul. Like Plato before him,
he saw such learning happening through life — although with different emphases at different ages.
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Aristotle was the first to observe that “association” among ideas facilitated understanding and recall.
a
He believed that comprehension was aided by contiguity, succession, similarity, and contrast.
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Although we often view the term technology as hardware items, it is actually a system of practical
knowledge. Technology is derived from the ancient Greek word techne. It can be translated to refer
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to art, craft or skill. Plato viewed techne and systematic or scientific knowledge as being closely
related. Aristotle went a step further by asserting that techne was the systematic use of knowledge for
intelligent human action.
Socratic or Dialectic Method
While our present use of the terms Socratic or Dialectic Method is based on a dialogue between two
or more people who may hold differing views, but wish to pursue the truth by seeking agreement
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2
with one another, Socrates used it quite differently in that he believed that knowledge was inborn and
could be brought out by means of skillful questioning.
Thus Socrates guided the instruction by using leading questions. He basically browbeated the
learners through the use of clever questioning. For example, in Plato's Meno, Socrates, at random,
selected a young boy off the street and by the use of clever questioning, led him to demonstrate a
geometrical theorem despite the fact that the boy had no previous mathematical training.
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Dialectics means connection, or relation. Just as there is a relation between one thing and another,
between one event and another in the real world, so too is there a relation between the (more or less
imperfect) reflections of this real world in our thought, and between the formulations that we employ
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to describe it and to store and to practically enjoy the fruits of the knowledge that we have thereby
acquired. As a result, our way of explaining, reasoning, deducing and deriving conclusions, can be
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a
guided and ordered by certain rules, corresponding to the appropriate interpretation of reality. Such
rules comprise the logic that guides the forms of reasoning; and in a wider sense they comprise the
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dialectic that serves as a method for connecting them with the scientific truths we have acquired.
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Logic and dialectic help us to follow a road that is not false if, after starting from our way of
formulating certain results of the observation of the real world, we want to be able to enunciate other
properties besides those we have just deduced. If such properties are experimentally verified, one
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could say that our formulas and the way we employed them were sufficiently accurate.
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The dialectical method is different from the scientific method. The latter, the stubborn legacy of the
old fashioned way of formulating thought, derived from religious concepts based on dogmatic
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revelation, presents the concepts of things as immutable, absolute, eternal, founded on a few first
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principles, alien to one another and having a kind of independent life. For the dialectical method, not
only is everything in motion, but in motion all things reciprocally influence each other, and this also
goes for their concepts, or the reflections of these things in our minds, which are “connected and
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united” (among themselves). Metaphysics proceeds by way of antinomy, that is, by absolute terms
a
that are opposed to one another. These opposed terms can never mix or touch, nor can anything new
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emerge from their unity that is not reduced to the simple affirmation of the presence of one and the
absence of the other and vice versa.
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To provide an example, in the natural sciences stasis is counterposed to motion: there can be no
conciliation between these two things; by virtue of the formal principle of contradiction, that which
is at rest does not move, and that which is moving is not at rest. But the Eleatic School under Zeno
had already exposed the fraud of such a distinction that seems so certain: the arrow in motion, while
it passes one point of its trajectory, remains at that point, and therefore is not moving. The ship is
moving with respect to the shore, while for the passenger walking on the ship this is not the case: the
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latter is motionless with respect to the shore, and is therefore not moving. These so-called sophisms
were demonstrations of the possibilities of reconciling opposites: stasis and motion; only by breaking
down motion into many elements composed of points of time and space would it be possible for
infinitesimal mathematics and modern physics not blinded by the metaphysical method to resolve the
problems of non-rectilinear and non-uniform motion. Today motion and stasis are considered to be
relative terms, and neither absolute movement nor absolute stasis has any meaning.
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Another example: for the astronomy of metaphysics all the heavenly bodies beyond the sphere of
fire are immutable and incorruptible, and their dimensions, form and movement will remain eternally
unchanging. Terrestrial bodies are on the other hand changeable and corruptible in a thousand ways.
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There is no reconciliation between the two opposed parts of the universe. Today we know instead
that the same developmental laws rule for the stars and for the earth, which is a “piece of heaven”
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a
without thereby earning any mysterious titles of nobility. For Dante the influence of the incorruptible
planets on the vicissitudes of corruptible humanity was a major topic of inquiry, while for modern
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science the mutual influences between the earth and the other parts of the universe are matters for
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everyday observation, although it does not believe that the peregrinations of the stars decide our fate.
Finally, in the human and social realm metaphysics introduces two absolute supreme principles:
Good and Evil, acquired in a more or less mysterious way in everyone’s consciousness, or
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personified in unearthly beings. We have previously referred to the relativism of moral concepts, to
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their variability and to how they change depending on time, place and class situation.
The scientific method with its absolute identities and contradictions generates crude errors, since it is
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traditionally rooted in our way of thinking, even if we are not aware of it. The concept of the
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antipodes long seemed absurd, they laughed in Columbus’s face when he sought the Orient by going
west, always in the name of the formal contradiction in terms. It is thus a metaphysical error to seek
to resolve human problems in one of either two ways, as is done for example by those who
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counterpose violence and the State: either one declares oneself in favor of the State and for violence;
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or against the State and against violence. Dialectically, however, these problems are situated in the
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context of their historical moment and are simultaneously resolved with opposed formulas, by
upholding the use of violence in order to abolish violence, and by using the State to abolish the State.
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The errors of the authoritarians and the errors of the libertarians are in principle equally
metaphysical.
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Q-2 discusses john lock theory of knowledge.
According to Locke, political power is the natural power of each man collectively given up into the
hands of a designated body. The setting up of government is much less important, Locke thinks, than
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this original social–political “compact.” A community surrenders some degree of its natural rights in
favor of government, which is better able to protect those rights than any man could alone. Because
government exists solely for the well-being of the community, any government that breaks the
compact can and should be replaced. The community has a moral obligation to revolt against or
otherwise replace any government that forgets that it exists only for the people’s benefit. Locke felt it
was important to closely examine public institutions and be clear about what functions were
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legitimate and what areas of life were inappropriate for those institutions to participate in or exert
influence over. He also believed that determining the proper role of government would allow humans
to flourish as individuals and as societies, both materially and spiritually. Because God gave man the
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ability to reason, the freedom that a properly executed government provides for humans amounts to
the fulfillment of the divine purpose for humanity. For Locke, the moral order of natural law is
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permanent and self-perpetuating. Governments are only factors contributing to that moral order.
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An Empirical Theory of Knowledge
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For Locke, all knowledge comes exclusively through experience. He argues that at birth the mind is a
tabula rasa, or blank slate, that humans fill with ideas as they experience the world through the five
senses. Locke defines knowledge as the connection and agreement, or disagreement and repugnancy,
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of the ideas humans form. From this definition it follows that our knowledge does not extend beyond
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the scope of human ideas. In fact, it would mean that our knowledge is even narrower than this
description implies, because the connection between most simple human ideas is unknown. Because
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ideas are limited by experience, and we cannot possibly experience everything that exists in the
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world, our knowledge is further compromised. However, Locke asserts that though our knowledge is
necessarily limited in these ways, we can still be certain of some things. For example, we have an
intuitive and immediate knowledge of our own existence, even if we are ignorant of the metaphysical
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essence of our souls. We also have a demonstrative knowledge of God’s existence, though our
understanding cannot fully comprehend who or what he is. We know other things through sensation.
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We know that our ideas correspond to external realities because the mind cannot invent such things
without experience. A blind man, for example, would not be able to form a concept of color.
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Therefore, those of us who have sight can reason that since we do perceive colors, they must exist.
A Natural Foundation of Reason
Locke argues that God gave us our capacity for reason to aid us in the search for truth. As God’s
creations, we know that we must preserve ourselves. To help us, God created in us a natural aversion
to misery and a desire for happiness, so we avoid things that cause us pain and seek out pleasure
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instead. We can reason that since we are all equally God’s children, God must want everyone to be
happy. If one person makes another unhappy by causing him pain, that person has rejected God’s
will. Therefore, each person has a duty to preserve other people as well as himself. Recognizing the
responsibility to preserve the rights of all humankind naturally leads to tolerance, the notion that
forms the basis for Locke’s belief in the separation of church and state. If we all must come to
discover the truth through reason, then no one man is naturally better able to discover truth than any
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other man. For this reason, political leaders do not have the right to impose beliefs on the people.
Because everything we understand comes through experience and is translated by reason, no outside
force can make us understand something in conflict with our own ideas. Locke insists that if men
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were to follow the government blindly, they would be surrendering their own reason and thus
violating God’s law, or natural law.
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a
The Right to Private Property
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The right to private property is the cornerstone of Locke’s political theory, encapsulating how each
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man relates to God and to other men. Locke explains that man originally exists in a state of nature in
which he need answer only to the laws of nature. In this state of nature, men are free to do as they
please, so long as they preserve peace and preserve mankind in general. Because they have a right to
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self-preservation, it follows that they have the right to those things that will help them to survive and
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be happy. God has provided us with all the materials we need to pursue those ends, but these natural
resources are useless until men apply their efforts to them. For example, a field is useless until it
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produces food, and no field will produce food until someone farms it.
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Locke proposes that because all men own their bodies completely, any product of their physical labor
also belongs to them. Thus, when a man works on some good or material, he becomes the owner of
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that good or material. The man who farms the land and has produced food owns the land and the
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food that his labor created. The only restriction to private property is that, because God wants all his
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children to be happy, no man can take possession of something if he harms another in doing so. He
cannot take possession of more than he can use, for example, because he would then be wasting
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materials that might otherwise be used by another person. Unfortunately, the world is afflicted by
immoral men who violate these natural laws. By coming together in the social–political compact of a
community that can create and enforce laws, men are guaranteed better protection of their property
and other freedoms.
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Q-3 Discuss Imam Ghazali views about curriculum and teaching methods
The great educator of Islam, imam Ghazali was born in a time, when doubts were raised from
various sides about Islam.
Imam Ghazali was born in 1059 AD near Tus in Khurasan, a part of the then Persia. These were the
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times, when Muslims were dominating Europe, Asia and Africa, due to the effect of new culture of
these countries they were deviating from the true teachings of Islam. Imam Ghazali came to the
rescue them. We can say that, in one way he was responsible for the revival of Islam. He is also
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known as Hujjatul Islam.
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Imam Ghazali mentions in his book Al-munqudeen –al- dalal, that he spent 38 years in the search of
truth from place to place and studied different schools of thoughts of that time.
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Because of his knowledge and study, he was offered the post of head of Nizamia School in Baghdad.
This school was the center of attraction for scholars all over the world. But due to his curiosity and
quest for knowledge, he resigned from this post after four years. He became the critic of that time
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Islam and he saw no difference between Christianity, Islam and Judaism.

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Imam Ghazali ’s skepticism continues from another ten years, in which he wondered in many palaces
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including, Makkah, Yathrab and Syria. He also performed several pilgrimages to Makkah and once
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took an oath, while standing beside the stone of Abraham (Maqam-e-Ibrahim) in the Khana Kaaba.
He swear that;
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I will not go to the court of any king

a
I will not get any money from rulers

A
I will not indulge in any type of discussion with scholars.

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Imam Ghazali died in 1111 Ad. He has written number of books including the “Revival of Islamic
knowledge” (Ahya-e-uloom Islam) and “Incoherence of philosophy “ (Tahafat-ul-filasafa)
He provided rational basis for the Islamic beliefs and integrated Sufism and individual beliefs, to
give a holistic picture of Islam in helping to reunite Muslims of the world. People criticize him for
the lack of use of reason in Islam.
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As an educator, he is the greatest and most influential educators of Islam and has great influence on
the modern educational thoughts.
His educational philosophy based on his personal experience. the philosophy, which he formulated
over a period of 10 years, resembles to the Philosophy of Plato. He used his personal experience and
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concluded the reasons, which he calls sixth sense, which can lead us to truth. Divine revelation
(Ilham) is superior to reason but is endowed to only selected individuals called prophets
(paighamber). The reason given to human beings also has limitations and can not acquire the
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absolute truth. Hence, it is obligatory for all human beings to obey the commandments send to us
through [prophets from time to time.
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It is very much clear that the educational ideas of Ghazali are deeply affected by his religious
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philosophy and research. He thinks that human mind is like a clean slate and the teacher can
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transform it with the passage of time. Plato and Aristotle also held similar views.
The importance of Knowledge:

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According to Ghazali, knowledge can bring us closer to God as well as enhance worldly respect and
position. Knowledge, according to him is not relative but has an entity in itself. It can raise the status
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of the individual, create self respect and take him to the highest position.
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According to Ghazali, there are four categories of Knowledge;

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Prophetic
a
Rulers
A
Philosophers/scholars
Preachers
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1. Prophetic:
Prophets convey the message of God regardless of any discrimination and help to purify the inner
self.
Ruler:
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They use their authority, legislation and rules to train and guide the society.
Philosophers/scholars
Their knowledge benefits only selected individuals but for benefiting masses.
Preachers;
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They are meant to fulfill the religious needs of the society and train outer and inner self. Their job is
to promote knowledge, improve the life of people, and help them to acquire desirable ethics through
education.
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Ghazali divides knowledge into two types; eg
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a
Useful or desirable knowledge
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Useless or undesirable knowledge
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1. Useful knowledge:
It is further divided into two
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Farz-i-Ain: (Compulsory)
This knowledge is obligatory for all and contains the knowledge of Islam
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Farz-i-Kafaya: (Optional)
This knowledge is optional and depends on the will of the individual. It is further divided into two;
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Worldly knowledge
a
Religious knowledge
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2. Useless Knowledge:
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Although no knowledge is useless, it is not desirable if it can create an undesirable effect such as
If it harms somebody like magic etc

If the chance factor is involved like astrology etc
If it leads to thinking about God. Ghazali says that these matters should be left only to prophets and
saints.
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Aims of Education: Ghazali based his aims of education on Islamic ideology. According to him, the
major aim of education is that it is useful. The knowledge gained as a result of education should be
useful both for individual and the society. It means that the aim of education is character building of
individual so that it could differentiate between good and evil and avoids following the evil path.
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Johnn Herbart proposed the same ideas about 700 year after the demise of Ghazali.
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Psychological concepts of Ghazali: Ghazali raises the basic question whether the human instinct is
based on good or evil. He has presented his ideas in the light of Quran and Hadith. According to him
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good or evil are not physical and is not instinctual. Humans can be transformed by education and
training. Rousseau expressed similar idea in 18th century.
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Ghazali seems impressed by the Greek philosophers. According to Aristotle there are two types of
creations in the world. i.e.
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Perfect creation: These are perfected like moon , sun etc
Imperfect creations like seed of tree, which is imperfect in the sense that it has the ability to become
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a tree.
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According to Ghazali, human beings are imperfect creatures and are similar to the seed. They have
the ability and capacity to become perfect, only the suitable conditions are required. According to
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him, good character means good deeds.

a
A
Ghazali has given the following four ways in which deficiencies can be identified and removed.
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Perfect teacher
Such teachers that have spiritual insight and knowledge and has the ability to analyze deficiencies of
others
Close fiends:
We can identify our deficiencies with the help of our close friends
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Foes:
We can know more about our deficiencies from our foes.
Self analysis:
Ghazali also stresses on self-analysis from time to time.
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Curriculum:
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Ghazali strongly criticizes the curriculum of his time. He raises the basic question of criteria for
selection of subject matter for curriculum. He studied the various curriculum's in his times and
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reached the following conclusions:
c
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More time is spent on religious education and worldly education is completely ignores
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Worldly education is equally important
While teaching religious education , a great number of differences arise among the teachers, which
result in mud slinging on each other
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There is no. Prioritization and it is only left to the interest and opinions of the teachers to concentrate
5
on certain subjects, while ignore others.
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No place for character building in curriculum
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Ghazali recommended that curriculum should be composed of obligatory ( ) And optional

( ) knowledge. It should be a combination of religion and worldly education.
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a
Ghazali included industrial education, textile, agriculture, tailoring and hair cutting in the curriculum
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This indicates that Ghazali ’s educational ideas are progressive.

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Ghazali also stresses the acquisition of philosophy and logic
Methods of Teaching and Techniques:
Ghazali has recommended the following teaching methods and techniques, which are based on
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11 psychological principles. These methods and techniques are widely used and
educators all over the world agrees with their
usefulness.
Teaching lessons to be based on previous knowledge and experience of the students.
This helps to know the ability, knowledge and aptitude of the learner and helps to motivate students
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towards the lesson which is very important for the educational process. Johnn Herbart and Pestollozi
recommended the same principle about 700 year after Ghazali
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Simplifying the lesson:
Teachers should simplify the difficult concepts by stories, tales etc other wise his teaching will not
3
a
be effective
c
3
Move from simple to complex.
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This is a very important principle. Some teachers try to teach everything in the very start. This is
very dangerous and can create very dull students.
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Ghazali stresses that teachers should first teach simpler concepts and when the students are
5
motivated towards lesson, then he can introduce complex concepts.
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Western educators have also mentioned this principle.
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Proper planning
Ghazali stresses the importance of planning and advises that teachers should do his preparation
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before teaching , for effective teaching.

a
A
affection:
The teachers should avoid the use of force . He should be like a father to his students and should use
3
love and affection instead of corporal punishment. Use of force can lead to bad habits among
students
Teacher and students should also have good social relationship
avoid double standards:
�‫کرواہ‬
� � ‫�ا تھ � لکھی‬
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Teacher is like a guide to students. He should not be a hypocrite and should breed good qualities
like, honesty, good etiquette, good moral character
etc
abilities of students:
Ghazali stresses that while teaching the abilities of students should be kept in mind. Concepts, which
are above the mental level of the students will not make the teaching effective.
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Female education:
Ghazali ’s ideas about female education are different from modern day. He is only in favor of
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elementary education for women so that they could play their due role in society. He is not in favor
of higher education for females. Rousseau has similar ideas.
3
a
Ghazali also stresses acquisition of home-related knowledge for women.
c
3
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Physical education:
Ghazali has greatly stressed the physical education for children. He believes in old Greek axiom “
sound mind in sound body”
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He suggests proper clothing for children so that they could develop and grow properly. He suggests
avoid tight and fit clothing.
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He also stresses the importance of good and simple, diet for good physical growth.
In short we can say that the contribution of Ghazali to education, what he said later reflected by
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western educators. That was actually originated in the times of Ghazali.

a
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A
Q-4Expalin Salient characteristics of Essentialism

Essentialism is a relatively conservative stance to education that strives to teach students the
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knowledge of a society and civilization through a core curriculum. This core curriculum involves
such areas that include the study of the surrounding environment, basic natural laws, and the
disciplines that promote a happier, more educated living Other non-traditional areas are also
integrated as well in moderation to balance the education. Essentialists' goals are to instill students
with the "essentials" of academic knowledge, patriotism, and character development through
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traditional (or back-to-basic) approaches. This is to promote reasoning, train the mind, and ensure a
common culture for all citizens.
Essentialism is the most typically enacted philosophy in American classrooms today. Traces of this
can be found in the organized learning centered on teachers and textbooks, in addition to the regular
assignments and evaluations.
Essentialism as a teacher-centered philosophy
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The role of the teacher as the leader of the classroom is a very important tenet of Educational
essentialism. The teacher is the center of the classroom, so they should be rigid and disciplinary.
Establishing order in the classroom is crucial for student learning; effective teaching cannot take
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place in a loud and disorganized environment. It is the teacher's responsibility to keep order in the
classroom.[3] The teacher must interpret essentials of the learning process, take
3
a
the leadership position and set the tone of the classroom. These needs require an educator who is
academically well-qualified with an appreciation for learning and development. The teacher must
c
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control the students with distributions of rewards and penalties
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Essentialism in education was a movement started by william c. bagleyas in the 1930's. it was
initiated to protest against the downfall of the standards of the schools. those in favor of the
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movement hold the view that due to the movement the students benefitted from education standards
5
necessary for a thriving future. these individuals have the opinion that the purpose of attending a
school is to enable students to contribute meaningfully to the society. essentialists do not agree with
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other styles of teaching. they also believe that the progressive way is not helping students. the view
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of progressives is that education should be based on the interests of students through practical
activity. Essentialists also hold the view that despite whether the students find a subject interesting or
not, they should be channeled towards it as it is essential for their future. essentialism rests upon the
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philosophical ideas of realism and idealism. it demands that schools should not attempt to reshape
a
the educational foundation of the society. hence is refers to 'traditional' approach to education. it is a
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conservative philosophy that accepts political social and economic structure of the american society.
it teaches students the 'essentials' of academic understanding and character building. in this chain of
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thought, it is also believed that traditional american virtues such as respect for authority, fidelity to
duty, perseverance, and practicality should be instilled in all students.
curriculum
the focus of coursework in essentialism is to teach the essentials of life. it teaches how to survive,
how to be productive, and how to live as proper members of the society. it includes subjects such as
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the study of the natural and surrounding environment, basic natural laws, and disciplines that
encourage students to live a happy life. it also instills patriotism within students and uses traditional
approaches to develop character of students. essentialism firmly believes that basic subjects should
be taught and impractical subjects should not be part of the curriculum. the purpose of schools in
essentialism is to teach the culture's traditions and past to students. it also provides knowledge and
skills needed to be successful in a technological and democratic society. the subjects usually include
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the following:
• natural sciences
• history
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• foreign language
• literature
3
a
• the classroom environment
• most basic academic skills and knowledge should be imparted to all students
c
3
• skills such as reading, writing, computers, and measurement should be taught to elementary
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students
• subjects usually focus on creativity, apart from art and music
• in the classroom, the students are provided a bundle of information and techniques to enable
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them to transition from less to more complex knowledge and skills.

5
• classrooms are usually centered on the teacher, who acts as an intellectual and ethical role
model for the students.
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• the assessments conducted under essentialism serve a number of purposes.
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These enable teachers to determine whether goals of education are being met or not. they also help
teachers to evaluate whether students pay proper attention in class and whether they understand the
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required course material or not. finally, the assessments are carried out as many aspects of a student's
a
education are affected by them.

A
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Q-5 Describe Maria Montessori view regarding early childhood education
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What is Montessori Education?

Montessori is a method of education named after Dr. Maria Montessori. She was the first woman in
Italy to obtain the degree of Doctor of Medicine. Because she was a doctor, Maria Montessori looked
at education from a scientific level. She believed that education should prepare a person for all
aspects of life. She designed materials and techniques that would promote a natural growth of
learning in students. They are common to all Montessori classrooms. Working with these materials
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and techniques forms a pattern that children carry over naturally to reading, writing, and
mathematics. Each skill is developed to interlock with another.
From The American Montessori Society:
The Montessori Method of education, developed by Dr. Maria Montessori, is a child-centered
educational approach based on scientific observations of children from birth to adulthood. Dr.
Montessori’s Method has been time tested, with over 100 years of success in diverse cultures
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throughout the world.
It is a view of the child as one who is naturally eager for knowledge and capable of initiating
learning in a supportive, thoughtfully prepared learning environment. It is an approach that values
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the human spirit and the development of the whole child—physical, social, emotional, cognitive.
Montessori education offers our children opportunities to develop their potential as they step out into
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the world as engaged, competent, responsible, and respectful citizens with an understanding and
appreciation that learning is for life.
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Each child is valued as a unique individual. Montessori education recognizes that children
learn in different ways, and accommodates all learning styles. Students are also free to learn
at their own pace, each advancing through the curriculum as he is ready, guided by the
teacher and an individualized learning plan.
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Beginning at an early age, Montessori students develop order, coordination,

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concentration, and independence. Classroom design, materials, and daily routines support
the individual’s emerging “self-regulation” (ability to educate one’s self, and to think about
9
what one is learning), toddlers through adolescents.
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Students are part of a close, caring community. The multi-age classroom—typically

spanning 3 years—re-creates a family structure. Older students enjoy stature as mentors and
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role models; younger children feel supported and gain confidence about the challenges ahead.
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Teachers model respect, loving kindness, and a belief in peaceful conflict resolution.
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Montessori students enjoy freedom within limits. Working within parameters set by their
teachers, students are active participants in deciding what their focus of learning will be.
3
Montessorians understand that internal satisfaction drives the child’s curiosity and interest
and results in joyous learning that is sustainable over a lifetime.
Students are supported in becoming active seekers of knowledge. Teachers provide
environments where students have the freedom and the tools to pursue answers to their own
questions.
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Self-correction and self-assessment are an integral part of the Montessori classroom

approach. As they mature, students learn to look critically at their work, and become adept at
recognizing, correcting, and learning from their errors.
Given the freedom and support to question, to probe deeply, and to make connections, Montessori
students become confident, enthusiastic, self-directed learners. They are able to think critically, work
collaboratively, and act boldly—a skill set for the 21st century.
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Allama Iqbal Open University

Q- Describe salient feature of dialectical method.

A Natural Foundation of Reason

Islam and he saw no difference between Christianity, Islam and Judaism.

I will not go to the court of any king

I will not get any money from rulers

I will not indulge in any type of discussion with scholars.

The importance of Knowledge:

According to Ghazali, there are four categories of Knowledge;

If it harms somebody like magic etc

him, good character means good deeds.

Ghazali recommended that curriculum should be composed of obligatory ( ) And optional

This indicates that Ghazali ’s educational ideas are progressive.

Ghazali also stresses the acquisition of philosophy and logic

Methods of Teaching and Techniques:

before teaching , for effective teaching.

Teacher and students should also have good social relationship

avoid double standards:

western educators. That was actually originated in the times of Ghazali.

Q-4Expalin Salient characteristics of Essentialism

them to transition from less to more complex knowledge and skills.

education are affected by them.

What is Montessori Education?

Beginning at an early age, Montessori students develop order, coordination,

Students are part of a close, caring community. The multi-age classroom—typically

Self-correction and self-assessment are an integral part of the Montessori classroom

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