Environmental Science & Policy promotes communication among government, business

and industry, academia, and non-governmental organizations who are instrumental in the solution
of environmental problems. It also seeks to advance interdisciplinary research of policy relevance
on environmental issues such as climate change, biodiversity, environmental
pollution and wastes, renewable and non-renewable natural resources, sustainability, and the
interactions among these issues. The journal emphasizes the linkages between these
environmental issues and social and economic issues such as production, transport, consumption,
growth, demographic changes, well-being, and health. However, the subject coverage will not be
restricted to these issues and the introduction of new dimensions will be encouraged.
Editorial Policy:
Environmental Science and Policy will publish original research papers, research and policy reviews
and notes, forum discussion of published work and book reviews in English. Submitted papers
should address environmental issues of international significance, aim at informing policy debates
and making, and be of international relevance. Hence, manuscripts focusing on local issues are
welcome if they suggest research strategies or offer lessons that valuable more generally.
Manuscripts which reveal the need for further scientific research are also welcome. All
contributions will be independently reviewed. Proposals for ordinary and guest-edited special
issues are encouraged and welcomed.
The Department of Environmental Sciences and Policy at the Central European University
is an international center of excellence in environmental and sustainability research and teaching
with a focus on interdisciplinary and critical scholarship in energy transitions and climate change;
environmental and resource governance; environmental justice, politics and humanities; resource
management and pollution control; and sustainable management of socio-ecological systems. We
produce and disseminate knowledge informing policy and practice to support open, democratic
and environmentally sustainable societies. We offer Master’s and PhD education to future
professionals and academics from around the world. Through cooperation with networks of
scholars and practitioners worldwide, we serve as a platform for the exchange of novel ideas
addressing key environmental and sustainability challenges in our focus areas.

In this lesson we will investigate the steps involved in the scientific method. We will also explore
how the scientific method is used to solve environmental problems.

The Scientific Method

All science begins with making observations and asking questions. These questions are often
developed because people want to learn more about what they are observing. To find the
answers to their questions, researchers use the scientific method, which is a structured
technique used to test ideas and potential answers to scientific questions. Although the specific
steps of the scientific method can vary by discipline, it is widely agreed upon that the
fundamental elements of the scientific method include five steps. The scientific method starts
with:
 1. Making observations, and then moves on to
2. Asking questions
3. Formulating a hypothesis
4. Conducting an experiment, and ends with
5. Interpreting results and making conclusions

Observations and Questions

Most scientific evaluations begin with someone making observations about something that is
occurring in nature or the world around them. Observations are the first step in the scientific
method, and they set the foundation that the proceeding steps are based on. Once a scientist
has made observations, they are often curious about what they have seen and want to learn
more. At this point, scientists begin to ask questions about their observations, which is the
second step in the scientific method. These questions can be very broad or specific depending
on the topic being investigated.

Hypothesis
After a question has been asked, the next step in the scientific method can occur. The third step
is to formulate a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a proposed explanation that aims to answer the
question formulated, and the hypothesis must be testable through experimentation. The
development of a hypothesis is a very important step in the scientific method because it is what
the remaining steps are based on, and it will be returned to after more steps are completed.
Once the hypothesis is created, scientists make predictions about what should happen if the
hypothesis is found valid, and therefore supported, and also what should happen if the
hypothesis is not valid and is rejected.

Experiment
Conducting an experiment is the fourth step in the scientific method. An experiment is an activity
designed to gather data that will be used to support or reject the hypothesis. An experiment
involves multiple variables, which are specific factors that can be manipulated. Most experiments
include an independent variable, which is the factor that the scientist alters, and a dependent
variable, which is the factor that is being measured. When an experiment includes these aspects,
it is referred to as a controlled experiment because the scientist is in control of how each variable
influences the experiment. This is an important part of the scientific method because by
controlling the variables in the experiment, the scientists can determine which variable is causing
the predicted result.

Some Current "Hot" Environmental Issues

 Endocrine disrupters
 chemicals that may interfere with actions of hormones
o chemical messengers in organisms
o regulate growth, reproduction, other activities
 appear to alter reproductive development in both genders in many species
o >50% drop in sperm count from 1940-1990 in men (60 studies, 15,000 men, many
nations)
o juvenile alligator density in Lake Apopka (FL) declined 10 fold in 14 years following
chemical spill
 appear to alter reproductive development in both genders in many species cont
o river otters exposed to synthetic chemical pollutants were found to have
abnormally small penises
o female seagulls in southern CA exhibited behavioral aberrations
o they paired with other females during mating season instead of paring with males
 many widely used chemicals fall into this category
 US EPA plans to test thousands of chemicals for their potential to disrupt endocrine
system
o results will help determine exposure levels, effects, limits

 Commercial fisheries
 several have been fished to commercial extinction
o = fish are harvested faster than they can replace themselves
o increased world demand
o high-tech methods increase catches
 Georges Bank closed in 1994
o 16,500 sq km area off New England in North Atlantic
o once one of world’s richest fishing grounds
 Grand Banks cod fishery (off Newfoundland) closed in 1990s
 Peruvian anchovy fishery collapsed in 1970s
 corrective measures
o national level
o 1997 Magnuson Fishery Conservation & Management Act
 requires National Marine Fisheries Service and 8 regional councils to
devise quotas and other strategies to help fisheries recover
o international level
o 1995 UN Fish Stocks Agreement
 first international treaty to regulate marine fishing

 Declining bird populations

 population declines seen across North America over past 2 decades
o particularly among songbirds of forests, shrub lands, grasslands
o many songbirds are tropical migrants
 winter in Central America, South America, Caribbean
 summer, migrate to North America to breed
 o changing environments in both habitats
 burning of tropical rainforests for cropland
 fragmentation of temperate forest for development

 Ozone depletion
 evidenced as a large ozone "hole" over Antarctica
o "hole" is area where ozone concentration is lowest of any place in the world
o occur in layer of atmosphere called stratosphere
o layer between 10-45km above earth
 caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
o previously widely used as cooling agents, still used some
o now banned or under phase out by most countries
o but existing CFCs can survive in atmosphere for 120+ years

 Global warming
 caused by "greenhouse" gases
o allow solar radiation to pass through to earth
o don’t allow heat to radiate into space
 chief among these gases is carbon dioxide
o CO2 levels have dramatically increased over past 2 centuries due mainly to
o burning of fossil fuels
 natural gas, coal, oil
o clearing & burning of forests
 could cause increase in mean temperature (to levels higher than in past 100,000 years)

The Scientific Method

Extra! Extra! Read All About It...

 "Asteroid Eros Yields Secrets From Time Before Earth Was Born"
 "Discovery of Armored Viruses May Inspire New Designs for Nanotechnology"
 "Mechanism Found Behind Drug-Free Acceptance of Transplants"
 "Combination of Radiation and Hormone Suppression Therapy Shown to Effectively Treat
Early-Stage Prostate Cancer"
 "UF Technique Detects Tiny, Potentially Harmful Airborne Particles"
 "Research Measures Migraine’s Impact on ‘Typical’ Sufferer, Links Migraine and
Depression"
 "Stress Could Increase Risk of Heart Disease in Women"
 "Out of Time: Researchers Recreate 1665 Clock Experiment to Gain Insight Into Modern
Synchronized Oscillators"

 all of the above are headlines from science stories posted in a single day (9/25/00) on just
one science news web site (ScienceDaily.com)
 everyday we see or hear in the popular media reports of latest science research findings
and how they impact our lives
 According to a 1999 survey by the National Science Foundation (NSF)
 Americans have great confidence in science
o but little understanding of the process underlying scientific research
 only ~21% were able to explain what it means to study something scientifically
 only ~33% knew how an experiment was conducted
 How can we demystify the process of science?
 gain an understanding of the basic elements of the process of science

Scientific Thinking

 Science
 A process
o used to solve problems or develop an understanding of nature
o that involves testing possible answers.

 Scientific Method
 A method
o of gaining information about the world
o by forming possible solutions to questions, followed by rigorous testing
 to determine if the proposed solutions are valid.

Scientific Method

 Presumptions
 Specific causes for observed events.
 Causes can be identified.
 General rules can describe observations.
 Repeated events have same cause.
 Perceptions are not individualistic.
 Fundamental rules of nature are universal.

Scientific Method

 Scientists pose and test hypotheses to answer questions about nature

 the process of science can be viewed as multi-step process
o observations
o questions
o hypotheses
o tests

Scientific Method

 Observation
 senses, or extension of senses, are used to observe and/or record an event.
 can come from others or results of earlier tests
o resulting in the raising of a question
 Question
o about unclear aspects of the observations: how? why? when?
o leads to the development of an hypothesis
 Hypothesis
 are tentative explanations of a phenomenon phrased in such a way as to be testable
 logical statement that potentially explains an event, or answers a question.
 a good hypothesis will take into account all known facts, and will be as simple as possible.
(Must be testable)
 with observations and hypotheses in mind, scientists develop tests (experiments)
 Experiment
 used to test hypothesis.
 to determine if predictions are supported (fail to falsify) or falsified
 have certain important components
o Controlled: Separate variables and divide experiment into experimental and
control groups.
o Repeatability—Experiment is repeated to eliminate unconscious bias.
 experiments - consist of
 planned procedure to test hypothesis
 collect data
 analyze and interpret data
 determine if data support hypothesis: accept, reject or modify hypothesis
 carry out additional testing
 share data with other scientists
 if predictions are confirmed by scientific community, idea may become a theory
 Publishing
  Results must be published for peers to be able to examine and criticize.

The scientific method is a method of research with defined steps that include experiments
and careful observation. The steps of the scientific method will be examined in detail later, but
one of the most important aspects of this method is the testing of hypotheses. A hypothesis is an
proposed explanatory statement, for a given natural phenomenon, that can be tested.
Hypotheses, or tentative explanations, are different than a scientific theory. A scientific theory is a
widely-accepted, thoroughly tested and confirmed explanation for a set of observations or
phenomena. Scientific theory is the foundation of scientific knowledge. In addition, in many
scientific disciplines (less so in biology) there are scientific laws, often expressed in mathematical
formulas, which describe how elements of nature will behave under certain specific conditions,
but they do not offer explanations for why they occur.

Read brief explanations of the following steps, and use the Web links below to get more in-depth information about the
scientific method.

For scientists, the first stage in the scientific method is to state the problem. Good scientists are curious about the world
around them. They observe phenomenon and want to understand why things happen. Then they come up with a question
or problem. Once the problem is stated, scientists move on to the next steps of developing a hypothesis and
experimenting.

Once scientists state a problem, they gather as much information as they can about their question. This may include
looking at the results of earlier scientific studies, interviewing experts, reading, and observing. Good research requires
critical thinking, for example, you must make sure the source of your information is reliable, and it is a good idea to find
multiple sources to confirm the information you gather.

Hypothesis or Prediction
A hypothesis is a possible explanation for the question or problem that can be tested with an experiment. Research is
necessary before a scientist can come up with a good hypothesis; otherwise, a hypothesis would just be a wild guess.

In an experiment, scientists collect information under controlled conditions to test the hypothesis. The information is then
analyzed to see if the hypothesis was correct. The experimentation process is necessary because it allows scientists to test
the validity of their assumptions. It is often important to perform the experiment a number of times, changing some of the
variables as you go along. This allows you to isolate and examine how particular variables impact different aspects of the
experiment. Experiments should ideally be performed by many scientists in order to verify the results and to truly test the
validity of the hypothesis.

By carefully looking at the results of the experiment, you can analyze your data and draw a conclusion about whether the
hypothesis was proven. Perhaps there is another explanation for your question or problem. It is necessary to look at all
aspects of the experiment. What worked? What didn’t? Why not? It is important not to rule out data that does not support
the hypothesis. All data should be reviewed in the formulation of a strong, fact-based conclusion.
 Importance of Environmental Science
Changing climate, environmental damage, population growth, energy demands, and habitat
loss have become increasingly dominant in Americans’ minds over the past 50 years. As a result,
demand for qualified environmental scientists to assess changing conditions and create positive
solutions, has increased tremendously. Even in the current economy, UTEP Environmental Science
students have found worth while careers with the Environmental Protection Agency, Texas
Commissionon Environmental Quality, Texas Parks and Wildlife, National Park Service, Forest
Service, United States Geological Survey, U.S. Army and a host of private companies.
UTEP’s program gets students involved in real-world problems with internships and research
opportunities. When it comes time to fill in the “experience” section on a job application, UTEP ESCI
students have experiences to draw on. All students take the University core curriculum, then begin
working within the Environmental Science core. Students choose a concentration area that focuses
on Biology, Chemistry, Geoscience, Hydroscience or Environmental Science with a Secondary
Education minor. Many of UTEP’s ESCI undergraduates conduct research and present their findings
at University colloquiums, regional and national conferences.
Students with a bachelors degree in science or engineering can apply for entry into the
Environmental Science Masters Program. A core of ESCI graduate coursework is complemented with
elective courses taken from the Colleges of Science and Engineering. The keystone is an original
thesis research project conducted with the guidance of a faculty mentor. The interdisciplinary ESCI
Faculty conducts wide-ranging investigations.

Importance of Environmental Science

1. To realize that environmental problems are
global
Environmental science lets you recognize that environmental problems such as climate
change, global warming, ozone layer depletion, acid rains, and impacts on biodiversity
and marine life are not just national problems, but global problems as well. So, concerted
effort from across the world is needed to tackle these problems.

2. To understand the impacts of development on

environment
It’s well documented and quantified that development results in Industrial growth,
urbanization, expansion of telecommunication and transport systems, hi-tech agriculture
and expansion of housing. Environmental science seeks to teach the general population
about the need for decentralization of industries to reduce congestion in urban areas.
Decentralization means many people will move out of urban centers to reduce
pollution resulting from overpopulation. The goal is to achieve all this sustainably
without compromising the future generation’s ability to satisfy their own needs.

3. To discover sustainable ways of living

Environmental science is more concerned with discovering ways to live more
sustainably. This means utilizing present resources in a manner that conserves their
supplies for the future. Environmental sustainability doesn’t have to outlaw living
luxuriously, but it advocates for creating awareness about consumption of resources and
minimizing unnecessary waste. This includes minimizing household energy consumption,
using disposals to dispose of waste, eating locally, recycling more, growing your own
food, drinking from the tap, conserving household water, and driving your car less.

4. To utilize natural resources efficiently

Natural resources bring a whole lot of benefits to a country. A country’s natural resources
may not be utilized efficiently because of low-level training and lack of management
skills. Environmental science teaches us to use natural resources efficiently by:

 Appropriately putting into practice environmental conservation methods

 Using the right tools to explore resources
 Adding value to our resources
 Making sure machines are maintained appropriately
 Thorough training of human resources
 Provision of effective and efficient supervision
 Using the right techniques to minimize exploitation
 To understand behavior of organisms under natural conditions
Behavior is what organisms manifest to respond to, interact with, and control their
environment. An animal exhibits behavior as the first line of defense in response to any
change of environment. So, critical look at organism’s behavior can offer insightful
information about animal’s needs, dislikes, preferences and internal condition providing
that your evaluation of those observations firmly hinge on knowledge of species’-natural
behavior.

5. To shed light on contemporary concepts such as

how to conserve biodiversity
Biodiversity is the variety of life on earth. The present rate of biodiversity loss is at an
all-time high. Environmental science aims to teach people how to reverse this trend by:

 Using sustainable wood products

 Using organic foods
 Embracing the 3R’s, reduce, reuse, and recycle
 Purchasing sustainable seafood
 Supporting conservation campaigns at local levels
 Conserving power
 Minimizing consumption of meat
 Utilizing eco-friendly cleaning products
 To understand the interrelationship between organisms in population and
communities

Organisms and humans depend on each other to get by. Environmental science is
important because it enables you to understand how these relationships work. For
example, humans breathe out carbon dioxide, which plants need for photosynthesis.
Plants, on the other hand, produce and release oxygen to the atmosphere, which humans
need for respiration. Animal droppings are sources of nutrients for plants and other
microorganisms. Plants are sources of food for humans and animals. In short, organisms
and humans depend on each other for survival.
 6. To learn and create awareness about
environmental problems at local, national and
international levels
Environmental problems at local, national and international levels mostly occur due to
lack of awareness. Environmental science aims to educate and equip learners with
necessary environmental skills to pass to the community in order to create awareness.
Environmental awareness can be created through social media, creating a blog dedicated
to creating awareness, community centered green clubs, women forums, and religious
podiums.

Components of Environmental Science

Ecology
Ecology is the study of organisms and the environment interacting with one another.
Ecologists, who make up a part of environmental scientists, try to find relations between
the status of the environment and the population of a particular species within that
environment, and if there is any correlations to be drawn between the two. For example,
ecologists might take the populations of a particular type of bird with the status of the
part of the Amazon Rainforest that population is living in.

The ecologists will study and may or may not come to the conclusion that the bird
population is increasing or decreasing as a result of air pollution in the rainforest. They
may also take multiple species of birds and see if they can find any relation to one
another, allowing the scientists to come to a conclusion if the habitat is suitable or not for
that species to live in.
Geoscience
Geoscience concerns the study of geology, soil science, volcanoes, and the Earth’s crust
as they relate to the environment. As an example, scientists may study the erosion of the
Earth’s surface in a particular area. Soil scientists, physicists, biologists, and
geomorphologists would all take part in the study.

Geomorphologists would study the movement of solid particles (sediments), biologists

would study the impacts of the study to the plants and animals of the immediate
environment, physicists would study the light transmission changes in the water causing
the erosion, and the soil scientists would make the final calculations on the flow of the
water when it infiltrates the soil to full capacity causing the erosion in the first place.

Atmospheric Science
Atmospheric science is the study of the Earth’s atmosphere. It analyzes the relation of the
Earth’s atmosphere to the atmospheres of other systems. This encompasses a wide variety
of scientific studies relating to space, astrology and the Earth’s atmosphere:
meteorology, pollution, gas emissions, and airborne contaminants.

An example of atmospheric science is where physicists study atmospheric circulation of a

part of the atmosphere, chemists would study the chemicals existent in this part and their
relationships with the environment, meteorologists study the dynamics of the atmosphere,
and biologists study how the plants and animals are affected and their relationship with
the environment.

Environmental Chemistry
Environmental Chemistry is the study of the changes chemicals make in the environment,
such as contamination of the soil, pollution of the water, degradation of chemicals, and
the transport of chemicals upon the plants and animals of the immediate environment. An
example of environmental chemistry would be introduction of a chemical object into an
environment, in which chemists would then study the chemical bonding to the soil or
sand of the environment. Biologists would then study the now chemically induced soil to
see its relationship with the plants and animals of the environment.

Environmental science is an active and growing part of the scientific world accelerated
by the need to address problems with the Earth’s environment. It encompasses multiple
scientific fields and sciences to see how all interchange and relate with one another in any
of the above four components.