Brinjal (Solanum melongena L)

Family : Solanaceae

The vegetable brinjal, Solanum melongena L. (Solanaceae), is often referred to as

eggplant or aubergine in other regions of the world and is grown for its fleshy fruit.
Two crops are typically grown per year in South Asia and because fruits can be
harvested every week farmers are provided with an assured income and resource-
poor consumers have access to a much-needed, nutritious vegetable, in the
summer months when other vegetables are in short supply.

In India alone over 500,000 ha of brinjal is cultivated per annum with yields of
typically 20-40 tonnes/ha/crop. In Bangladesh vegetables are grown on 2% of the
available agricultural land and yield 4% of the produce, unlike rice that uses 72% of
the land and yields 51% of the food by weight. Brinjal is by far the major vegetable
representing some 41% by weight of all vegetables produced, occupying 19% of the
land used to cultivate them.

As with every crop farmers have to cope with a range of pests, diseases and crop
nutrition issues in order to produce a healthy brinjal crop. Brinjal is affected locally
by whitefly (Bemisia tabaci), ash weevil, (Myllcerus discolour), red spider mite
(Tetranychus curcurbitae) and little leaf disease (transmitted by jassids) and soil
pathogens such as bacterial wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum) are increasing in
prevalence. In some areas of Gujarat parasitic plants such as orobranche are
endemic. Nevertheless, the most serious pest of brinjal is without doubt the brinjal
fruit and shoot borer, Leucinodes orbonalis, a lepidopterous pest whose larvae are
well protected from pesticides and natural enemies once they have entered the fruit
or young shoots.

Farmers have depended entirely on insecticides to control of L. orbonalis but the

sustainability of this approach is in question as farmers in some areas of Northern
India and Bangladesh are finding that even daily applications do not provide
effective control. Indeed farmers in some areas of Bangadesh are applying up to
180 applications of insecticide a year at a cost of $1200/ha/yr, constituting 40-50%
of cultivation costs in 2003. For this reason the project prioritised research effort on
this key pest and much of the IPM package developed was concerned with this
issue, although technologies for control of other potential pests and diseases based
on work by other groups were incorporated.
Brinjal fruit and shoot borer, Leucinodes orbonalis

The female moth lays eggs individually on the shoots of young brinjal plants. The
small larvae that emerge soon eat their way into the tender growing shoots where
they are protected from larval parasitoids and natural enemies such as ants and
beetles. The feeding activity of the larvae causes the young shoots to droop in a
characteristic manner

Female L. orbonalis moth Brinjal shoot infested with larvae

As the brinjal plant develops and begins to produce fruit the female moth
preferentially lays eggs on the fruit into which emerging larvae burrow. Several
larvae can be present in one fruit at a time, depending of the fruit’s size. As the
larvae burrow into the fruit they block the hole with excrement or frass so
preventing predators entering attacking them. Only the parasitic wasp, Trathala
flavo-orbitalis (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) has an ovipositor long and strong
enough to reach the larvae and lay eggs in them. Project researchers at BARI found
that T. flavo-orbitalis can have a significant effect on control of the larvae of L.
orbonalis but only when farmers stop applying insecticides, because unlike the pest
T. flavo-orbitalis is highly sensitive to insecticides. The highest incidence of T. flavo-
orbitalis occurs between July and December with infestation of larvae in shoots
ranged from 12 to 30% and in fruits from 7 to 25%. Fortunately, T. flavo-orbitalis is
a parasitoid of rice leaffolder, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis, as well and so there is no
need to augment the population with artificially reared insects because natural
populations rapidly colonise non-pesticide treated crops. Indeed in surveys
conducted by BARI researchers the highest levels of natural control of L. orbonalis
were found in areas with the lowest use of insecticide and achieved by T. flavo-
orbitalis.

Remove infested shoots by hand Remove and bury infested brinjal fruit

Remove and shred crop residues Grafted brinjal - root resistant to bacterial
wilt

Crop Hygiene
Crop hygiene is particularly important in areas of intensive cultivation, and in
particular where related crops are cultivated over long periods of time. Infested
shoots and fruits should be removed by hand from brinjal fields. Both can act as
sources of future infestation. Similarly, at the end of a woody crop residues are
often collected and stored for use as firewood. However, these residues contain
larvae which emerge the following spring and lay eggs in newly established
nurseries. Ideally crop residues should be shredded or burnt before the next crop is
planted in the same way that fields are ploughed to reduce populations of soil borne
pests and diseases. Alternatively, nurseries should be located as far from crop
residues as possible. In general insecticides should be avoided for as long as
possible in order to preserve the natural enemies and predators that act to reduce
the incidence of L. orbonalis and secondary pests such as T. curcurbitae which are
only a problem because of application of insecticides kills the predators that keep
their populations in check.

Mass trapping for control of brinjal borer

As the name suggests control by mass trapping involves catching the insects in a
baited trap. In this case the bait is the female-produced sex pheromone used to
catch the adult male moth. The lure is highly attractive to male moths and specific
to the target species. The purpose of this activity is to reduce the chances of
female moths finding a mate so that she is unable to produce viable offspring.
Research by AVRDC suggests that female L. orbonalis only mate once and form
other research we know that even delayed mating can significantly reduce the
number of viable eggs female moths can produce (fecundity). Nevertheless, in
order to catch enough male moths to have an impact on size of the next generation
of damaging larvae it is important to know what constitutes the best quality lures
and traps, the minimum area that can be treated and where to place them in a crop
(height and density). These were some of the issues that project researchers
investigated in order to provide farmers with a cost-effective and efficacious system
that would control the pest. Indeed this is one of the very few examples of the
successful use of mass trapping of Lepidopterous pests to achieve significant levels
of control appropriate for use by smallholder farmers.

The Lure

The pheromone lure is composed of two active compounds (E)-11-hexadecenyl

acetate and (E)-11-hexadecen-1-ol in a ratio of 100 : 1. Farmers would normally
purchase these from reputable suppliers already impregnated into polymer
dispensers. Ideally the dispensers should have a field life in excess of two months
with an optimal loading of 3mg. The ratio of the compounds is critical, any more
than 3% of the minor component and attractiveness is compromised and a
complete absence of the compound also reduces catch significantly. The
compounds are relatively stable to sunlight but their high molecular weights mean
that typical rubber septa used for other Lepidopterous pheromones, such as
Helicoverpa armigera, are not best suited for this pheromone and polyethylene vials
were found to significantly increase release rate and hence attraction.

The trap

A range of traps designs have been found to be suitable for L. orbonalis and
although the best catches were obtained with flat sticky discs, they were not
practical for farmers and water traps prepared from plastic bottles are
recommended, although in India dry funnel traps are inexpensive and readily
available in the market.

Preparing a water trap A dry funnel trap

Lure inside funnel trap Promoting traps at farmers' meeting, Gujarat

Water traps work best when a small amount of detergent is added to reduce the
surface tension and the lure is positioned 1 cm above the water level to encourage
contact. Dry funnel traps require less maintenance but good quality plastic bags
are essential because they are found to split after some time in the field.

Trap placement

The optimal trap density is 100 per ha (40 per acre) and control can be achieved in
0.5 ha plots. The timing of trap placement is entirely up to the farmer. Project
researchers found that while higher yields are obtained if the traps are placed out
some after transplanting nevertheless the farmer will achieve benefits even if the
traps are placed into field of mature crop with a high incidence of infestation.
However, there is a 2 to 3 week delay before the incidence is reduced significantly
because of the high larval population already present. Traps should typically be
placed at crop height or just above to achieve the optimum catch and traps should
be evenly spaced in the field (5 m spacing). Mass trapping not completely remove
infestation but can reduce damage to less than 20% from a mature crop with 70%
damage and works more effectively if insecticide application is stopped. Using a
reduced number of traps will still achieve some effect and encouraging neighbours
to use them will benefit both farmers.

Bacterial wilt

Soil pathogens can be major constraints to brinjal production, particularly in periods

of heavy rain. In Bangladesh a technique of grafting resistant rootstocks has been
developed by IPM CRSP researchers. This technique involves rearing both wild-type
resistant and cultivated susceptible seedlings until they have two true leaves (15 to
21 days. Make a V-shaped vertical cut in the rooted wild-type resistant plant
approximately 1cm above the soil level and placing the susceptible seedling into
the split after cutting the seedling in a similar manner to remove the root system.
The two plants are then held together with a plastic peg for a few days and then
released. Farmers who have come forward for training in the technique from BARI
have set themselves up as entrepreneurs to sell the seedling to their neighbours at
a good profit. Grafted plants can be cropped for up to 1.5 months longer than
conventional crops with significant increases in yield. The technique is also
effective with tomato plants.

Farmer's friends

Unlike cotton, little effort is made to encourage farmers’ friends in brinjal. Indeed,
at first sight there appears to be little insect activity on the crop, in contrast to rice,
for example, which teams with life. Certainly, the larval stage of the major pest, L.
orbonalis, is well protected inside either stem or fruit of the plant. Nevertheless, it
is vulnerable to attack by predators in the egg, and adult stages and by larval
parasitoids, such as T. flavo-orbitalis, mentioned above, in the larval stage.
Generalist predators such as ants, ground beetles, ladybirds, spiders and related
natural enemies and parasitoids are all important for preventing minor pest species
from achieving economic importance, notably grasshoppers (e.g. Oxya nitidula,
Poekilocerus pictus), whitefly, Besimia tabaci, thrips, (e.g. Frankliniella schultzei,
Thrips apicatus, T. tabaci), and jassids (Empoasca devastans, Hishimonus phycitis).
To encourage such species farmers should set aside small areas of land to cultivate
flowering weed species and in particular those that provide alternative food sources
for ‘farmers friends’ such as nectar. Bird perches should not be necessary in brinjal
but would be of assistance to species such as drongo’s, flycatchers and bee-eaters
that prefer to rest above the canopy level.

Farmers' friend dragonfly Farmers' friend - spider

Farmers' friend - Ladybird larva Farmers' friend - Ladybird adult

Minor pests and diseases

Little leaf is a minor disease and one that is best controlled by removing infested
plants and either burning or burying them. The symptoms are easily recognised by
a profusion of small leaf growth. Failure to remove infested plants will allow the
infestation time to spread to neighbouring plants.

Little leaf disease in brinjal Weeding - a family affair

Ash weevil - minor pest Flower beetle - minor pest

Effective weed management is very important for a healthy vegetable crop and
although most farmers conduct up to 5 to 6 hand-weeding operations a season
significant cost-savings can be made by weeding at critical times in the crop cycle,
typically twice at 15 to 20 and 35 to 40 days after sowing.

Brinjal grey or ash weevil, Myllocerus subfasciatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is a

widely distributed insect. Adults are leaf feeders and can cause significant local
damage. Larvae feed on roots which results in widespread wilting and can lead to
premature death of mature plants. Female M. subfasciatus lay up to 500 eggs over
a period of three months, however, the eggs are laid in the soil and rarely seen.
Farmers locally control the pest using phorate or carbofuran (1 kg a.i. per ha) but
this should be avoided where possible.
Adult flower beetles such as Oxycetonia versicolor are large brilliantly coloured, day
flying beetles that are readily recognised by farmers. They are principally pollen
feeders. The larvae develop in organic matter in the soil and while some do infest
roots they are seldom of any economic importance to brinjal producers.

Root knot nematode can be a significant problem, although this only becomes
apparent when the root nodules are observed after harvest. Nevertheless, where
fields have a history of nematode problems farmers IPM CRSP recommends the use
of decomposed chicken manure (3 tonnes/ha) although project researchers did not
find this treatment efficacious with tomato plants, whereas the use of marigold
plants (Tagetes erecta) or cold water extracts prepared from them was highly
effective.

Epilachna larva Epilachna adult

Epilachna - leaf damage Epilachna - fruit damage

Epilachna beetle, Epilachna vigintioctopunctata Fabricius (=Henosepilachna

vigintioctopunctata) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) causes economic damage in some
areas of South Asia. Adult and larvae are polyphagous, feeding in a characteristic
scraping manner on tomato, potato and brinjal leaves, in particular. Adult females
can lay between 120 to 180 spindle-shaped eggs in groups of 10 to 20. The white
larvae are characteristic with brown, branched spines over the body. The larvae
pupate on the leaf surface. Pupae are yellow with the anterior devoid of spines.
Adults emerge after 7 days with 12 to 28 spots on their elytra. Because the life
cycle takes between 17 and 50 days, they have the potential to cause considerable
economic damage but rarely do. Nevertheless, project researchers at TNAU found,
for the first time, evidence to suggest that Epilachna beetle fed on brinjal fruit
pericarp and mesocarp resulting in considerable economic loss for the farmer
concerned. The reason why the beetle fed on fruit was thought to be related to the
use of high nitrogen fertilizer inputs, though this was not confirmed. The feeding
resulted in mature fruit in which seed were exposed and no market value. High
temperatures and low relative humidity have an adverse effect on development and
while the beetles can be controlled with insecticides balanced fertilizer inputs and
natural control should ensure that they are not required.
Brinjal

Solanum melongena L.

Solanaceae

Varieties

Co 1, Co 2, MDU 1, PKM 1, PLR 1, KKM 1, PPI 1, Annamalai and COBH 1 (Hybrid)

Soil

Well drained soil rich in organic matter with pH of 6.5-7.5 is suitable.

Season of Sowing

Planting spreads from December – January and May – June.

Seed rate

Varieties :200 g/ha

Hybrids :100 g/ha

Nursery area:100 sq.m./ha.

Seed treatment
Treat the seeds with Trichoderma viride @ 4 g/kg of seeds or Pseudomonas
fluoroscens @ 10 g/kg of seeds. Also treat the seeds with Azospirillum at 10g/100g
of seeds using rice gruel as adhesive before sowing.

Nursery preparation

Apply FYM 10 kg, neem cake 1 kg, super phosphate 100 g, Furadan 10 g/ sq.m.
during preparation of nursery area. In raised nursery beds sow the seeds in lines at
10 cm apart and cover with sand. Irrigate with rose can. Transplant the seedlings 30
– 35 days after sowing.

Spacing: 60 x 60 cm, for hybrids 75 x 60 (or) 75 x 75 cm.

Preparation of Field

Plough the field to a fine tilth and apply FYM 25t/ha or compost + 200 kg of
neemcake at the last ploughing and form ridges and furrows at 60 cm apart. Pre-
emergence application of Pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha (or) Fluchloralin 1 kg
a.i./ha is recommended.

Irrigation

Irrigation is done at weekly intervals.

Application of fertilizers

N 50 kg, P 50 kg and K 30 kg/ha is applied as basal dose and N 50 kg/ha 30 days

after transplanting. Apply 2 kg each of Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria in the
main field at the time of planting.

After cultivation

One hand weeding is given on 30 days after transplanting followed by top dressing
and earthing up is recommended. Spray 2 ppm (1 ml in 500 ml) Triacontanol +
Sodium Borate or Borax 35 mg/lit of water 15 days after transplanting and at the
time of full bloom to increase the yield.
Plant protection

Pests

Shoot & fruit borer

Remove the affected terminal shoot showing boreholes. Remove the affected fruits
and destroy. Spray any one of the following chemicals starting from one month after
planting at 15 days interval.

1. Carbaryl 50 WP 2 g/lit + Wettable Sulphur 50% WP 2 g/lit (or)

2. Endosulfan 35 EC 2 ml/lit + Neem oil 3 % (or)

3. Quinalphos 25 EC 2 ml/lit + Neem oil 3 % (or)

4. Neem Seed Kernel Extract 5 % (or)

5. Avoid using synthetic Pyrethroids

Shoot and fruit borer

Nematode and Damping off disease

Seed treatment with antagonistic fungi viz. Trichoderma harzianum 4 g/kg seed and
T. viride 4 g/kg seed along with application of press mud at 5 kg/m2 or Carbofuran 3
G 10 g/m2. Application of Carbofuran 3 G at 10 g/sq.m at the time of sowing. Apply
Pseudomonas fluorescens at 10 g/m2 at the time of sowing to control root knot
nematode and damping off disease.

Epilachna beetle

Collect the beetles, grubs, pupae and destroy. Spray Carbaryl 50 WP 2 g/lit or
Endosulfan 35 EC 2 ml/lit.

Whitefly
Monitor the whitefly with yellow sticky trap at 12 Nos./ha. Spray Neem oil 3% +
Teepol (1 ml/lit) or spray Neem Seed Kernel Extract 5 %.

Ash Weevil

Apply Carbofuran 3 G at 15 kg/ha at 15 days after planting.

Ash weevil

Aphid

Spray Methyl demeton 25 EC 2 ml/lit or Dimethoate 30 EC 2 ml/lit to control aphid.

Release 1st instar larvae of Green lace wing bug (Chrysoperla carnea) @ 10,000
Nos./ha.

Red Spider mite

For controlling red spider mite infestation, spray Dicofol 18.5 EC 2.5 ml/lit or
Wettable sulphur 50 WP 2 g/lit.

Diseases

Damping off

Treat the seeds with Trichoderma viride 4 g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescens 10 g

/kg of seed 24 hours before sowing. Apply Pseudomonas fluorescens as soil
application @ 2.5 kg/ha mixed with 50 kg of FYM. Water stagnation should be
avoided. Drench with Copper oxychloride at 2.5 g/lit at 4 lit/sq.m

Leaf Spot

Leaf spot can be controlled by spraying Mancozeb 2 g/lit.

Little Leaf
Remove the affected plants in the early stages and spray Methyl demeton 25 EC 2
ml/lit or Dimethoate 30 EC 2 ml/lit to control the vector (white fly).

Little leaf

Harvest

Harvest can be done 55 – 60 days after transplanting. Fruits are harvested at tender
stage at 4 – 5 days intervals.

Yield

Varieties:25 to 30 t/ha

Hybrids:45-50 t/ha

Cost of cultivation

Crop

Field prepa-ration 6000

Nursery and planting / sowing 7000

Weeding 10000

Plant protect-tion 10000

Fertili-zers 7000

Wages 10000
Staking, transport & other expenses 5000

Total

BT brinjal | A Protest Against Poisonous food

The controversy of BT Brinjal in India is increasing day by day and the protest has taken
media attention. Supreme Court of India has advised the company to test the B.T.
Brinjal on field, and it will only be approved after two years. Lets explore the BT Brinjal
here, and get what you want to know about BT Brinjal.

Read more: http://www.whitehatandroid.com/2010/02/bt-brinjal-gm-crop-mahyco-

cotton-bt.html#ixzz16sT4NP00
Under Creative Commons License: Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike

What actually is the BT Brinjal?

BT Brinjal is a result of modification in genes of Brinjal by use of genetic engineering of
our booming biotechnology.
The gene of a particular bacteria is inserted in the structure of gene of natural Brinjal,
so that the resultant hybrid brinjal can produce a new protene, which changes it's
properties and makes it poisonous to kill all pests and insects. The insects named SFB
destroy a huge amount of crops approximately Rs 1000 crore.

Why is it named BT? What is BT?

The bacteria, whose gene is used to make this change in the structure of Brinjal is
Bacillus Thuringiensis (BT), this is why the name BT Brinjal is derived.

Read more: http://www.whitehatandroid.com/2010/02/bt-brinjal-gm-crop-mahyco-

cotton-bt.html#ixzz16sT9pfpy
Under Creative Commons License: Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike