10 - Chapter 3 PDF

GEOMORPHOLOGY AND LANDFORM
2 ASSEMBLAGE OF GANGTOK TOWN
CW<FFE^ OVTLIWE
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Slope analysis
2.3. Study of actual slope angle and direction
2.4. IMorpho-lithological characteristics and evolution of hidslopes
2.5. Slopeforming process and materials
2.6. (Drainage
2.7. (Relief
2.8. Cjeomorphologicaldescription /Landform assemblage
2.9. Correlation between geology andgeomorphology
2.10. StatisticalAnalysis ofMorphometric techniques
2.11. Conclusion
Chapter-2
GEOMORPHOLOGY AND LANDFORM ASSEMBLAGE OF
GANGTOK TOWN
2.1. Introduction
The geomorphological set up of Gangtok town and its surroundings along

the ridge line of the DONGKYA RANGE of Tibet offer enough scope to
geographers to study a special type of man-environment relationship. The town
at an altitude of 1700 m and lies within Lesser Himalayas. It is situated on a ridge
which runs almost north-south from Ranipool to Deorali and then SSW-NNE from
Deorali to Gangtok. The ridge is situated on an elevation of about 1000 m at
Ranipool to about 2000 m near Penangla. This ridge also forms a water-divide
between the south westerly flowing Rorachu in the east and the southerly flowing
Ranikhola in the west. The above mentioned rivers, viz. the Rorachu meet the
Ranikhola and Takchom Chu, near Ranipool and flows as Rangni Chu which joins
river Tista near Singtam. Various streamlets from the eastern slope of the above
mentioned ridge flow to meet the Rorachu almost at right angle and the
streamlets from western slope drain into the Ranikhola into nearly same manner.
Unlike Ranikhola, Rorachu is younger, more powerful, and follows more or less in a
straight course.
An attempt has been made to analyse the easterly and westerly facing
slopes of Gangtok ridge. The geometric forms of the slopes are highly complex.
This complex physical environment is due to different geomorphic processes,
each of which has developed with its own characteristic assemblage of
landforms. The geomorphic configuration of this mountain tract is the combined
product of geologic foundation and fluvial processes. Slope wash and mass
movements in particular and related phenomena also played a very significant
role in the final shaping of the landform. Lithologically, the town is composed of
Darjiling gneiss, lingtse granite gneiss and Doling group of rocks. The
jointed/foliated structure of these rocks coupled with conspicuous chemical
weathering (mainly hydrolysis) produces a thick soil layer and thereby reducing
the shearing stress resistance of the country rocks significantly. As a result, slope
failure with mudflow due to liquefaction happens regularly within the rainy
A Geo-Technical Investigation into the Causes and Management of Landslides 37

in Gangtok Town of Sikkim Himalayas
Fin ? 1
Chapter - 2 Geomorphofogy and Landfomn Assemblage of Gangtok Town
months. The river valleys are narrow and steep and mainly fed by spring.
However, during rainy seasons, they exhibit a tremendous power to erode as well
as transport a huge amount of debris. The geomorphic processes as well as
subsurface geology with structure have definitely played a significant role in
shaping the regional geomorphology.
An attempt has been made here, to visualise the extent of variations in

landform contrasts and their magnitude along with their relevant processes.
Studies in the proper perspective of the urbanised Gangtok ridge has been
attempted by adopting contemporary quantitative and statistical techniques of
geomorphology.
2.2. Slope analysis
‘Slope’ may be defined as “an angular inclination between different

elevations". The slope gradient defines the stage of development of a landscape
(Strahler, 1956). The mechanism of slope development, classification of slopes,
aspects of slope, slope evolution theories etc. have been established by a
number of pioneers of Geomorphology. The author has tried to establish mutual
relationship between the 'average slope', ‘actual slope' and slope forming
processes and materials in the study area.
The average slope of the study area has been evaluated by Wentworth's
method (1950). The formula, as adopted in the present study is as follows:
Average slope, (0) = tan-1 [N x i/k]
Where, N = Number of contour crossings per mile or per kilometre

i = contour interval
k = A constant (636.6 in the present case).
The tangent values of angular slope are in degree. On the basis of the
above mentioned method, a slope map of Gangtok town and surroundings has
been prepared (Fig. 2.1) which shows that the entire area can be sub-divided
into two broad zones. The moderately slopping tracts (20°-25°) along the ridges
and the steep slopping (25°-307>30°) hill sides, valley and spurs. The highest
average slope (35.26°) has been identified in between Panchinil and Kyong-ney,
A Geo-Technical Investigation Into the Causes and Management of Landslides 38

Chapter - 2 Geomorphology and Landform Assemblage of Gangtok Town
while the lowest average slope (16.62°) has been found along the Deorali Bazar.
However for better understanding of the geographical distribution of the major
slope zones, the following classes are described below:
i) Very high slope zone (> 30°),

ii) High slope zone (25°-30°),
iii) Moderate slope zone (20°-25°) and
iv) Gentle slope zone (< 20°)
I) Very high slope zone (> 30°)
Very high slopes or steep slopes are found in the north, northeast more
specifically at Panchinil, Rongyek and south Tathangchen areas and the smaller
pocket lies near middle Shari. The areas mentioned are situated on Darjiling gneiss
and Doling group of rocks and are also associated with dense and open forest
coverings of 17.24 % of the total area.
II) High slope zone (25°-30°)
It covers (53.36 % area) of the northwest, southeast and south western part
of the region i.e. Upper and lower Shari, Tadong, Bhurtuk, north Tathangchen,
Govt, of India Press, etc. where lithology is characterised by Daijiling gneiss and
Doling schist. There are some human settlement with light forest and agricultural
land within this zone.
ill) Moderate slope zone (20°-25°)
Moderate slopes have been identified mainly in Lingding, Sichey,

Amdogolai, Deorali Ranipool etc. Actually, urbanization with some habitation and
light forest in the western, southern and central portion of Gangtok town comes
under the moderate slope zone is occupying 25.24 % of the total area.
(iv) Gentle slope zone (< 20°)
The gentle slope zones are bounded at the central and western part of the
town near Ranikhola, which are covered by lingtse granite gneiss and Doling
schist. The area covers 4.16 % out of this total area.

Fig 2.2
Fig 2.3
Thus, from the above analysis, it has been apparent that most of the hill
side slopes and valleys are characterised by moderate to steep slope which is an
indicator of the youthful stage.
2.3. Study of actual slope angle and direction
The author has also tried to determine the actual slope of the study area.
The method applied for this purpose is simple and straight forward consisting of a)
Direct measurement of slope inclination with the help of Abney’s level and bj
Measurement of direct slopes from Topographical map, particularly in the
inaccessible tracts. Actual slope angle of the Abney’s level stations have been
properly marked on the map through GPS way points.
2.3.1. Actual slope angle and direction of western part of the Gangtok ridge
In the western part of the ridge line, steepest slope is found at upper
Bhurtuk near the western by-pass which is 55°W while a very gentle slope of 6° is
found near the hospital. In the Deorali Bazar area, M.G. Marg Road, Paljor
Stadium, the slope is more or less gentle between 15°-30°. The general slope
directions are W, NW, and SW in the western part of the study area. Along the
Indira By-pass, the slope directions are moderate to high varying between 16°-40°
while the western By-pass between 21°-55°. But along the NH 31 A, the slope angle
varies between 15°-50°. The average slope of the study area is 20°-25°. The
steepest slope (55°) has found on the Darjiling gneiss but the gentlest slope (6°)
has been identified on the Doling schist (Fig. 2.2). Thus, lithology as well as
structure has played a very significant role towards the slope development.
2.3.2. Actual slope angle and direction in Eastern part of the Gangtok rfdge
In the eastern part of the Gangtok ridge line, the steepest slope has been
found at the lower Chanmari which is 73° BE while a very gentle slope of 6°5' is
found near the Ranipool. In the eastern part, the average slope is 25°-35°. Along
the Rongyek Road section, the slope angle varies between 18°37'-45°31' and also
in NH 31A towards Nathula, the slope is low to high between 7°5'-53° ESE. The
steepest slope angle (73°) is observed on Darjiling gneiss as well as the moderate
slope angle has been observed also on Doling schist in the eastern part of the
ridge (Fig. 2.3).

Plate 2.1. Steeply inclined eastern Plate 2.2. Gangtok Ridge line
Slope of Gangtok Ridge
Plate 2.4. Sinuous course of the

Plate 2.3. Meandering course
river Tista
of Rora Chu
Chapter - 2 Geomorphofogy and Landform Assemblage of Gangtok Town
As already mentioned, the N-S to NNE-SSW ridge from Ranipool to Mirem

forms a water-divide and the slope to the west of Gangtok is low to moderate
towards west to WNW, whereas to the east of the township, the slope is moderate
to high towards south or ESE.
The hill slopes on either side of the growing township is in general steep with
slope angle varying from 25°-60° with an average slope of 35°. Considerably
gentler slope (15°-20°) have however been observed on cultivated areas with
moderately thick soil cover. Steep to near vertical slopes have been observed on
scarp faces composed of massive, hard Lingtse granite, quartzites of Doling group
and quartzo-feldspathic gneisses of Darjiling Group. Schists and phyllites of Doling
Group form gentler slope. In most cases, slopes are covered by slope-wash
material which consist of displaced blocks and locally rolled boulders embedded
in sandy clayey matrix.
In general, the slope angle of the eastern part (Plate 2.1) of the ridge is
greater than the western part of the ridge. However, comparatively stable and
gentler slopes at many places have been endangered by improper excavation
for road, superimposition of excessive load of the newly constructed buildings and
poor cum inadequate drainage. It has also been observed that during monsoon,
the slopes between 30°-50° were most susceptible to slope failure and most
landslides have taken place on such slopes.
2.4. Morpho-Iithological characteristics and evolution of hill slopes
The study of hill slope analysis is primarily based on the physical

measurements of slope profiles and mostly along accessible routes, but where
there is a necessity ever for the inaccessible tracts, the help of the topographical
map has been taken. With the help of GPS, Abney’s level, ranging road and
metallic tape, the profile measurements were carried out. Several
Geomorphologists (Gilbert, G.K., 1909; Wood, A. 1942; Young, A., 1964; Savigear,
R. A. G., 1967; Hutchinson, J. N. (1968), Mass movement, In; R. W. Fairbridge (Eds.),
S. Savindra ei a/., 1986 &1988) who have been systematically carried out the
morpho-lithological characteristics of the evolution of hillslopes and different
slope segments in different parts of the world. Along the section lines, the GPS
waypoint to waypoint distance, major slope change, geomorphological features
and landuse have been recorded and during the final mapping, the sub-surface
as well as underground lithology along the section line has been projected for
better understanding of the origin and evolution of geomorphic features. Six field
profiles i.e. AB, CD, EF, GH, IJ and KL (table 2.1 - 2.6) have taken along different
sections across the town of Gangtok. In the case of AB profile, the subsurface and
concealed lithological unit is Biotite bearing quartzo-feldspathic banded gneiss
which is grouped under Dai]lling Gneiss Formation. The major geomorphic
features like spur, cliff, convex and concave river bank, escarpment and gorge
etc. have been observed in between Ranikhola and Rorachu along the section
line. The eastern slope has been changed abruptly in place to place and western
slopes have modified smoothly according to height. The spur with convexo-
concavity slope elements is formed in the left bank of Ranikhola. Convex slope
segments are mainly formed on the upper parts of the slopes near the drainage
divide due to the result of soil creep and raindrop splash. Concave slope
segments have been observed near river valley but not exactly at the base of the
slope because the down cutting is occurring rapidly at the base. It is formed on
lower part of the slope or above the basal support due to the depositional or
transportation of slope materials. Straight slope segments develop on both sides
of the Gangtok ridge mainly in between convex and concave slope elements
due to mass movement process of debris or slope materials to a uniform depth.
These are mainly steep slopes. In the both sides of the ridge line 3 to 4 m thick soil
is formed but it is not uniformly distributed. The maximum soil cover/regolith has
been developed in the western part of the ridge line. Isolated pockets of regolith
have been found in the eastern part but in the lower slope profiles, depth of the
soil thickness has rapidly increased. Lastly, it has been observed that compound
slope elements are the result of erosion, transportation and deposition of slope
materials which are situated along several outcrops/denudated hills of hard rock
units. Compound slope segments have also been found on the landslide scars
and mainly along eastern part of the ridge line along AB, CD and GH sections
line.
Along the AB section line, the outcrops/denudated hills with rugged

topography and compound slope segments have been observed in the eastern
part of the ridge. The eastern part is well vegetated and no settlement has been
A Geo-Technical Investigation into the Causes and Management of LandsDdes 42

LITHOLOGY, GEOMORPHOLOGY & LANDUSE ALONG DIFFERENT
SECTIONS ACROSS THE TOWN OF GANGTOK
CONVEX RIVER BANK
CONVACE RIVER BANK

HEIGHT INMETRE
HEIGHT INMETRE
LITHOLOGY , GEOMORPHOLOGY AND LANDUSE ALONG DIFFERENT SECTIONS
ACROSS THE TOWN OF GANGTOK
GANGTOK TOWN
RIDGE TOP
ZERO POINT
SICHEY
NH31 A CONCAVE HILL SLOPE
INDIRA BY-PASS ESCARPMENT

HEIGHT IN METRE
RIDGE TOP
\
1750
NH31A
SH PLACE
CONCAVE STEEP SLOPE
V
HEIGHT IN METRE
Fig 2.5 c & d

found along the section. But in the western part of the ridge line, and along the
section line many settlements with Gumpa, low vegetal cover and vital roads like
Indira By-pass, NH 31A and western By-pass are situated across the town (Fig.
2.4aj. Along the CD section line, the subsurface rock type is Biotite bearing
quartzo-feldspathic banded gneiss which is also under the Darjiling Gneiss
Formation. The both sides of the ridge line exhibit the geomorphic features like
cliff, spur, denudated hills, gorge and escarpment etc. Both sides are well
vegetated but eastern part is comparatively rugged then western part. The deep
gorge with escarpment has been noticed at Rorachu as well as Ranikhola and
spurs are present on both sides of Ranikhola. Along the section line, flat ridge top
with nucleated settlement has been established and in the eastern part at
Rongyek, the agglomerated settlement has been developed on the flat terrain
(Fig. 2.4.b). Along the EF section line, the subsurface rock type is Darjiling Gneiss,
Doling Schist and Lingtse Granite Gneiss. Darjiling gneiss is a dominant litho unit.
From the Indira By-pass to Ranikhola, the Lingtse Granite Gneiss and Doling Schist
are the major rock type. Well vegetal cover with thick soil/regolith have been
developed on both sides of the ridge line although not uniformly and common
geomorphological units have been observed. The town has been established on
the flat ridge top and many road network (NH 31 A, SH, LR) network has been
crossed along the section line (Fig. 2.5cj.
As discussed in previous chapter that Doling Schist and Lingtse Granite

Gneiss are weak and unstable in nature and as a result, several slope elements
(convex, concave, compound etc.) with cliff, gorge, escarpment and
outcrops/denudated hills have been formed in lower part of the western slope. In
the eastern part along the GH section line, the rock type is Biotite bearing
quartzo-feldspathic banded gneiss and in the western part, the major lithological
groups are Doling Schist, Lingtse Granite Gneiss, Mica Schist inter banded with
quartzite. Thick soil cover with alpine forests and convexo-concavity slope
elements has been formed on very steep slope (> 45°) in the eastern part of the
ridge. The ridge top is well populated and the rock types are exposed on the
surface. All the slope segments with typical geomorphic features and landslide
(Lingding landslide) scar have been found in the western part of the town. The

LITHOLOGY, GEOMORPHOLOGY & LANDUSE ALONG DIFFERENT SECTIONS
HEIGHT IN METRE
ESCARPMENT WITH [ CONCAVE SLOPE]

HEIGHT IN METRE
DISTANCE IN KM.
Fig 2.6 e & f

Chapter - 2 Geonrxxphology and Landform Assemblage of Gangtok Town
nucleated settlements have been formed on the steep slope side in the western
part of the ridge (Sichey and Lingding area) shown in (fig. 2.5.d). Along the IJ
section line (Fig. 2.6.e), the dominating rock is mica schist inter banded with
quartette and in the eastern part, the lithological unit is Lingtse Granite Gneiss. The
flat ridge top has been occupied by high rise buildings and NH 31A road
networks. The steep slope with escarpments and spur has been formed along
both sides of Gangtok ridge line. The Lingtse Granite Gneiss and mica schist have
been exposed on the surface at the ridge top along the section line.
In the eastern slope of the Upper Shari areas the agglomerated settlements
with slums have been developed on the steep slope. Varieties of plant species
with moderate soil/regolith have also been observed in both sides of the ridge.
Lastly, KL section (Fig. 2.6.f) has been drawn with the help of field observation
through GPS and topographical map because of the presence of accessible
tract in the eastern part near the Rorachu. The geology is mainly mica schist inter
banded with quartzite which has exposed at the Tadong and thick somewhat
moderate soil/regolith is developed. The varieties of plants species have been
occupied in the lower part of the hill slopes. The National high way 31A has turned
a U shape in the western part and state high way (SH) is running along the ridge
top. Ridge top is more stable than the valleys. Convexo-concavity, compound
and straight slope segments have been observed more frequently in the eastern
part. There are no settlements along the section line on the eastern part. But
western part is moderately populated along the gentle slope but the lower slope
segment is of steep concavity (with escarpment).

Table 2.1. Location and slope amount direction of AB Section line

GPS way Altitude Slope amount &
SI. No. Longitude Latitude
points Mt. Direction
1 Ai 88°36'17" E 27°20'45" N 1000 77° SW
2 A2 88°36'22" E 27°20'43" N 1350 13° SW
3 A3 88°36'30" E 27°20'41" N 1500 13°30' W
4 A4 88°36'40" E 27°20'40" N 1750 20°30'W
5 As 88°36'58" E 27°20'39" N 1850 14° W
6 As 88°37'10" E 27°20'37" N 1850 56°30' NE
7 A7 88°37'40” E 27°20'35" N 2400 18°30' W
8 A8 88°38'20" E 27°20'32" N 2100 30° SE
9 A9 88°38'35" E 27°20'31" N 2000 21° SE
10 A10 88°38'45" E 27°20'31" N 1800 13°30'SE
11 An 88°38'58" E 27°20'30" N 1700 51° SE
12 Al2 88°39'05" E 27°20'28" N 1350 73°30' S
Table 2.2. Location and slope amount direction of CD Section line

1 Ci 88°36' E 27°20'25" N 1000 73° SW
2 C2 88°36'04" E 27°20'22" N 1250 29° SW
3 C3 88°36'12" E 27°20'20" N 1389 30°30' SE
4 C4 88°36'16" E 27°20'19" N 1167 68° SW
5 Cs 88°36'25" E 27°20'18" N 1389 16°30'SW
6 C6 88°36'30" E 27°20'15" N 1583 21°30'W
7 Cz 88°36'42" E 27°20'10" N 1778 16° SW
8 Cs 88°36'58" E 27°20'06" N 2000 20°30' SW
9 C9 88°37'12" E 27°20'03" N 2167 22° SE
10 Cio 88°37'35" E 27°19'55" N 2056 56°30' SE
11 Cn 88°37'40" E 27°19'52" N 1833 38°30' SE
12 C12 88°38' E 27°19'48" N 1861 42°30'SE
13 C13 88°38'10" E 27°19'45' N 1722 3°30' SE
14 C 14 88°38'30” E 27°19'40' N 1583 21° SE
15 Cl5 88°38'40" E 27°19'36' N 1139 70°30' S

Table 2.3. Location and slope amount direction of EF Section line

1 Ei 88°35'32" E 27°20'N 1000 65°30' SW
2 E2 88°35'35" E 27°19'58"N 1150 58° SW
3 E3 88°35'45" E 27°19'55"N 1288 27°30'W
4 E4 88°35'57" E 27°19'53"N 1425 50° SW
5 Es 88°36'25" E 27°19'48" N 1600 31° SW
6 E6 88°36'45" E 27°19'40" N 1775 40°30' SW
7 e7 88°37'10" E 27°19'35" N 1825 22°30' W
8 E8 88°37'30" E 27°19'30" N 1713 45° SE
9 E9 88°37'40" E 27°19'28" N 1473 26°30' NW
10 E10 88°37'43" E 27°19'25" N 1525 52° SE
11 En 88°37'55" E 27°19'20" N 1375 70°30'SE
12 E12 88°38'10" E 27°19'17"N 1175 63°30'S
Table 2.4. Location and slope amount direction of GH Section line

1 Gi 88°35'30" E 27°19'33" N 1025 68° SW
2 G2 88°35'35" E 27°19'31" N 1088 63° SW
3 g3 88°35'40" E 27° 19'30" N 1125 88° SW
4 G4 88°35'55" E 27° 19'28" N 1200 57°30' SW
5 Gs 88°36'05" E 27°19'26" N 1250 60° SW
6 G6 88°36'10" E 27°19'24" N 1388 89°30' SW
7 g7 88°36'22" E 27°19'18" N 1500 67° SW
8 g8 88°36'30" E 27°19'15" N 1600 54° SW
9 G9 88°36'45" E 27°19'12" N 1675 11° W
10 G10 88°36'52" E 27°19'08" N 1600 52° SE
11 G11 88°36'15" E 27°19' N 1200 57°30' S
12 Gl2 88°37'20" E 27°18'58" N 1125 41°30'SE
13 Gl3 88°37'30" E 27°18'55" N 1063 57°30'SE

Chapter - 2 Geomorphology and Landform Assemblage ot Gangtok Town
Table 2.5. Location and slope amount direction of IJ Section line

1 h 88°35'28" E 27°18'42" N 922 59°30' SW
2 h 88°35'34" E 27°18'40" N 978 64° SW
3 b 88°35'40" E 27°18'35" N 1100 42°30' SW
4 U 88°35'56" E 27°18'33" N 1311 38°30' SW
5 Is 88°36'05" E 27°18'32" N 1378 10° NW
6 16 88°36'12" E 27°18'30" N 1378 61°30' NE
7 17 88°36'28" E 27°18'29" N 1156 55° SE
8 18 88°36'38" E 27°18'25" N 1056 69° SE
9 19 88°36'44" E 27°18'22" N 1000 40°30'SE
10 ho 88°36'50'' E 27°18'20" N 944 58°30'S
Table 2.6. Location and slope amount direction of KL Section line

SI. No. Longitude Latitude Direction
points Mt.
1 Ki 88°35' E 27°18'17"N 900 41° SW
2 K2 88°35'05"E 27°18'15"N 944 15°30' SW
3 k3 88°35'10"E 27°18'12"N 1089 48° W
4 <4 88°35'22''E 27°18'07"N 1156 29°30'W
5 <5 88°35'30" E 27°18' N 1222 21°30' NW
6 <6 88°35'32" E 27°17'58" N 1267 36° SW
7 K7 88°35'33" E 27°17'56" N 1339 58° SW
8 Ks 88°35'36" E 27°17'58" N 1378 36°30' W
9 <9 88°35'45" E 27°17'50" N 1367 47° S
10 K10 88°35'50" E 27°17'48" N 1289 51°30' SE
11 Kn 88°36' E 27°17'45" N 1178 75°30' S
12 K12 88°36'10" E 27°17'43'N 1044 50°30' SE
13 <13 88°36'13" E 27°17'40" N 956 47° S
14 Km 88°36' 16" E 27°17'38" N 889 51°30' S
2.5. Slope forming process and materials
An attempt has been made to analyse the easterly and westerly facing
slopes of Gangtok ridge. The geometric forms of the slopes are highly complex. In

Chapter - 2 Geomorphology and Landfomn Assemblage of Gangtok Town
broad sense, the east facing slopes from Ranipool to Bhusuk can be classified as
linear convex. Ranipool to lower Shari, Shari to Tathangchen is linear concave
and Chanmari to Decheling and Decheling to Bhusuk are linear convex and
linear concave respectively. Similarly, west facing slope aspect from Ranipool to
Bhurtuk can be classified as linear convex (Ranipool to 6th mile concave linear),
(6th mile to Amdogolai co-linear), (Amdogolai to lower Sichey concave convex),
(lower Sichey to TNSSS linear convex), (TNSSS to lower Bhurtuk town linear
concave), (lower Bhurtuk to Bojogari linear concave). The amount of slope in
absolute terms varies from slope aspect to another slope aspect.
The convex slope segments commonly occur on the upper parts of the
slopes near the ridge line or water divide line as a result of soil/rock creep and
raindrop splash. Creep is more effective in well-vegetated areas and splash in
sparsely vegetated areas. G.K. Gilbert (1909) first applied the principles of convex
slopes. According to Gilbert "Soil eroded from the upper part of a slope has to
pass each point below it and consequently that the volume of soil being moved
increases with distance from the divide. If the transport rate for creep and splash
is proportional to the slope angle then the slope angle must also increase with
distance from the crest of the slope. Hence convexity is the equilibrium form".
Therefore creep and splash act slowly and control the form of slopes with angles.
Most of the concave slope segments in the study area occur at lower part
of the slopes as well as lower part of the residual hillocks or outcrops due to the
transportation and depositional works. In the eastern part along Rorachu, the big
sized boulders are deposited at near Bhusuk and at Lower Shari, that are coming
from the upper Shari and Rongyek due to mass movement and these are the
products of weathering of the upper part of the slopes. The concave slope
segments are formed at the lower part of the slopes. Erosion and subsequently
transportation and deposition are the dominating factors in case of straight and
compound slope segments (Selby, M.J., 1982). In different parts of the Gangtok
town and surrounding, the straight slope segments have been properly identified
and their exact location, angles and direction have been discussed earlier.
Mainly compound slope segments have been noticed above the Rorachu and
Ranikhola river valley, Shari, Lingding and Bhusuk etc. where slope amounts and
geometric shape have been changed frequently. In case of Gangtok town,

Fig 2.7
Chapter - 2 Geomorphotogy and Landform Assemblage of Gangtok Town
many outcrops with geological structures interplay important role for the
development of compound slope segments. These are found at the intersection
between two or more rock groups.
In the study area, the slope forming materials are rocks, debris, soil, rock-
cum-debris etc. which are the products of Darjiling gneiss, lingtse granite gneiss,
Doling schist, phyllite, and quartzite rocks with several other rock forming minerals.
These minerals are mainly quartz, feldspar. Hornblende, Staurolite, garnet.
Landslide debris is also dominant slope forming materials. Generally, the phyllites
and schists of Doling group yield stickly, silty and brownish soil, whereas Lingtse
and Darjiling gneiss yield reddish sandy soil. In the study area, weathering, mass
movement, and erosion are the main slopes forming processes. Maximum soil
cover, landslide debris have been occurred in the western part and boulders,
landslide debris with overburden have been found during the field survey in the
eastern part of the ridge. Recently anthropogenic activities such as unplanned
growth, rapid constructional activity and increase in agricultural fields have
adversely affected slope stability and subsequently contribute to slope failure.
2.6. Drainage
The Gangtok ridge (Plate 2.2) rises from an elevation of about 1000 m at
Ranipool to about 2000 m near Penangla. This ridge also forms a water-divide
between the south easterly flowing Rorachu in east and the southerly flowing
Ranikhola in the west (Fig. 2.7). The Rorachu (Plate 2.1) is fed by numerous easterly
and westerly flowing feeder streams almost at right angle. Unlike Ranikhola,
Rorachu is younger, more energetic, and more or less a straight course. Ranikhola
on west of Gangtok ridge is fed by numerous streams, especially from the west.
These streamlets (first and second order streams) and gullies form sub-basins with
dendritic pattern of drainage, dissecting the valley slope, there by giving rise to a
highly rugged topography with scarp faces, linear ridges and steep valleys. The
above mentioned rivers, viz. the Rorachu meet the Ranikhola and Takchom Chu,
near Ranipool and flows as Rangni Chu which joins river Tista (Plate 2.4) near
Singtam.

2.6.1. Drainage density
Drainage density refers to total stream lengths per unit area. R.E. Horton
(1945) defined drainage density as a ratio of total length of all stream segments in
a given drainage basin to the total area of that basin and thus it can be derived
as follows -
Dd = ^
Ak
Where Lx = total lengths of all stream segments of a basin

Ak = total area of the basin
Horton’s method yields only a single value for the entire basin and hence it
cannot be applied for the study of spatial variations of drainage density within a
given basin. So drainage density is then simply the length per unit of area. Here,
drainage density has been calculated in one sq km grid and isopleths have been
drawn with different values for the study area. A drainage density map has been
drawn based on the above mentioned method.
It is apparent from the drainage density map (Rg. 2.1) of Gangtok town
and surrounding that the drainage density of this region varies from 1 to 7.5. The
following drainage density classes have been made in the study area.
a) Very high density zone
Very high density (> 6) is found mainly outside the Gangtok municipal
boundary. It is found along the north, northeast and northeast region including
Rongyek, North Tathangchen, Bumingghat, Lukshyama and Panchinil. A small
part of it is found in the northwest side of the map included lower Sichey. 12.60%
area has come under this category.
b) High density zone
High density (4-6) zone covers some part of the Gangtok municipal area
but almost northwest, southeast and northern part of the study area including
lower Shari, south Tathangchen, upper and lower Bhurtuk, lower Sichey, and
Lingding etc. Out of these categories 62.53% comes under in this zone.
A Geo-Techn!caJ Investigation into the Causes and Management of Landslides 50

c) Moderate density zone
Moderate density (2-4) has been found in the central part of the town
mainly Tadong, Deorali, M.G. Marg Road, Chanmari, and Zeropoint etc. In the
north eastern part of the map it is found in two pockets, one in the north
northeastern comer i.e. in the open scrub and near the Rorachu of Bhusuk. 29.3%
area is included under this category.
d} Lower density zone
Low density (< 2) has been identified in the centre of the town, 3.14% has
come under this category.
The drainage density map of the study area shows a high degree of
consistency with the spread of other morphometric attributes and reflects the
nature of variation in relief, soil, rock, vegetation etc. It is concerned mainly with
the general extent; alignment and the frequency of streams within the study area
lower values of drainage density are found along the ridge line. These drainage
segments are dissected mountainous tracts, along the hill-slopes and valleys,
have been largely influenced by different developments of hill slopes and valleys,
structures, elevations and the higher amount of rainfall distribution.
2.7. Relief
The Gangtok town at an altitude of 1700 m lies within lesser Himalayas. It is

situated on a ridge which runs almost N-S from Ranipool to Deorali SSW-NNE from
Deorali to Gangtok. The ridge rises from an elevation of about 840 m near
Ranipool (Rorachu bed) to about 2480 m near upper Bhurtuk (Reserve forest
boundary). The ridge also forms a water-divide between the south eastern flowing
Rorachu in east and the southerly flowing Ranikhola in the west. The altitudes are
being gradually increased from Ranipool to upper Bhurtuk or Panchinil but three
or four residual hills are found to be standing along the ridge line. From this
altitude map (Fig. 2.7 ), it is concluded that heights of both river bed Rorachu and
Ranikhola are 1000 m and it is continuously elevated towards the ridge line as well
as northern part of the study area. The ridge line, denudated hills, dissected

valley, spur, escarpment are the major geomorphic forms in this mountainous
part.
2.7.1. Terrain mapping and analysis: through GIS techniques
The terrain with its undulating, continuous land-surface is a familiar

phenomenon to GIS users. The land surface has been the object of mapping
interest through for hundreds of years. Map makers have introduced various
techniques for terrain mapping and have developed land surface measures as
derivatives of elevation data such as slope and aspect. The land surface is a
three-dimensional surface. Most GIS packages treat elevation data, often called
the Z values, as attribute data at point or cell locations rather than as an
additional coordinate to the x, y coordinates. In raster format, the Z values are
stored in a field of a feature attribute table. Terrain mapping and analysis can use
either raster data or vector data as the input. The author has taken two common
data sources for terrain mapping and analysis: DEM [Digital Elevation Model) and
TIN (Triangulated Irregular Network). For the construction of both TIN and DEM, IRS-
IC LISS-III, PAN data, digitized contour lines and spot elevations have been
collected and final mapping based on ARCVIEW GIS SOFTWARE have been
prepared.
2.7.1.1. TIN:
A vector data structure for terrain mapping and analysis is called the
triangulated irregular network (TIN). A TIN approximates the surface with a set of
non-overlapping triangles. Each triangle in the TIN is assumed to have a constant
gradient. These triangles are constructed using Delaunary trianguiation, which is
an interactive process of connecting points with their two nearest neighbors to
form triangles as equi-anguiar as possible. A TIN consists of two basic data
elements: elevation points with x, y and z values, and edges (lines) that connect
these points to form triangles. The x, y values represent the location of a point,
and the z value represents the elevation at the point. The slope and aspect of
each triangle are computed from x, y and z values at the three points that make
up the triangle. These elevation points in a TIN are actually sample points selected
to represent the surface. Flat areas of the surface are represented by a small
A Geo-Technical investigation into the Causes and Management of landslides 52

TRIANGULATED IRREGULAR NETWORK
INDEX
HEIGHT IN METRES
2316 - 2480
2152- 2316
1988- 2152
1824- 1988
1660- 1824
1496- 1660
1332- 1496
1168- 1332
1004- 1168
840 - 1004
7°
TTT
88° 40' F.
2 KM
DATA SOURCE: IRS 1C LISS III
DATE OF ACQUISITION: 19™ JANUARY 2002
Fig 2.8
3D SIMULATION OF STUDY AREA
2T 2V
2T N 2T N
88" 35' 12" E 50" E
ALTITUDE
IN
METRE
KILOMETRE
1r
RONGEY
SICHEY
DEVELOPMENT AREA
HOSPITAL
DEORALI
RANIPOOL
Fig 2.9
number of sample points and large triangles. Areas with high variability in
elevation need a large number of sample points and small triangles.
The TIN data structure includes the triangle number, the number of each
adjacent triangle, and data files showing the lists of points, edges, as well as x, y
and z values of each elevation point.
TIN map of Gangtok town (Fig. 2.8) shows that the large triangles are
occupied for both sides of the ridge line, central and lower part of the study area
mainly Ranipool, Deorali, Paljor stadium and M.G. Marg areas and it indicates the
flat surface and low variability of slopes. Subsequently northern, eastern and
western parts consists small triangles which shows the high variability in elevation
and sudden changes of slopes amount and direction.
2.7.1. H. DEM:
A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) consists of an array of uniformly spaced

elevation data. A DEM is point-based, but it can easily be converted to raster
data by placing each elevation point at the centre of a cell. Most GIS users in the
United States use DEMs from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). Using known
sources such as bench marks (vertical control points) and spot elevations as test
points, the USGS calculates the root mean squared error (RMSE) of the DEM data.
Level 1 accuracy has a RMSE target of 7 metres and a maximum RMSE of 15
metres. Level 2 accuracy has a maximum RMSE of one half the contour intervals.
Level 3 accuracy has a maximum RMSE of one-third of a contour interval - not to
exceed 7 metres. For the mapping of DEM of Gangtok town and surrounding,
level 2 accuracy has been taken (Fig. 2.9). From the GIS based DEM of Gangtok,
the 3D view, undulation topography, variability of slope direction have been
identified.
A TIN made of sampled points from a DEM will obviously not perform as well
as the full DEM in estimating elevations. This is also true with contour-based TINs
because they contain much smaller numbers of elevation points than contour
based DEMs. The main advantage of using a TIN for land surface analysis is data
flexibility, which allows the GIS users to add point and linear features in areas
where the topography changes rapidly. For this study area, a DEM cannot

In Gangtok Town of Sikkim Himalayas
Chapter - 2 Geomorphology and Landfonm Assemblage of Gangtok Town
recognize stream in a hilly areas because stream width is smaller than the DEM
resolution. But in this study area stream networks have been projected for better
understanding. A TIN will have no problem of depicting the stream as a break line.
2.7.2. Relative relief
Relative relief (Hammond, 1958) is also defined as the amplitude of

available relief or local relief which represents the difference in height between
the highest and the lowest points in a unit area; it may be grid square, rectangle
or a minute-grid square. It is very important technique for the assessment of
morphological characteristics of terrain and degree of dissection. It is closely
associated with slopes, and is more expressive and also useful in the
understanding of morphogenesis; but it is does not take into account the
dynamic potential of the terrain and features of vertical distance from the erosion
base. Hence, the maximum height differences in each grid of one sq km from the
relevant Topo-sheet has been used for plotting the isopleths to show varying
amplitudes of relief in the study area (Rg. 2.1).
It is apparent from the relative relief map (Rg. 2.1) that the study may be
broadly divided into 4 broad zones, a) Very high relative relief (> 600 m), b) High
relative relief (400 m - 600 m), c) Moderate relative relief (200 m - 400 m) and d)
Low relative relief (< 200 m). However, for the better understanding of the spatial
disfribution of major relative relief zones, the following major classes are put
forward:
a) Very high relative reflet (> 600 m)
Very high relative relief zones found mainly north-eastern and eastern part
of the study area which includes Rongyek valley and eastern part of the
Panchinil. These two pockets are geomorphologically situated on spur with
terrace and escarpment. 1.70 % has come under this category.
b) High relative relief (400 - 600 m)
High relative relief zones have been identified in the north, north-east,
eastern part and some eastern portion of the Gangtok town or municipal area.
Geomorphologically this broad area has been characterised by spur with

Chapter-2 Geomorphology and Landform Assemblage of Gangtok Town
terraces, residual hillocks, escarpments and some perennial and non perennial
jhoras which are lithologically superimposed by Darpng gneiss, lingtse granite
gneiss and Doling group of rocks. The slope variability is also high and the major
areas which includes Tadong, upper and lower Shari, north and south
Tathangchen, Rongyek road section, upper Bhurtuk, Chanmari and NH 31A
Nathula road section. 52.92 % area is includes under this group.
(c) Moderate relative relief (200 - 400 m)
Moderate relative relief zones (43.60% area) have been recognised in the
three isolated pockets of north, northwest and eastern part of the study area and
maximum part of the south, southwest which included Gangtok municipal area
and Indira By-pass. The important places such as Lingding, Sichey, Deorali Bazar,
Hospital, M.G. Marg road are situated under this particular category and area is
43.85%. Geomorphoiogically, the moderate relative relief zones are situated
under ridge line, spur with terrace and river valleys with landslide scars.
(d) Low relative relief zone (< 200 m)
Out of this total area 1.78% comes under this category. The low slope zones
have been identified in the central part and western part of the study area which
includes Deorali and lower Sichey. The geomorphological characteristics of these
areas are flat terrain and valley. Lingtse granite gneiss and Doling schist are the
main lithological units of these areas.
Thus, from the above discussion it is apparent that, the study area is mainly
covered by high to moderate relative relief. Hills with high altitudes and steep
slopes are responsible for the development of this peculiar pattern of high range
of amplitude, lithology with structures and weathering in the normal course of the
sculpturing processes, along with slope-wash and mass-movements, have played
the decisive role in the attainment of such variations in the amplitude of relief.
2.8. Geomorphological description / Landform assemblage
Geomorphology - the word means "form and development of the earth”.

It has often been used as a synonym for physiography, which is the description of
landscape. In the nineteenth century, two methods of research were employed

GEOMORPHOLOGICAL MAP
INDEX
2 KM A/perennial stream
A/non perennial stre am
/\y CON TOUR IN METRES
RESIDUAL HILLS /DENUOATED OUTLIER
OPEN SCARP
RIVER VALLEY
DATA SOURCE: IRS 1C LISS III + PAN SPUR WITH TERRACE
FLAT TERRAIN
DATE OF ACQUISITION: 19™ JANUARY 2002 ESCARPMENT/SCARP
■■gorge
"□landslide SCAR
Fig 2.10
Chapter - 2 Geomorphology and tandform Assemblage of Gangtok Town
for the landscape study: the first was primarily descriptive and the second, largely
experimental. The descriptive "physiographic" method was used chiefly in Britain
and America and was much handled by geographers: the second method was
used chiefly in France under the title of "Geologie Dynamique". A semblance of
Dynamism was, however, given to physiography by W.M. Davis’s introduction of
the ‘cycle of erosion' concept [Davis, 1889), and the subject became almost a
popular science early in the nineteenth century. Until the late 1940’s, the
description of a landform or group of landforms, and the explanation of their
origin and age, were done almost exclusively through written reports (Fairbridge,
R.W. (Eds.), (1968).
The geomorphological map of Gangtok (Fig. 2.10) has been prepared

based on: IRS 1C USS III + PAN (2002), topographical map and intensive field survey
through GPS (Global positioning system). Actually micro geomorphological
features have precisely been identified through GPS in the field and Macro
geomorphological landscapes have been recognised through IRS IC LISS-JII + PAN
image with the help of remote sensing software ERDAS v. 8.5. The ridge line,
denudated hills, dissected valley, spur, escarpment are the major geomorphic
forms in this mountainous part. These geomorphic features are described below:
2.8.1. Broad ridge
The broad ridge that runs almost N-S from Ranipool to Deorali and SSW-NNE
from Deorali to Gangtok. The ridge rises from an elevation of about 1000 m at
Ranipool to about 2000 m near Penangla. This ridge also forms a water divide
between the south westerly flowing Rorachu in east and the southerly flowing
Ranikhola in the west.
A critical analysis of the NNE-SSW treading Gangtok ridge between Institute

of Tibetology at Deorali in the southwest and T.V. Tower area in the northeast
shows the following pattern:
(4) From institute of Tibetology up to the base of Namnang ridge top is more
or less flat or very gently ascending (This stretch includes Deorali Bazar area).
(5) From the base of Namnang ridge up to the Secretariat Building, the ridge
axis shows a steep ascend.
A GeoTechnical Investigation into the Causes and Management of Landslides 56

In Gangtok Town of Sikkim Himalayas
Chapter - 2 Geomorphoiogy and Landform Assemblage of Gangtok Icrwn
{6} From Secretariat Building up to zero point {near white hall) the ridge axis is
more or less flat. This segment includes the palace ridge road.
(7) From zero point onwards toward T.V. Tower area, the ridge top shows a
moderate to steep ascend.
Gangtok town predominantly stands on this ridge top of the higher slopes
of western and eastern sides. From Tibetology Institute to Raj Bhavan area, within
a short distance of 2.15 km the ridge gains an elevation difference of 250 m. This is
phenomenal and thus Gangtok Town can be termed as a vertical town.
2.8.2. Residual hills / Denudated outliers
The maximum denudated outliers or residual hills are located on the ridge
line and others have been observed at the lower Bhurtuk, near Panchinil and near
Kyong-ney but their lithological characteristics are same. Two denudated hills
(altitude of 1718 m and 2128 m) are standing in between Namnang ridge to
secretariat building and zero point to T.V. Tower. The geomorphoiogical as well as
geological characteristics of these residual hills have been carefully studied in the
field through GPS and their descriptions are given below in the table 2.7.

Table 2.7. Analysis of micro geomorphic characteristics of denudated hills

GPS Height
Lithological Geomorphological
way Latitude Longitude in
characteristics description
points metres
Subsurface lithology is It is situated on the
1 27°17'45"N 88°35'45"E 1241 muscovite schist inter ridge top, slope 45° SE,
banded with quartzite 41°30' SW
Muscovite schist and
biotite schist are the This is also located on
2 27°18'30"N 88°36'15"E 1530 lithological the ridge line and SSE
characteristics of this slope 55°30' SE 49°55'
area
This hill lies on ridge
This residual hill is located top. NE 40° 14' and SW
3 27°20'45"N 88°37'50"E 2128 on Banded gneiss inter 51 °13' are the slope
banded with quartzite amount and direction
respectively
Biotite bearing quartzo- This denudated outlier
feldspathic banded is also situated on
4 27°21 '25"N 88°38'20''E 2424 gneiss has been ridge line and NNE,
observed in hill and slope is 39°41' and NW
surrounding is 51 °31'
This particular hill is
located on the spur
Quartzo-feldspathic
and in the open scrub
banded gneiss is the
5 27°21'50"N 88°39'5"E 2283 area. NE 48°30' and
dominating lithological
SW 45'13' are the
unit in this area
slope amount and
direction
Staurolite bearing quartz- It has been found in
feldspathic banded the north eastern part
gneiss is the main of Gangtok ridge line
6 27°20'35"N 88°39'5"E 1945
lithological near the Kyongney SW
characteristics of this slope is 46°45'. Mainly
area vegetated area
This hill situated on spur
This residual hill is situated
with terrace and NW
7 27°20°45''N 88°36'10"E 1273 on gneiss interbanded
slope is 59°31' and N
with quartzite
49°30'.
2.8.3. Spur with terrace
All the spurs are found to been projected from Gangtok ridge line up to the
Rorachu and Ranikhola. Spurs usually lie in between two valleys. Spurs are
represented by U shaped contour lines with the apex of the U pointing towards
lower ground. Maximum spurs of the eastern part of the ridge line have very steep
slopes with angles in the range of 30-45° but commonly around 32-36°. But in the
western part in between lingding and Sichey, the spurs are steep and have been
modified into the terrace by the anthropogenic activities (mainly terrace
cultivation). Maximum spurs are in SW and SE direction and upper part of the spurs
mainly at Sichey, Lingding, lower Shari, Kyongney, Rongyek, the natural slope

direction, amount have been changed due to rice and maize cultivation. Some
spurs with terraces have been studied carefully through GPS, Abney level, tape,
altimeter for accessible tracts and their litho-morphological characteristics which
are given in the table 2.8.
Table 2.8. Analysis of morpho-lithological and land use characteristics Spur with
terrace
GPS Lithological Morphological Land use / land
way Latitude Longitude description cover
characteristics
points
Rice cultivation
Spur with terrace, with tall trees
Garnet bearing average slope and bushes and
1 27°19'55"N 88°35'55"E
mica schist 32°30'SW scattered rural
settlements
Spur with Rice cultivation
Garnet bearing undulating steep unknown trees
mica schist inter- terraces, and bamboo
2 27°19'25"N 88°35'55"E
banded with average slope bushes
quartzite 35°50' NW
Ideal spur with Rice and maize
Muscovite and cultivation with
terraces,
3 27°18'25"N 88°35'15"E Biotite schist with average slope settlements
garnet 29°30'SW
Spur with long Mixed cultivation
Lingtse granite flat terraces, with dense forest
4 27°18'55"N 88°37'15"E average slope
gneiss
30°30'SE
Terraces on the Mixed cultivation
Quartzo- lower part of and vacant land
5 27°19'50"N 88°38'12"E feldspathic spur, average with scattered
banded gneiss slope 30°30'SE forest
Mainly dense
Biotite bearing Spur with small forest covered
quartzo- terraces, with barren land
6 27°20'10"N 88°38'58"E average slope
feldspathic and isolated rural
banded gneiss SSE 36°45' settlements
2.8.4. Escarpment / scarp
The side of a mountain or hill, which is very steep, is called a scarp or

escarpment. Generally, scarps are the distinct breaks forming sharp edges of the
highland. Scarps or escarpments are mainly formed due to the combined action
of erosion by raindrop splash and transportation by the natural agents. Generally,
straight slope segments develop at the upper portion and concave slope
segments develop at the lower part of fhe scarps / escarpments and in the
Gangtok town and surrounding the average slope angles is in the range of 30 -45
SE. Maximum escarpmenfs / scarps have been developed in the eastern part of

Chapter - 2 Geomorphotogy and Landfomn Assemblage of Gangtok Town
the ridge line because of weathering, mass movements and fluvial action. From
the field survey, it is concluded that, the upper slopes dominated by shallow
debris slides tend to have long straight profiles, as do steep slopes which are
undercut by streams. Some specific escarpments have been studied carefully
and it has been observed that, the slope amount and direction that subsequently
produced different structures have been modified by natural as well as
anthropogenic causes. Near the south Tathangchen, Kyongney, lower Shari,
secretariat and Ranipool the landforms have occupied very steep slope angles in
the range of 45°-56° SE and these are either densely vegetated or frequently
vacant land.
2.8.5. Gorge
In the mountainous region, where velocity of the river is maximum, due to

downward erosion the valley is narrow and deep. Due to erosion, the upper part
of the valley is a little wide. In this study area, the two main perennial streams
namely Ranikhola and Rorachu are the tributaries of Tista river. As they belong in
the youthful stage, their downward erosion and kinematic energy are both very
high. Ranikhola is comparatively of low velocity and down cutting is also less then
Rorachu in the east. As a result, particularly near Bhusuk, south Tathangchen,
northeast of Ranipool, the long, narrow, V shaped gorge have been formed. In
North West part of the Bhurtuk, in Ranikhola a deep and narrow gorge has also
been observed, and upper part of gorge (some what cliff faced) have formed on
the hard rockmass disintegrated by weathering. As the cliff faces recedes by
erosion, the height of rockfall is reduced and the extant of the tail should be
reduced and cliff face has been nearly eliminated a straight slope with no basal
concavity can form.
2.8.6. Landslide scars
Landslide scars have been observed on the upper and middle parts of the
spur mainly in and around Sichey, Lingding, Paljor stadium, Bhurtuk, Chanmari,
Tathangchen, Shari, Rongyek, Kyong-ney etc. and these are found on the mica
schist, lingtse granite gneiss and banded gneiss and jhoras are reactivated along
the slides during monsoonal months. Geomorphology as well as hydrogeology in
the landslide scars have been summarised below (table 2.9):

Table 2.9. Analysis of hydro-geology and geomorphology of the selective slides

GPS way Height Slope
Type of Type of
points / Latitude Longitude in Rock type in
slide soil
Locality metres degree
Micac Mica schist
Rock
eous and
27°19'35 88°37'39 " cum
Tathangchen 1399 silty, phyllites of 20°-40°
"N E debris
clayey Doling
slide
soil group
Biotite
bearing
Developme 27°20'41 Debris Sandy,
88°37'7"E 1360 quartzo- 45°
nt area "N slide silty soil
feldspathic
gneiss
Debris Quartzo-
slide feldspathic
27°19'38 88°35'53" rock- Sandy, geniss with
Lingding 1300 30°-50°
"N E cum- silty soil lineation of
debris stretched
slide biotite
Debris Lingtse
slide gneiss/grani
27°20’33 88°36'38" debris- Sandy, te
Sichey 1399 30°-40°
"N E cum- silty soil
rock
slide
Guartzo-
27°21'52 88°36'53" Debris Sandy,
Bhurtuk 1419 feldspathic 50°-60°
"N E slide silty soil
gneiss
Guartzo-
27°20'27 Debris Sandy,
Chanmari 88°38'5"E 2101 feldspathic 10°-15°
"N slide silty soil
gneiss
Quartzite
27°28’54 Debris Sandy, and phyllite
Lumsey 88°36'E 1220 20°
"N slide silty soil (Doling
group)
2.8.7. Flat terrains
Flat terrains have been identified mainly in the central part of the
municipal town and at Tadong bazar, near Rongyek and below the NH 31A
Nathula road section. Construction of township, hotels, bazar, playground (Paljor
stadium), military camp and colony have been developed by undulating
landform into flat terrains. But in the north eastern part, two pockets have been
formed due to the formation of natural terraces. Both sides of the Rorachu and
Ranikhola are manmade terraces and being formed due to cultivation (mainly
rice and maize). As a result of cut and fill, subsidence as well as shrinking happens
in different places in Gangtok town.

The purpose of geomorphological maps is to offer the accurate graphic

representation of landforms of the study area and the interplay of the wide
ranges of influences, both past and the present. This map showing areas of
differing geological rock types and structures under and the influence of varied
climatic conditions can be studied and compared. This shows the sequence of
events which influenced the development of those kinds of relief.
Geomorphological mapping is a major step forward in the understanding the
process and product of geomorphology.
2.9. Correlation between geology and geomorphology
A systematic study of geology versus geomorphology of the area brings

out the following facts:
i) Whenever the ridge axis passes through schistose country, the

topography is flat or gently ascending for e.g. the lower schist zone has given
rise to ‘Deorali flat top' and the upper schist zone has resulted in the ‘Palace
Ridge Road flat top’.
ii) Whenever the ridge axis passes through gneissic country, the
topography becomes steeply ascending for e.g. the Lingtse gneiss has given
rise to Namnang ridge and the Darjiling gneiss, the Chanmari ridge and
similarly on the gneissic country by spurs. The Shari valley and Tathangchen
valleys are formed on the lower and higher schist zones respectively. The
Namnang spur and the Chanmari spur are formed by the Lingtse and Darjiling
gneiss respectively. The northern part of the Tathangchen valley which shows
steep southerly slopes is affected by repeated rockslides due to failures along
east west trending and steep southerly dipping joint planes. The southern part
of the valley is a result of wedge failures in the schistose rock. Wild bushes have
only been observed on the steep slopes and also on the scarp faces
developed in the Darjiling gneiss to the west. In the east slopes of Namnang
ridge, lingtse gneiss forms scarp faces.
Lastly, the Gangtok ridge axis is characterized by alternating flat tops and
steeply ascending ridges. Similarly the eastern slope of Gangtok ridge is
characterized by alternating concave valleys and covexes spurs. A number of
A Geo-Technical Investigation into the Causes and Management of Landsfides 62

88"39' E
RUGGEDNESS
INDEX MAP
BHURTUK
RUGGEDNESS
INDEX
<1
SICHEY RONGEY 1 -2
CHANMARII
DEVELOPMENT AREA
2-3
HOSPITAL )
(TATHANGCHEN
PALACE
LINGDING
DEORALI
Graph of AreaCoveredby Ruggednedd Index
TADONG
30.11%
RANIPOOL kilometre
DISSECTION
INDEX MAP
BHURTUK
DISECTION
INDEX
<0.15 SICHEY iRONGEYi
CHANMARI,
DEVELOPMENT AREA
0.15-0.2
HOSPITAL
ITAiliBANGGHEN'
0.20-0.25
PALACE,
LINGDING
> 0.25
iDEORAUil
Graph of Areacovered by Disection Index

IflrADONGI
IRANIROOL
kilometre
17' N
Fig 2.11
east-west trending steep scarp faces with very steep southerly dips are observed
in the gneissic (both Darjiling and lingtse) country.
A direct correlation between geological and geomorphological features

could be drawn. While the flat top ridges and the concave valley slopes on both
sides of Rorachu and Ranikhola represent the schistose country, the gneissic rocks
constitute the spurs and the steeply ascending ridge tops. The east-west scarp
faces are the results of rock failure along the east-west trending master joint
planes. The anthropogenic activities are mostly concentrated along the ridge
tops and along the higher slopes on either side. The gentle slopes on the schistose
country and the ancient slide dumps over the gneissic terrain provide the
platforms for agricultural activities. Very sparse vegetation, mostly in the form of
bushes is seen in the steeper slopes/scarps faces in the gneisses and along the old
slide scars. The soil developed in the gneissic country is silty to sandy and over
schistose country; the soil is clayey in nature. Permeability is more in the sandy soil,
whereas the clayey soil of schistose country holds lots of water.
2.10. Statistical Analysis of Morphometric techniques
It is very likely that a number of morphometric variables in Gangtok town

and surrounding area are very closely correlatable. As for an example, the
relative relief of fhe study area is taken up with the assumption that probably it
has strong correlations with average slope, drainage density, ruggedness index
and dissection index. Most likelihood ratios' are also useful. For the landslide study
correlation of the morphometric variables have been done. Ruggedness index
and dissection index (fig. 2.11) of the study area have been calculated from
topographical map and data given in the table 2. 10.

Table 2.10. Morphometric data generated from the topographical map

Ground Maximum Minimum R. Average Drainage Drainage Ruggedness Dissection
relief (m) relief (m) relief slope in density in frequency index index
|m) (D) km./km2
1 1400 960 440 25.96 4.50 11 1.98 0.31
2 1120 880 240 25.96 4.00 7 0.96 0.21
3 1120 880 240 28.10 5.75 10 1.38 0.21
4 1120 840 280 21.44 5.25 8 1.47 0.25
5 1520 1120 400 22.98 3.50 12 1.40 0.26
6 1320 1180 140 17.44 7.00 17 0.98 0.11
7 1200 1040 160 21.44 5.50 13 0.88 0.13
8 1320 960 360 24.49 5.75 11 2.07 0.27
9 1360 1000 360 23.74 2.75 3 0.99 0.26
10 1360 1040 320 25.96 2.00 9 0.64 0.24
11 1240 880 360 22.98 3.00 5 1.98 0.29
12 1800 1280 520 28.80 4.50 11 2.34 0.29
13 1640 1240 400 22.21 5.75 16 2.30 0.24
14 1640 1320 320 22.98 3.75 9 1.20 0.20
15 1600 1160 440 22.21 3.50 10 1.54 0.28
16 1600 1160 440 28.80 4.00 13 1.76 0.28
17 1480 1000 480 31.50 3.50 8 1.68 0.32
18 1320 920 400 29.49 5.00 11 2.00 0.30
19 1160 880 280 28.80 2.75 7 0.77 0.20
20 1800 1520 280 28.80 4.25 10 1.19 0.16
21 1840 1440 400 25.96 4.25 15 1.60 0.22
22 2000 1600 400 26.69 5.75 15 2.30 0.24
23 2000 1640 360 28.49 1.00 5 0.36 0.18
24 1680 1520 160 16.62 1.25 7 0.20 0.10
25 1680 1080 600 26.69 3.25 10 1.95 0.36
26 1320 960 360 28.10 5.50 17 1.98 0.27
27 2160 1720 440 31.50 6.50 19 2.86 0.20
28 2240 1720 520 24.49 4.75 15 2.47 0.23
29 2240 1920 320 28.10 4.00 17 1.28 0.14
30 2120 1600 520 25.23 4.00 10 2.08 0.25
31 1640 1120 520 28.11 6.00 13 3.12 0.32
32 1440 1120 320 29.49 5.50 10 1.76 0.22
33 2480 2080 400 34.94 6.00 17 2.40 0.16
34 2480 2120 360 25.23 7.50 25 2.70 0.15
35 2360 1840 520 22.98 5.75 13 2.99 0.22
36 2040 1440 600 33.42 7.50 17 4.50 0.29
37 1560 1120 440 30.17 3.00 9 1.32 0.28
38 2600 2120 480 32.14 5.50 14 2.64 0.18
39 2280 1760 520 28.11 6.00 11 3.12 0.23
40 2120 1600 520 30.83 5.00 11 2.60 0.25
41 1920 1320 600 30.17 6.50 14 3.90 0.31
42 1600 1240 360 31.49 4.25 8 1.53 0.23
43 2800 2120 680 34.65 5.50 11 3.74 0.24
44 2240 1600 640 35.26 3.75 7 2.40 0.29
45 1800 1480 320 28.80 5.00 11 1.60 0.18
46 1760 1360 400 34.04 1.75 7 0.70 0.23
a) Coefficient of correlation
Data have been tabulated from topographical sheets on relative relief

(Ycj, drainage density (Xi), average slope (X2), dissection index (X3) and
ruggedness index (X4). Using this data linear regressions have been computed
from the equations between (1), Yc and Xi (2). Yc and X2 (3). Yc and X3 (4). Yc

and X4. The results are briefly enumerated in (table 2.11). It is found that average
slope (X2) and ruggedness index (X4) are highly correlated with high values of co
efficient correlation while drainage density (Xij and dissection index (X3) are
moderately correlated with relative relief (Yc).
Table 2.11. Correlation matrix on morphometric variables

Relative Drainage Average Dissection Ruggedness
Relief Density Slope index index
Relative
Relief 1 0.174 0.561 0.661 0.766
Drainage
Density 1 0.104 -0.047 0.728
Average
Slope 1 0.281 0.436
Dissection
Index 1 0.372
Ruggedness
1
Index
b) Correlation matrix
Since the morphometric and hydrologic variables do not work in isolation

but are also closely interlinked phenomena, a multivariate analysis seems to be
quite necessary to find out the relative importance of each variable. In order to
obtain a ready idea of the nature of bi-variate relationship of a number of
variables, a correlation matrix is prepared. In the diagram showing then number
of variables and the values of correlation coefficients are inserted both along the
horizontal and vertical columns and with the selection of suitable intervals, each
block can be shaded according to its class interval. The visual impression of the
diagram provides a ready clue of the nature of relationship existing between any
two sets of variables and of all the sets of paired variables.

Table 2.12. Coefficient of correlation (r) and regression equation

Coefficient
No. Variables of Regression Equation
Correlation r)
Relative relief (Yc) Relative relief (Yc) = 340 + 14.0
1 vs drainage 0.174 drainage density (xi)
density (xi)
Relative relief vs Relative relief (Yc) = - 39 + 16.3 avg.
2 Average slope 0.561 Slope (X2)
(X2)
Relative relief vs Relative relief (Yc) = 76.7 + 1400
3 Dissection index 0.661 dissection index (x3)
(x3)
Relative relief vs Relative relief (Yc) = 212 + 102
4 Ruggedness 0.766 ruggedness index (x4)
index (x4)
One such correlation matrix of four morphometric variables (table

2.12) has been prepared for the Gangtok town and surroundings area,
which is divided into about 46 grids of 1 sq. km. each. The matrix clearly
brings out the overall bi-variate Pearson’s product moment correlation co
efficient. It is interesting to observe that the relative relief has fairly strong
correlations with average slope (+0.561), ruggedness index (+0.766) and
dissection index (+0.661) while it is poorly correlated to drainage density
(+0.174). Similarly drainage density has high positive correlation with
ruggedness index (+0.728) while poorly correlated to average slope
(+0.104). On the other hand drainage density is negatively correlated with
dissection index (-0.047). Average slope on the other hand is positively
correlated with dissection index (+0.281) and ruggedness index (+0.436).
Dissection index is positively correlated with ruggedness index (+0.372). Fig.
1.10 enumerates the relationship properly.
A Geo-Technicai Investigation into the Causes and Management of Landslides 66

Chapter - 2 Geomorphology and Landfomn Assemblage of Gangtok Town
PEARSON IAN PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATION MATRIX OF FIVE VARIABLES
0 151 0.300
. - 0.601 - 0.750
>±±±±±±±±±±±±±
0.751 0.900
-

2.11. Conclusion
From the above systematic geomorphological study, it is concluded that the

geomorphic configuration of this mountain tract is the combined product of
geologic foundation and fluvial processes. The geomorphic processes as well as
subsurface geology with structure have definitely played a significant role in
shaping the regional geomorphology. Whenever the ridge axis passes through
schistose country, the topography is flat or gently ascending and the ridge axis
passes through gneissic country, the topography becomes steeply ascending.
The jointed/foliated structure of these rocks coupled with conspicuous chemical
weathering produces a thick soil layer and thereby reducing the shearing stress
resistance of the country rocks significantly. As a result, slope failure with mudflow
due to liquefaction happens regularly within the rainy months. The ridge line,
denudated hills, dissected valley, spur, escarpment are the major geomorphic
forms in this mountainous part. The Gangtok ridge also forms a water-divide
between the south easterly flowing Rorachu in east and the southerly flowing
Ranikhola in the west. These streamlets (first and second order streams) and gullies
form sub-basins with dendritic pattern of drainage, dissecting the valley slope,
there by giving rise to a highly rugged topography with scarp faces, linear ridges
and steep valleys. In the study area, the slope forming materials are rocks, debris,
soil, rock-cum-debris etc. which are the products of Darjiling gneiss, lingtse granite
gneiss, Doling schist, phyllite, and quartzite rocks with several other rock forming
minerals. Landslide debris is also dominant slope forming materials. In the study
area, weathering, mass movement, and erosion are the main slopes forming
processes. Maximum soil cover, landslide debris have been occurred in the
western part and boulders, landslide debris with overburden have been found in
the eastern part of the ridge. Recently anthropogenic activities such as
unplanned growth, rapid constructional activity and increase in agricultural fields
have adversely affected slope stability and subsequently contribute to slope
failure.
References:
Davis, W.M., (1899), The pepeplain, originally written in reply to a paper by

Professor R. S. Tar on the same subject. Reprinted with numerous minor

changes. American Geologist, Vol. 23, pp. 207-239, also in Geographical

Essays, W. M. Davis, edited by D. W. Johnson, Dover Publications, INC.
(1909), pp. 350-380.
Fairbridge, R. W. (Eds.), (1968), The Encyclopedia of Geomorphology, Reinhold,

New York.
Gilbert, G.K., (1909), The convexity of hilltops, Joun. Geol., Vol. 17, pp. 344-51.
Hammond (1958), Relative Relief map, Annuals, Association of American

Geographers, Vol. LVIII.
Horton, R.E. (1945), Erosional development of streams & their drainage basins,
hydrological approach to quantitative morphology, Geological Society of
America, Bull, 56.
Hutchinson, J. N. (1968), Mass movement. In: R. W. Fairbridge (Eds.), The

Encyclopedia of Geomorphology, Reinhold, New York, pp. 688-696.
Selby, M.J., (1982), Hill Slope Material and Processes, Oxford University Press.
Singh, Savindra and R.S. Pandey, (1986), Morphological analysis and

development of slope profiles over Bhander Scarps, in International
Geomorphology, Part -ii, edited by V. Gardiner, John Wiley and Sons, pp.
269-280.
Singh, Savindra and S. P. Agnihotri, (1988), Morphological characteristics and

evolution of hillslopes, Rewa Plateau, India, in Geomorphology and
Environment, edited by Savindra Singh and R. C. Tiwari, Allahabad
Geographical Society, Allahabad, pp. 387-411.
Strahler, A.N. (1956), Quantitative slope analysis. Bull. Geological Society of

America, 67.
Wentworth, C.K. (1950), A simplified method for determining the average sloe of
a land surface, American Journal of Science, 20.
Wood, A. (1942), The development of hillside slops. Proceedings, Geological

Association, V.53, pp. 128-40.
Young, A., (1964), Slope profile analysis. Slopes Comm. Rep., Vol. 4, pp. 17-27.
A GeoTechnical Investigation into the Causes and Management of Landslides 69


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GEOMORPHOLOGY AND LANDFORM

2 ASSEMBLAGE OF GANGTOK TOWN

GEOMORPHOLOGY AND LANDFORM ASSEMBLAGE OF

The geomorphological set up of Gangtok town and its surroundings along

A Geo-Technical Investigation into the Causes and Management of Landslides 37

An attempt has been made here, to visualise the extent of variations in

2.2. Slope analysis

‘Slope’ may be defined as “an angular inclination between different

Average slope, (0) = tan-1 [N x i/k]

Where, N = Number of contour crossings per mile or per kilometre

A Geo-Technical Investigation Into the Causes and Management of Landslides 38

i) Very high slope zone (> 30°),

I) Very high slope zone (> 30°)

II) High slope zone (25°-30°)

ill) Moderate slope zone (20°-25°)

Moderate slopes have been identified mainly in Lingding, Sichey,

(iv) Gentle slope zone (< 20°)

A Geo-Technical Investigation into the Causes and Management of Landslides 39

2.3. Study of actual slope angle and direction

A Geo-Technical Investigation into the Causes and Management of Landslides 40

Plate 2.4. Sinuous course of the

As already mentioned, the N-S to NNE-SSW ridge from Ranipool to Mirem

2.4. Morpho-Iithological characteristics and evolution of hill slopes

The study of hill slope analysis is primarily based on the physical

Along the AB section line, the outcrops/denudated hills with rugged

A Geo-Technical Investigation into the Causes and Management of LandsDdes 42

CONVEX RIVER BANK

CONVACE RIVER BANK

INDIRA BY-PASS ESCARPMENT

Fig 2.5 c & d

As discussed in previous chapter that Doling Schist and Lingtse Granite

A Geo-Technical Investigation into the Causes and Management of Landslides 43

ESCARPMENT WITH [ CONCAVE SLOPE]

Fig 2.6 e & f

A Geo-Technical Investigation into the Causes and Management of Landslides 44

Table 2.1. Location and slope amount direction of AB Section line

Table 2.2. Location and slope amount direction of CD Section line

A Geo-Technical Investigation into the Causes and Management of Landslides 45

Table 2.3. Location and slope amount direction of EF Section line

2 E2 88°35'35" E 27°19'58"N 1150 58° SW

3 E3 88°35'45" E 27°19'55"N 1288 27°30'W

4 E4 88°35'57" E 27°19'53"N 1425 50° SW

5 Es 88°36'25" E 27°19'48" N 1600 31° SW

6 E6 88°36'45" E 27°19'40" N 1775 40°30' SW

7 e7 88°37'10" E 27°19'35" N 1825 22°30' W

8 E8 88°37'30" E 27°19'30" N 1713 45° SE

9 E9 88°37'40" E 27°19'28" N 1473 26°30' NW

10 E10 88°37'43" E 27°19'25" N 1525 52° SE

11 En 88°37'55" E 27°19'20" N 1375 70°30'SE

12 E12 88°38'10" E 27°19'17"N 1175 63°30'S

Table 2.4. Location and slope amount direction of GH Section line

2 G2 88°35'35" E 27°19'31" N 1088 63° SW

3 g3 88°35'40" E 27° 19'30" N 1125 88° SW

4 G4 88°35'55" E 27° 19'28" N 1200 57°30' SW

5 Gs 88°36'05" E 27°19'26" N 1250 60° SW

6 G6 88°36'10" E 27°19'24" N 1388 89°30' SW

7 g7 88°36'22" E 27°19'18" N 1500 67° SW

8 g8 88°36'30" E 27°19'15" N 1600 54° SW

9 G9 88°36'45" E 27°19'12" N 1675 11° W

10 G10 88°36'52" E 27°19'08" N 1600 52° SE

11 G11 88°36'15" E 27°19' N 1200 57°30' S

12 Gl2 88°37'20" E 27°18'58" N 1125 41°30'SE

13 Gl3 88°37'30" E 27°18'55" N 1063 57°30'SE