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Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning : The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Contents Page
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1
Purpose............................................................................................................. 1
Scope ............................................................................................................... 2
Exposure to Chemicals..................................................................................61
Exposure to Physical and Mechanical Attack.................................................62
Requirement for Cleanability.........................................................................62
Special Considerations ..................................................................................62
Surface Treatment Classifications..................................................................63
Hardeners .....................................................................................................63
Sealers..........................................................................................................64
Coatings .......................................................................................................66
Underlayments..............................................................................................69
Traffic Bearing Membrane ............................................................................70
Bonded Toppings..........................................................................................73
IDENTIFYING POST-REPAIR ASSESSMENT ................................................................74
Monitoring Repairs .......................................................................................74
Chloride Ingress............................................................................................74
Moisture Levels ............................................................................................75
Debonding ....................................................................................................75
Rebar Corrosion ...........................................................................................75
Carbonation of Concrete...............................................................................75
Preventive Maintenance ................................................................................75
Repair Failure Analysis .................................................................................76
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................76
INTRODUCTION
• Diagnose damage
• Select materials
• Apply repair
• Post-repair assessment
A repair program starts with an evaluation of the damage and progresses through the selection of
materials and methods, preparation of the deficient area, and application of the repair. Satisfactory
completion of each one of these steps results in a satisfactory repair. Lack of attention to any of
these steps may result in an unsatisfactory repair and additional expense to correct unsatisfactory
repair.
Purpose
When the engineer chooses repair materials he must understand that the material have more
properties than the properties required for the basic repair. Frequently, these other properties have
a great influence on the material performance in service. For example, in an area of large
temperature variations, the load conditions may require the selection of a repair material that has
high compressive strength. If the engineer does not consider that the repair material also has a
high coefficient of linear thermal expansion, the repair will probably fail at the bond interface or
within the parent concrete. The reason for the failure is that the repair material expands and
contracts at a different rate than the parent concrete. All properties of both the repair material and
the parent concrete must be considered. The engineer must consider both the material's function
and the effects of the environment on the material.
Scope
This module is the last in a series of five modules dealing with concrete. This module only covers
repairs of existing concrete whether old or just constructed. It does not cover the original
materials except as they pertain the selection of the repair materials. Module CSE-202.01
covered concrete materials.
The same applies for environment, production and inspection, except as it pertains to the repair
procedure. Modules CSE-202.02, 202.03, and 202.04, respectively, covered those subjects..
The selection of concrete repair materials is an attempt to maximize the future durability or
performance of the concrete. Therefore, selection must be based on a knowledge of the following
criteria:
Pre-project Considerations
• Preliminary inspection
Preliminary Inspection
A cost-effective and successful repair program must address the following basic questions:
• Can or should the concrete member or structure be restored to the original state?
Only experts should handle the repair of damaged or deteriorated concrete, in both of the
following phases:
• The engineering phase, when the type and extent of the repair work must be decided
• The project phase, when the correct practices and techniques must be used.
Unqualified personnel should only do repairs of a cosmetic nature limited to un-reinforced or non-
structural concrete. Inadequate or incorrect repairs to concrete can lead to further deterioration.
Pre-repair considerations are as important as the actual repairs. Proper material selection and
surface preparation are essential to high quality, durable, and functional repairs. Selected materials
must meet the specifications for the particular application and used according to manufacturers'
recommendations or other approved standards.
After the engineer selects the repair methods and materials, he prepares project plans and
specifications base on existing guide specifications. If existing guide specifications do not cover
the selected methods and materials, the engineer prepares a detailed specification based on
experience gained from similar projects.
Often removal of the deteriorated concrete is necessary to determine the full extent of the
damage. Plans and specifications for repair should be flexible with regard to material quantities.
To minimize errors in estimated quantities, the engineer should begin repair work as soon as
possible after completion of the condition survey.
Other major considerations that precede actual repair work include the following:
Frequently, the most difficult and important step in the repair process is to determine the cause of
the damage, defect, or deterioration. If the cause in not understood, it is not possible to evaluate
the need for repair or to select a repair procedure. It is often impossible to identify the specific
cause of concrete damage, either because there is insufficient data to pinpoint the trouble, or
because several agents are at work simultaneously. Using the process of elimination can reduce
the number of possibilities.
Before initiating the repair work, it is often necessary to evaluate the existing condition of the
structure. The purpose of an evaluation is to obtain information on the extent of deterioration and
to establish the cause and significance of the deterioration. Obtaining this information requires a
systematic review of service records, and the original design and construction details. After
conducting this review, the engineer must make a detailed field investigation.
CSE 202.04 discussed the steps in a field investigation, the identification of concrete durability
problems, the causes of concrete durability problems, and the classification of deterioration.
Remember that the first step in the classification of a field situation is to decide if the situation is
safe or unsafe. If the situation is safe, the engineer classifies the severity of the problem using
the categories listed in CSE 202.04, Work Aid 1D. If the causes of the defects and deterioration
are likely to remain active after the repair of the affected area, the rehabilitation strategy should
include ways to overcome the contributing factors.
If the extent of deterioration warrants repairs, a qualified civil engineer should make an estimate
of the safety of the structure. The estimate should take into account the extent of the damage to
the structure. The engineer derives the current safety factor by comparing the maximum load that
the component is likely to experience with the ultimate strength of the damaged structural
component. A safety factor greater than 1.8 is considered satisfactory. If repairs involve the
removal of sound structural material or the application of new loads while repairs are in progress,
the engineer must calculate safety factor for the repair period. Normally, a safety factor of 1.5 is
acceptable for the repair period. The engineer bases the decision of safety factor upon the level of
supervision and the opportunity for accidents to occur while repairs are in progress. A higher
safety factor may be necessary while some operations are in progress.
Regardless of the cause(s) of the deterioration, the engineer must establish the extent of the
damage, determine if repairs are necessary, and decide when to do the repairs. The following
factors influence the above determinations:
Sometimes deterioration results from the corrosion of rebar causing the concrete to crack and
spall. Correction of the situation requires more than replacing the concrete and the original cover
over the steel. If the structure is contaminated by salt, it may be necessary to replace the
contaminated members. Application of new concrete to the affected areas could change the
electrolytic conditions and cause corrosion in areas that had been previously unaffected
Though deterioration may have reduced the original strength of a structure, repairs that restore
original strength may not be necessary. Give careful consideration to the present and future
requirements of the structure. Sometimes, in-service loads are less than the original design loads
because removal or replacement of original equipment. Sometimes the original structure was
over-designed because exact loading information was not available at the time of the design. The
company can incur significant, unnecessary expense if one assumes that a structure must have the
strength it had before the deterioration occurred.
Because contractors often take a conservative approach to strength restoration, engineers should
review a contractor's recommendations to increase the strength of a member, structure, or
foundation with a Civil Structural Engineer from CSD. When there is a plan to increase the
loading in the future, carefully review the structural requirements before a repair strategy is
developed.
A difficult situation may arise when code changes occur between the time of constructing the
structure and the required repair of the structure. In some cases, such code changes can cause the
structure to have a low safety factor at the time of repair. When this change in safety factor is
strictly due to changes in the code, plants are not required to strengthen structures merely to
comply with current code requirements. If the structure would have complied with the code
requirements at the time of design and construction, no changes are necessary. If signs of stress
are apparent, then other considerations affect the decision. If the engineer observes symptoms of
overstress, or if repairs involve an extensive rebuild, the engineer should recommend
strengthening the structure to comply with current code requirements. Some conditions require
the use of current codes for upgrades. These conditions include increased loading caused by
vessel modifications and the addition of more pipes than were in the original design.
Extent of Repairs
When the engineers determine the cause of the deterioration and verify the strength of the existing
structure, they must then determine the extent of the repair work. The following possible courses
of action affect the determination of the extent of repair work:
• No action at all.
Cosmetic Repairs
A cosmetic repair improves the appearance of the deteriorated section. Cosmetic repairs may or
may not offer a degree of protection to the concrete. In most cases, the cosmetic repair does not
address the cause(s) of the deterioration. For example, the application of a surface coating to a
deteriorated area will improve the appearance but may not prevent the reoccurrence of the
damage.
Cosmetic repairs only enhance the appearance of the section for a few years. If the repairs consist
of an application of a coating, recoating the section will be necessary eventually. If the cosmetic
repair has contributed to further deterioration of the structure, a more Compressive repair
program may be necessary. Cosmetic repairs should be limited to un-reinforced or non-structural
concrete
Short-term corrective actions, sometimes referred to as Band-Aid Fixes. In most cases, short-
term corrective action does not consider the causes of the deterioration and contributes to further
distress. In a typical example, concrete foundations were found to be cracking and spalling. A
detailed inspection discovered that there was also delamination, inadequate cover, low
permeability and frequent application of raw water causing chloride contamination.
If the repair program only replaced the spalled and delaminated concrete with repair material and
left the other defects uncorrected, the repair would be a short-term solution (Band-Aid Fix).
Deterioration of the repaired areas and adjacent section soon reoccur.
Original Condition
• Protect the patched area, and possibly the surrounding area, from aggressive
environments
A structural repair attempts to return the deteriorated section to a condition that is as good as, or
better than, the original condition. To achieve a successful structural repair, the engineer must
analyze all possible stresses in the repaired section and at the interface between the repair and the
existing substrate. The following factors generate stresses in the repair:
• Relative volume changes that occur between the repair and the concrete substrate
• The service loads that are carried by the repair
If the stresses within the repaired area are not within the capacities of the new and existing
materials, failure of the repaired section may occur.
In many cases, the structural repair can carry the same stresses as the original section, but only
with great difficulty. For example, in a column with a significant amount of material loss in the
compression zone, loads will be redistributed around the damaged area. To re-establish the
original load distribution requires the removal of all load from the column during repair and
curing. When the repair material reaches the specified strength, loads must be restored on the
repaired section. Engineers use jacks and temporary shoring to relieve loads on the column.
Drying shrinkage reduces the volume of the repair material relative to the volume of removed
concrete. As a result, the patch does not completely fill the originally prepared space. If the repair
material cannot shrink because of the bond between the repair material and the old concrete, the
repaired section will crack when the patch exceeds its tensile strength. The tensile strength of
concrete is usually between 100 and 200 microstrains (100 x 10-6 and 200 x 10-6). (One
microstrain equals 1 x 10-6 mm/mm (in/in).)
If the repair material has a drying shrinkage of 600 microstrains, the material will take an
additional compressive strain of 600 microstrains in the column before the repaired area begins to
carry load. If the original cross-section is overstressed before the repaired area begins to carry
load, the column may fail. Figure 1 illustrates the load distribution in repaired columns. In most
applications, the desirable condition is to have the repair in a compressive state so that
compressive loads can be carried.
It is difficult to select materials that have all the properties required by the site condition. Almost
every repair job has unique conditions and special requirements. Once the engineer knows these
criteria, the use of more than one material can often produce equally good results. Final selection
of the material, or combination of materials, must take into account the ease of application, cost,
available labor skills, and equipment.
Repair and patching materials may be classified into two groups: Cementitious and Polymer.
Cementitious repair materials contain Portland cement and may be site-batched, ready-mixed, or
bagged. Normally, cementitious materials only require the addition of potable water when they are
site-batched. Polymer materials advantages and require the use of a "setting agent" other than
water. Both groups have disadvantages.
Cementitious Materials
Portland cement concrete and mortar offer the following advantages as patching materials:
• Portland cement concrete and mortar are "user-friendly." Users have had considerable
experience in the use of these materials.
The engineers most often use concrete to replace complete sections and fill deep cavities that
extend beyond the reinforcing bars. The smallest dimension of the repair section is dictated by the
maximum size of the coarse aggregate. Although large projects can utilize ready-mixed concrete,
smaller projects often require that the concrete be proportioned and mixed on site. This fact
makes small projects susceptible to material variations that depend on the skill of the contractor.
Mortars can be placed by hand, gravity, or pump. Portland cement mortars are generally use
when the following two conditions are present:
1 Repairs are too shallow to accommodate the coarse aggregate in concrete, and
Prepackaged repair products (concrete and mortars) are readily available from specialist
companies and have the advantage of being consistent in quality, properties, and performance.
Although prepackaged materials are usually more expensive than traditional materials, materials
that are proportioned and mixed on-site usually do not achieve the high quality performance
properties of prepackaged repair products.
Most of the prepackaged cementitious repair products use high early strength (Type III) cement.
This type of repair product also contains an expansive agent that causes the concrete and mortar
to expand. This expansion takes place either in the plastic stage or after the hardening of the
repair product. The expansion produced in the plastic state establishes intimate contact with the
substrate before the product hardens, completely filling the space and forming a good bond.
Expansion compensates for the anticipated plastic and drying shrinkage, and maintains a tight
bond to the substrate. The expansion required restraint to allow a build-up of compressive
stresses within the concrete or mortar. When the material dries, the loss of moisture relieves the
compressive stress and reduces the extent of shrinkage.
The expansion in the concrete or mortar usually occurs through the use of an expansive agent,
such as aluminum powder, anhydrous calcium sulfoaluminate, calcium oxide, or coke powder.
The use of iron filings in some products promotes expansion after hardening by oxidation of the
filings. Unfortunately, products that contain iron filings frequently exhibit excessive expansion,
cracking, and disintegration when subjected to saline waters. Saudi Aramco does not recommend
the use of cementitious repair products containing uncoated iron filings. Some manufacturers
have introduced new products in which the iron is coated against oxidation. These products
require no shrinkage correction in either the plastic or hardened state.
Portland cement patching concrete and mortar mixes are modified by using one or more of the
following types of admixtures:
• Pozzolons
• Water reducing admixtures
• Air entraining admixtures
• Set accelerators
• Set retarders
• Corrosion inhibitors
• Latex
• Fibers
Avoid products that contain unknown ingredients or that use unproved technology, except on
experimental or pilot projects.
Many cementitious repair products make claims of being non-shrink, suggesting that the products
will not shrink and crack. Unfortunately, there is no single accepted definition of the word "non-
shrink". All cement-based mixtures will shrink because of the hydration of the cement. Shrinkage
is proportional to the water content. If the shrinkage exceeds the tensile strength, the concrete
will crack.
One method of reducing shrinkage and cracking is "drypacking." Dry pack repair material is any
mortar or concrete that can be used at a no-slump consistency. Usually, a dry pack repair material
at the proper consistency contains enough moisture to stick together when molding the material
into a ball. When a dry pack material is at the proper consistency, the molded ball leaves only a
film of moisture on the palm. Although this consistency minimizes the amount of shrinkage, voids
can form from incorrect placement of the material by experienced installers
Following are some of the disadvantages of cementitious repair material:
• High shrinkage
• Poor bonding to the substrate
• Tendency to crack
• Good curing is required
• Setting time may be short in hot weather
Polymer Concrete and Mortar
Polymer Portland cement concrete or mortars are mixtures that contain latex or epoxy emulsions.
These materials are sometimes called latex-modified concretes or mortars. Synthetic latex is
added to conventional Portland cement repair mixes to give the mixture greater bond strength,
faster curing characteristics, improved tensile strength and flexibility, increased chemical
resistance, and lower permeability.
Latex-modified mortars are mixtures of Portland cement, sand, water, and latex admixtures, such
as styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), polyvinyl acetate, acrylics, and epoxy emulsions. Latex-
modified concretes have coarse aggregate added to the mortar. The amount of latex used is
usually less than 20% of the weight of the cement in the mixture. Addition of the latex to the
mixture improves the permeability and the bond, and the tensile and flexural strengths. Latex-
modified mixtures exhibit good workability and ease of application, which are important
advantages. Engineers often substitute these mixtures for cementitious repair materials when the
project requires a fast cure time, higher bond strength, and some feather edging.
The following definitions are important and may be found in the glossary:
• Monomer
• Polymerization
If more than one monomer is used, the process is called copolymerization
There are some important differences in finishing and curing procedures between normal Portland
cement and latex-modified mixes. A surface skin forms quickly on latex-modified mixes.
Trowelling the skin may tear the surface, often leading to shrinkage cracks. The surface may be
retempered with a diluted solution of latex and water to extend the finishing time and avoid
shrinkage cracks. Protect the fresh surface from the sun, wet cure for 24-48 hours, and allow to
dry. Usually, the proponent can resume full use of the area within 72 hours at normal
temperatures 20 to 23°C (68 to 73°F). Latex-modified mixes have a tendency to entrain air in the
mix requiring mixing by a slow-speed mixer to reduce the amount of entrained air.
Epoxy repair mixtures are usually epoxy mortars, but some mortars can be extended into
concretes by the addition of a selected coarse aggregate. Epoxy repair materials are usually
prepackaged systems that contain resin binders. These binders consist of two components added
to a selected blend of aggregate. The aggregate may be contained in the prepackaged system, or
the aggregate may be purchased separately. A typical mortar mix will consist of one part of mixed
epoxy resin and hardener to three parts of concrete sand.
There is a broad range of applications for Epoxy repair mixtures. Typical applications include the
following:
• The use of an unfilled resin binder to fill shallow surface damage that was caused by
popouts or scaling, and
• The use of thicker mortar sections to fill substantial spalled areas that resulted from
fire damage.
The chemical reactions that occur when the components are mixed together in the prescribed ratio
are exothermic and generate heat as the mixture is polymerized and hardens. The quantity of
patching material mixed for an application should not exceed the amount that can be readily used
within the pot life of the mixture. Pot life is usually two to three hours at 22°C (75°F), but is
dependent on the thickness of the patch and the aggregate-to-resin ratio. Higher temperatures
accelerate the chemical reactions when epoxy mixtures cure, reducing the pot life.
Advantages Disadvantages
Extremely good bonding ability and, therefore, More expensive than cementitious materials
good adhesive
Because epoxy materials vary in formulation from one manufacturer to another, always follow the
manufacturers' recommendations for mixing, application, and use. Engineers that are uncertain
whether an epoxy repair mixture provides a satisfactory repair should discuss the application with
the manufacturer's technical representative.
Patching compounds based on unsaturated polyester resins have not been used as widely as
epoxies. These compounds generally harden through a reaction between the base resin and small
amounts of catalyst. Polyester patches cure faster than epoxy materials and are less sensitive to
lower temperatures. Polyester patches have good chemical resistance. Accurate control of
proportions and mixing are more difficult to achieve with polyester patches than with the two-
component epoxies. The shrinkage that occurs when polyester patches cure is significantly greater
than the shrinkage of epoxy patches. Limit the polyester patch size to thin sections and small
areas. Polyester patches are used in severe chemical environments. Polyester materials are not
fireproof.
Acrylic concretes and mortars are aggregates held together by an acrylic polymer. Two types of
monomers are usually used for this purpose: methyl methacrylate (MMA), which has been used
for about 20 years, and high molecular weight methacrylate (HMWM), which is a relatively new
material.
Table 2 shows the differences between HMWM and MMA. HMWM has properties that make it
easier and safer to use than MMA.
MMA HMWM
Low flash point. High flash point.
A typical product kit for an acrylic mixture may include the following items:
• The monomer, which contains an inhibitor to prevent spontaneous polymerization
• An initiator, added during the product mixing to activate the polymerization process.
• A promoter (also added during the product mixing) to speed the process.
• A 25 kg (55 LB) bag of aggregate.
Following are the two ways to use the monomer:
MMA HMWM
Rapid strength (6000 psi in 1 hour) Rapid strength gain
High compressive, tensile, and flexural strength High compressive and flexural strength
MMA HMWM
Very expensive Very expensive
Will burn when ignited Aggregate and substrate must be dry
Sharp pungent odor More expansion and shrinkage than concrete
Aggregate and substrate must be dry
Moisture barrier
Moderate shrinkage
Engineers select repair materials to maximize the future performance and durability of the
structure. Almost every repair project has unique conditions and special requirements requiring
that the selection of repair materials be based on the following factors:
Durable repairs can only be achieved when the properties of the intended repair material is
matched with the properties of the base concrete. The selection of a repair material should
consider the following material properties:
• Bond strength
• Length change
• Compressive strength
• Consistency
• Working times
• Thermal coefficient of expansion
• Durability
• Modulus of elasticity
• Permeability
Bond Strength
There must be a good bond between the repair material and the concrete substrate to restore the
member being repaired. Bond strength may be the most important and most ignored property of a
repair material.
Generally, repairs (patches) do not fail in compression. Repairs fail when there is inadequate bond
strength or excessive length change. Unfortunately, ASTM has not published a test method to
adequately determine the bond strength of cementitious products to concrete substrates.
However, for many years, the construction industry has used a modification of ASTM C882.
Figure 2 illustrates the test process accomplished by the laboratory as follows:
First, cut a 75 by 150 mm (3 by 6 inch) Portland cement mortar cylinder in half diagonally at a 30
degree angle from the vertical. Place one-half of the cylinder in a mold, and cast the repair
material on top to create a new cylinder. After suitable curing of the composite cylinder, perform
a compression test.
Calculate the bond strength as the load the specimen bears at the point of failure divided by the
area of the bonded surface. Standards frequently specify a minimum test result of 17.25 MPa
(2500 psi) to ensure an adequate bond.
CSA A23.2-6B describes how to determine the adhesion of bonded toppings using the tensile
load. Figure 3. shows the test procedure.
First, apply the repair material to a concrete slab and allow to cure according to the
manufacturer's recommendations. Use a coring drill to drill a core through the overlay to a
minimum of 30 mm into the underlying concrete slab. Glue a steel plate to the cored disk. When
the adhesive reaches sufficient strength, apply a tensile load to the disk until failure occurs.
Calculate the bond strength as the applied load divided by the cross-sectional area of the core at
the failing surface. Standards frequently specify a minimum test result of 1.0 MPa (145 psi) to
ensure an adequate bond.
You can improve strength of the bond between the repair material and the concrete substrate by
using one of the following types of bonding:
• Cement slurry
• Cement grout
• Latex emulsion
• Epoxy
Use the bonding agents with special care because they can eliminate the bond between the repair
material and the substrate, causing delamination of the repaired area.
Length Change
Length changes (linear shrinkage) can cause cracks to occur during and after the curing period.
These cracks can result in debonding. Cracks allow water and deleterious materials to enter the
repaired area, which may result in spalling and failure of the patch. If the old material has
developed a stable drying shrinkage volume, the following effects will occur according to the
amount of drying shrinkage of the new material:
Use ASTM Method C157, Test Method for Length Change of Hardened Cement Mortar and
Concrete, to evaluate the length-change properties of cementitious repair materials. Since most
repair materials contain aggregate, you may use 50 x 50 mm (2 x 2 in) to determine the length
change. To accurately reflect what happens in the field, modify the measurement procedures to
provide for an initial reading as soon as you can demold the bars. Curing should be in accordance
with the manufacturers' recommended procedures. A repair material should exhibit between
+0.05% and -0.05% length change to avoid cracking or stress buildup.
Use ASTM C827 to measure plastic length change. This test method covers the determination of
change in height of cylindrical specimens from the time the sample is cast until the mixture is hard.
The test measures and compares the relative shrinkage or expansion of cementitious mixtures.
Because the specimen that is used in this method is not completely unrestrained, the
measurements are primarily useful for comparative purposes rather than for the determination of
absolute values.
Use ASTM C883 to measure the effective shrinkage that occurs while the epoxy resin systems
cures. Construct a laminate of the epoxy resin and apply the laminate to a glass plate. As the
epoxy cures, any shrinkage will cause the glass plate to bow. Failure in the test occurs when there
has been enough shrinkage to fracture the glass.
Compressive Strength
Most quality repair materials (both cementitious and polymer) develop compressive strengths
equal to, or greater than, the concrete under repair. The engineer gains no advantage selecting a
repair product solely because of superior compressive strength. Bond strength and length change
are better criteria than compressive strength for the selection of a repair material.
For some concrete repairs, it may be advantageous to use a fast strength-gain material to
minimize shutdown time. Perform Compressive strength test of according to the procedures in
ASTM C109. The minimum compressive strength that the material must achieve two hours after
the addition of the mixing water is frequently 17.25 MPa (2500 psi). Standards commonly specify
a the minimum compressive strength of 34.5 MPa (5000 psi) at 24 hours. The achievement of
high early strengths generally results in very high strengths at ages greater than 28 days. These
high strengths can influence the load distribution between the original concrete and the patch.
Consistency
Consistency is the mobility or ability of a freshly mixed material to flow. The engineer usually
makes Consistency or flow rate determinations immediately after mixing the material. The
consistency of cement-based materials will vary with the amount of water added. For pre-bagged
materials, it is usual to start the mixing process with the minimum amount of water recommended
by the manufacturer. If necessary, add more water to obtain the desired consistency. Never
exceed the manufacturer's maximum amount of recommended water, and do not retemper the
mixture.
The engineer usually requires a flowable consistency for horizontal repairs. To repair or patch
vertical or overhead surfaces, he requires a plastic, trowelable consistency. Even at a stiff plastic
consistency, there will be areas where the depth of repair will cause the repair material to sag.
Formed repairs require a fluid mixture that can be placed easily and consolidated. For
cementitious mixtures, keep the water content and consistency as low as placing and
consolidation requirements permit.
The consistency of polymer repair materials will vary in accordance with the relative proportions
of the resin and the curing agent. As you increase the amount of curing agent, the consistency of
the mixture also increases. The engineer should also keep the consistency of polymer mixtures as
low as placing and consolidation requirements permit.
The engineer usually makes consistency determinations within 30 to 60 seconds after mixing the
material. Unfortunately, the installers cannot transport, place, and consolidate most repair
materials that quickly. As a result, test results from slump cones, flow tables, and flow cones have
limited value in the field. Field experience on similar projects under similar conditions provides the
best guide to the required consistency.
Working Time
Working time is very important when using cementitious grouts or polymer repair material.
Working time is the length of time in which the repair material maintains the ability to be placed
and consolidated.
Some repair materials, particularly grouts, are formulated to stiffen in as little time as 15 minutes.
This short time minimizes plastic shrinkage. This rapid stiffening causes a rapid loss of
consistency, which may cause the contractor to rush the job and make an ineffective repair.
Working time varies because of several factors, which include the ambient and mixture
temperatures, type of Portland cement used, and the components in a polymer mixture. Most
repair materials have a shorter working time in hot weather and a longer working time in cooler
weather.
The engineer must determine the working time before selecting the repair material to give the
contractor adequate time to properly place and consolidate the material by the most reliable and
economical method. Estimate the working time by using consistency test results of the repair
material. Repeat the tests frequently over an extended time period. Figure 5 illustrates the
relationship between workability and working time.
The working time should exceed the period that the contractor estimates he will need to transport,
place, and consolidate the material. Do not recommend repair materials that have working times
less than the contractor's estimates. These materials will usually result in high waste and poor
performance.
Thermal expansion and contraction of materials are measured by the coefficient of thermal
expansion. An average value for the coefficient of thermal expansion for concrete is about 10
microstrains per degree Celsius (6 microstrains per degree Fahrenheit). Values from 6 to 13
microstrains per degree Celsius have been observed.
Measure the coefficient of thermal expansion using the procedures in ASTM C531-68. The
thermal coefficient of a given sample of concrete is not a constant unless the sample is completely
dry or saturated. The thermal coefficients of concrete vary over a wide range under different
storage conditions and with the kind of concrete.
A large difference in thermal coefficient between the concrete substrate and the repair material
may often result in disruption and failure of the repaired area. Polymer repair materials can have
thermal coefficients three to five times greater than the thermal coefficient of concrete. The higher
coefficients of repair materials cause the repaired areas to expand or contract more and faster than
the concrete substrate. As a typical example, a concrete with a thermal coefficient of 10
microstrains per degree Celsius (6 microstrains per degree Fahrenheit) is patched with an epoxy
product which has a thermal coefficient of 45 microstrains per degree Celsius (27 microstrains per
degree Fahrenheit). With a radical up or down temperature change), the epoxy product will
expand or contract 4.5 times as fast and 4.5 times as much as the old concrete. If the temperature
change is evenly distributed through the old concrete and the repair material, linear movement will
cause shear stresses to develop at the interface.
Figure 6 illustrates the example. Large differences in thermal coefficient often cause a cohesive
failure of the concrete. Fortunately, most cementitious repair products have thermal coefficients
very close to the thermal coefficient of concrete and do not cause repair failures.
Durability
When the engineer evaluates the durability of the patch and repaired area, he must consider the
following:
• Absorption
• Permeability
• Abrasion resistance
A low absorption rate will preclude damage to and deterioration of the patching material as a
result of chemical attack, salt, or moisture-induced volume changes.
Repair materials must have low permeability to minimize passage of water and salt solutions to
the substrate. Highly permeable patches will result in the saturation of the substrate and may lead
to chemical attack and the potential corrosion of the reinforcing steel. If impermeable materials
are used for large patches, overlays, or coatings, moisture that passes through the substrate can
be entrapped between the substrate and the repair material. Entrapped moisture can cause failure
at the bond line or within the weaker of the two materials.
Patches subjected to abrasion must exhibit good abrasion resistance; otherwise the patches will be
worn through to the substrate. The following is generally true regarding cementitious material:
Most outdoor repairs will be subjected to wetting from precipitation. Gypsum and gypsum-based
products have shown poor resistance to wetting and the engineer should consider them for use
only as temporary patches.
Polymer materials generally have excellent durability, even though some epoxies have absorption
values as great as four percent.
Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity (E) of a material is a measure of the material's stiffness. Most materials
have a stress-strain curve that includes an initial straight line segment.
The selection of a modulus value is relatively simple. However, polymeric materials have a
continuously curving stress-strain plot, so that arbitrarily defines the modulus. The specimen
shape and rate of loading affects the modulus of elasticity.
A given load deforms low modulus materials more than high modulus materials. When materials
with widely different moduli are in contact with each other, the significant difference in
deformability may cause problems under specific loading conditions. Figure 7 illustrates an
example that applies a uniformly distributed load parallel to the bond line. Shear stresses develop
at the bond line as the lower modulus material deforms and transfers the load to the higher
modulus material. Load overstresses may fracture the higher modulus material. However by
applying the load perpendicular to the bond line, the difference in moduli does not cause
problems.
External loads do no cause all failures related to interfaced materials with widely different moduli
of elasticity. Shrinkage, or thermal expansion and contraction, can cause loss of load unless the
modulus of the repair material is low enough to permit movement without excessive stress at the
bond line.
Portland cement concretes that have cube compressive strengths between 20 and 50 MPa (3000-
7500 psi) will have mean values of E between 25 and 34 GPa (3.6-4.9 x 106 psi). Acrylic concrete
and mortars that have cylinder strengths of 48 to 83 MPa (7,000-12,000 psi) will have mean
values of E between 10 and 20 GPa (1.5-3.0 x 106 psi). Ideally, repair materials should have a
modulus of elasticity equal to the E of the substrate. The engineer should avoid repair materials
that have a low or high modulus of elasticity compared to that of the substrate.
Use the procedures in ASTM C469 to measure the modulus of elasticity in repair materials.
Permeability
Experts often identify low permeability as the key to durable concrete and repair materials. The
following factors influence the permeability of cementitious materials:
The permeability of a mature, good quality concrete is approximately 1 x 10-10 cm per second.
Permeability increases as the concrete dries.
Table 5 compares the permeabilities of repair on a scale of one to ten with ten being the highest
rating.
Shotcrete 6
Epoxy mortar 1
To ensure the success of any repair project, regardless repair materials, the engineer must require
the correct preparation of the existing concrete substrate. The same meticulous attention to
preparation detail is also necessary when applying penetrating sealers, coatings, and toppings.
Various practices and techniques have evolved for the preparation of concrete before a repair
application. Many repair specialists' recommendations, although similar, are not always consistent.
These recommendations often vary on important details. The International Association of
Concrete Repair Specialists (IACRS) publishes technical guidelines for the repair of deteriorated
concrete.
• Concrete removal
• Substrate preparation
Concrete Removal
The engineers must locate the areas requiring repair using the inspection techniques given in CSE
202.04. Mark the area of removal with paint.
Before removing concrete from suspended slabs, or load-bearing walls or columns, the engineers
must design and require the installation of adequate propping and shoring. Propping and shoring
is particularly important if the plans call for, or considers the possibility of, the complete removal
of a structural member.
Deterioration of concrete surfaces is rarely uniform so the engineers should modify the areas that
require repair to provide simple repair layouts. Design these layouts to reduce boundary edge
lengths. Figure 8 illustrates the recommended layout for surface repairs.
The contractor should cut the concrete around the perimeter of the repair layout with a concrete
saw providing a straight, vertical butt joint. Although some repair materials can be feather-edged,
there is a danger that the thin edges will crack and delaminate due to temperature and moisture
changes. Figure 9 illustrates feather-edging. Do not recommend feather-edging in concrete
repairs.
Make saw cuts at an angle of 90 to the surface and at least 15 mm (1/2 in) deep. Do not over-
run the repair area with the saw cut.. For horizontal repairs, make a second series of shallower
saw cuts a few centimeters (inches) in from the initial cut These secondary cuts provide a toehold
for the breaker point of the shipping tools to form the vertical butt joint. Figure 10 illustrates this
procedure.
To start concrete repairs, the installers usual remove all damaged and deteriorated concrete to
reveal a sound substrate. The selection of the concrete removal equipment will depend on the
amount and depth of concrete removal and the extent of the total work.
The effectiveness of various removal techniques depends on whether the repair area contains
deteriorated or sound concrete. Some techniques may be better for sound concrete, while others
may be better on deteriorated sections. Because the same removal technique does not work on all
sections of a given structure, the engineer should select the most appropriate technique for each
area of the structure. The engineer may use different removal techniques even within the same
designated repair area.
These techniques may be categorized by the way in they acts on the concrete as follows:
• Blasting
• Cutting
• Impacting
• Pre-splitting
Blasting Method
Blasting methods usually involve the use of explosives and are only in situations designed to
remove large sections.
Cutting Method
Cutting methods usually employ mechanical diamond saw cutting, intense heat from powder torch
thermal lances, and high pressure water jets. These devices cut around the perimeter of concrete
sections to enable the removal of the total section.
Impacting Method
Impacting methods use machines that strike the concrete surface repeatedly to cause fracturing
and spalling of the concrete. The most common removal tools are the 7 to 14 kg (15 to 30 LB)
chipping hammers. The 7 kg (15 LB) hammer is light enough to use on vertical and overhead
surfaces. Avoid heavy jackhammers and other demolition tools because they can damage sound
concrete adjacent to the repair area. Studies have shown that the use of jackhammers can cause
micro-fractures at, or immediately beneath, the substrate surface. These fractures can cause
delamination failure of a repair. The use of heavy chipping tools can also result in the removal of
more sound concrete and more damage to reinforcing steel than would occur through the use of
lighter tools. Do not allow the use of hammers heavier than 14 kg (30 LB) for concrete removal.
Select the correct breaker tool to avoid excessive damage to the substrate. Standard 75 mm (3 in)
chisel bits are usually used to cut or score solid concrete and to break up weak concrete.
Gad or moil points are better than chisel bits for breaking the concrete once it has been scored.
They provide a rougher surface texture for bonding of the repair material. Moil points are better
for inserting into cracks because chisel bits tend to extend the crack length.
For large areas requiring the removal of a thin layer of concrete use a pneumatic scabber.
Pneumatic scabbers use reciprocating bushing tools to strike the concrete surface. Each hit of the
tool removes a small amounts of concrete. Pneumatic scabbers are effective tools for the removal
of up to 6 mm (1/4 in) of surfaces for preparation of overlayments.
Pre-splitting Method
Pre-splitting methods include hydraulic splitters, water impulse devices, and expansive agents.
Wedge devices, water pressure pulses, expansive chemicals, and wood plugs are placed in
boreholes spaced at predetermined intervals. This action provides a crack plane for concrete
removal. Use these methods to remove large volumes of concrete. The advantage of this method
is that it is relatively nonviolent and causes little or no damage to the remaining concrete.
Opinions vary regarding concrete removal around reinforcing steel. Most repair specialists
recommend the removal of concrete beyond the spalled area and throughout the entire
reinforcement corrosion area. Some specifications require removing concrete cover along and
behind bars until exposing a clean, non-corroded rebar with a continuous length of 50-300 mm (2-
12 in) in sound concrete. The depth of concrete removal from behind the rebar should be at least
25 mm (1 in). Although some repair specialists do not consider it necessary to remove all the
concrete that surrounds the rebar, if chloride ions remain behind the reinforcing steel, the potential
for further corrosion still exists.
Substrate Preparation
After removal of all unsound concrete, the engineer must plan and verify the preparation of the
repair area to receive the repair materials. The installers should clean the substrate to remove all
loose particles, dust, oil, and grease. The removal of surface contaminants allows primers and the
repair materials to have intimate contact with the substrate. The installers should use one of the
following methods to clean the substrate:
• Chemical Cleaning
Chemical Cleaning
Chemical cleaning uses detergents, trisodium phosphate, and various proprietary concrete
cleaners. Use these cleaners to clean concrete contaminated with oil, grease, or dirt. Verify that
the installers strictly follow the manufacturers' recommendations for the use of cleaners. Verify
that the workers vigorously scrub and thoroughly rinse the substrate with water to remove all
residue from the contaminants and cleaners.
High pressure air effectively removes loose particles and dust. SAES-H-102 requires that the
compressor has an effective oil trap (oil and moisture separators) to avoid contamination of the
concrete surface in the preparation phase. Without an effective oil trap, the blasting air absorbs
oil and water that penetrates the concrete surface. It is the inspector’s responsibility to check this
item as part of a pre-blast checklist.
Sandblasting machines use compressed air to eject a high-speed stream of sand or other abrasive
from a nozzle. Dust is a problem in dry sandblasting. Workers should use air-fed helmets. Cleanup
is another problem associated with dry sandblasting. The abraded concrete and sand collect in
large volumes and are removed manually or with the aid of industrial vacuum cleaners. Because of
the dust and related health problems, dry sandblasting is not used frequently.
SAES-H-102 also requires that the manufacturer's inlet and outlet controls be removed and
replaced with a “dead-man" shut-off device so that one man can operate the blast machine safely.
When the operator releases the trigger the blast machine stops operating automatically. Without
this automatic shut-off device, an active high-blast air hose can injure workers and damage
equipment, if accidentally dropped.
Water-jet cleaning uses low to medium-pressure water for cleaning. A high velocity high pressure
water jet is directed toward the concrete surface through a specially designed nozzle. The nozzle
may be hand held or mounted on a boom that enables the nozzle to sweep back and forth across
the concrete surface as the equipment advances, incrementally. Equipment with operating
pressures up to 172 MPa (25,000 psi) is now commercially available. Verify the daily removal of
waterblasting debris to prevent it from setting up because of the unhydrated cement in the debris.
• Epoxies
• Latex emulsions
Cement-based Slurries
For repair materials containing Portland cement, use a cement or sand-based slurry as the bonding
agent. A cement slurry consists of a mixture of Portland cement and water that is mixed to a
thick, creamy consistency. A sand-cement slurry is a 1:1 mixture of Portland cement and fine
sand, with enough water added to make a stiff slurry. Some engineers prefer the sand-cement
slurry because the slurry properties are similar to the properties of the base and the repair
concretes.
After preparing the substrate and immediately before placing the repair material, broom or brush a
thin coating of "creamy" grout vigorously and thoroughly into the prepared surface. This grout
should not exceed 2 mm (1/16 in) in average thickness. Take precautions that all parts of the
substrate receive a thorough, even coating and that no excess grout collects in pockets. Carefully
control the rate of application so the grout cannot dry before placing the repair material over it. If
the grout dries before the placing the repair material over it, the grout will act as a bond breaker.
Epoxies
A wide variety of epoxy compounds are available for use as bonding agents. Most epoxy bonding
agents are two-part materials that require mixed before application. After mixing, the materials
require immediate application to the substrate. The pot lives of different compounds vary
according to temperature. Some formulations of these have very long pot lives and placement
behind reinforcing steel is possible. Compounds with long pot lives can also accommodate the
erection and fixing of formwork.
If the application of the film is continuous, epoxy bonding agents may serve as a waterproof
membrane between the substrate and the repair material. Waterproof membranes can be harmful if
water penetrates the surface repair material and collects at the interface causing a bond failure.
When the repair must sustain a constant load, avoid epoxies have poor creep properties and
should be avoided. Epoxy repair material. Epoxy bonding agents have poor creep properties.
Epoxy bonding agents should meet the requirements of ASTM C881 and ACI 503.
Latex Emulsions
Polymer emulsion bonding agents used in concrete repair materials include the following latex
products:
• Acrylic
In addition to their use as bonding agents, these materials may also serve as a base to produce
polymer mortars and concretes.
Latex bonding agents usually contain 25% to 50% resin dispersed in water. Apply latex bonding
agents using a brush or spray applied to a pre-dampened substrate surface. The substrate surface
should not be wet or there should not be ponded water. If the workers permit a latex emulsion to
dry after applied to the substrate, require that the substrate be re-coated before application of the
repair material. Failure to recoat the substrate could cause the dry bonding agent to act as a bond
breaker.
Do not choose Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) for use in structural applications because of the inability
of the formed film to resist moisture. PVA may re-emulsify after being subjected to wet-dry
cycles. This alternating moisture cycle will eventually cause loss of bond.
There are several different test methods the engineer can use to evaluate the effectiveness of a
bonding agent. The two most commonly used tests are as follows:
The Slant Shear Test was illustrated in Figure 2 and the Direct Tensile Method was illustrated in
Figure 3. Another direct tensile test uses a briquette (which is also referred to as a "dog bone"
specimen) to determine the direct tensile strength of cement mortar. Figure 11 illustrates the
briquette specimen.
Perform this test by first breaking the mortar in half at the minimum cross-sectional area. Treat
one-half of the broken face with the bonding agent being used on the repair area. Placed the
treated half of the briquette back into the mold. Fill the other half of the mold with the repair
mortar and allow the material to harden. Cure the specimen according to the manufacturer's
recommendations. When the mortar and bonding agent achieve the required strength, place the
briquette in a tensile testing machine and apply the required tensile load.
The engineer usually finds corroded reinforcing steel in conjunction with concrete delamination
and spalling. Delamination and spalling occur when heavy rust layers build up on corroded
reinforcing steel.
This section will explain the following procedures for protection of reinforcing steel:
Removal of the oxide build-up from reinforcing bars is important to the long-term success of
surface repairs. Experience demonstrates that the majority of severe corrosion in slabs takes place
on the underside of the top steel layer. Concentration of corrosion under the top steel layer occurs
for these reasons:
If the reinforcing steel has lost more than 25% of its cross-section (or 20%, if two or more
adjacent bars are affected), require the repair of the reinforcing steel. Reinforcing steel repair may
consist of complete bar replacement or the addition of a supplemental bar over the affected
length. The new bar may be spliced mechanically to the affected bar, or the new bar may be
placed parallel to the existing bar. The splice (or "lap") length should be in accordance with ACI
318, Chapter 12.
The complete removal of concrete from around the reinforcing steel provides the following
benefits:
• Removes contaminated concrete
• Repair materials surround the steel
• Repair material is anchored to the substrate behind the steel.
Without Primer
Some repair specialists believe that cement-based repair materials will establish a passivating film
on the cleaned rebar providing sufficient protection to the steel in the repaired concrete.
Laboratory evaluations of cement-based repair materials with unprimed reinforcing steel indicate
that these materials can provide excellent protection to the steel in the repair zone. However,
using this repair technique may accelerate corrosion of the steel in the surrounding concrete.
Accelerated corrosion in the surrounding concrete is thought to occur when the bars in the
patched area act as a cathode to the bars in the surrounding area that have become a corroding
anode. Small patch areas are unlikely to affect, significantly, the acceleration of corrosion in the
surrounding concrete. However, with large patch areas, the new cathode-to-anode relationship
may increase the corrosion rate in the surrounding concrete and accelerate the formation of new
delaminations.
When unprimed bars are surrounded by resin-based repair mortars, a high alkaline environment
does not form in the patched area, and corrosion within the repair area can occur. In this case, the
reinforcing steel outside the repair area will become cathodic and the rate of corrosion outside the
patched area will decrease.
Always expect some minor concrete cracking. Fine cracks, having no structural impact or
moisture ingress, may best be left unrepaired. Recommend a surface sealing system for shallow
shrinkage cracks, not affecting the reinforcing steel.
The selected crack repair method should achieve one or more of the following objectives:
• Improve water-tightness.
• Improve durability.
Static Crack
Static cracks remain constant in width and filling with a rigid material is possible. Non-recurring
events cause static cracks and the event does not reoccur. For example, plastic shrinkage can
cause static cracks but once the shrinkage if complete, it will not reoccur. Some of the methods of
repairing static cracks are as follows:
• Gravity sealing
• Grouting
• Drypacking
Capping the Crack — Use this repair technique to inhibit the ingress of moisture and chemicals to
prevent additional deterioration. A common method of repairing individual cracks, is surface
sealing with cement or resin-based low viscosity grout.
Fill cracks that are wider than 1 mm (0.040 in) with a cement-based grout or slurry using a brush,
knife, or scraper blade. Remember that cracks often taper into the concrete; therefore, this
method will generally leave a void below the repaired crack. Figure 12 illustrates the "capping"
the crack method and the void that forms below the repair.
A small break in the repair can allow moisture to enter and move along the crack. Therefore, do
not recommend this method where the crack could reach the reinforcing steel and allow moisture
ingress to cause corrosion.
Require the removal of all debris and fractured concrete from the crack before capping the crack.
Recommend the use of an industrial vacuum cleaner, wire brush, or oil-free compressed air to
clean the crack.
A Portland cement mortar that incorporates a polymer or latex emulsion, such as acrylic or
styrene butadiene, is a good repair mortar. Cement or resin-based proprietary repair products are
available from companies that specialize in the formulation of concrete repair products.
Gravity Sealing — involves pouring a low viscosity grout material (usually epoxy resin) directly
into a horizontal crack. Gravity sealing usually seals only wide cracks (1 mm (0.040 in) or
greater), although cracks as narrow as 0.1 mm (0.004 in) have been sealed satisfactorily through
the use of gravity sealing. Use this method to solve the same problems listed for the "capping" the
crack method.
Preparation of the crack for gravity sealing is similar to the crack preparation outlined for the
"capping" crack method. After cleaning the crack, pour the grout repair material into the crack.
Two or more applications may be necessary to fill the crack completely, especially on decks or
slabs that are not flat and level. To improve penetration of the grout, create a reservoir along the
crack to hold the grout by forming temporary bunds (embankments). When the crack can contain
no more liquid grout, remove the surplus material and temporary bunds.
Route and Seal Technique — In the rout and seal crack repair techniques, the installers must
rout or chase the crack along the crack length to open the top of the crack to approximately 10-
12 mm (3/8-1/2 in). This technique requires filling the routed crack with a suitable filler material.
Recommend the use of the rout and seal crack repair methods to seal cracks against the ingress of
moisture and aggressive chemicals, and to prevent further deterioration of the crack. Do not
recommend this system for repairs that must restore the structural integrity of a structural
member.
For small horizontal crack repair projects, recommend chasing the crack with a cold chisel and
hammer, or a hand-held concrete saw. For large horizontal crack repair projects, recommend
crack-routing equipment or special concrete saws. Be sure that the entire crack is chased, or
routed. Patch and seal all cracks that extend through a patched area. Failure to follow the crack
throughout the entire crack length could cause the patch to crack later and cause a maintenance
problem.
Recommend the removal of all dust and debris from the routed crack before sealing the crack.
Use an industrial vacuum cleaner or oil-free compressed air may be used. If wet sawing methods
are used to route the crack, recommend washing the crack clean of contamination immediately
after sawing. Remove any dried cement slurry with grinding equipment or rotary wire brushes to
verify that the repair material can bond to the substrate.
To fill the chased crack or rout, recommend trowelling a mortar-consistency repair material into
the crack, or fill the crack by using the gravity seal method.
Grouting — When the installers use grouting or injection techniques to repair cracks, they drill
holes at close intervals along the crack. They then install injection nipples at these holes and seal
the surface of the crack between injection ports. Using pressure, they inject the grout into the
crack through the injection nipples.
The engineers usually select epoxy resins for crack injection because these materials have high
mechanical strength and good chemical resistance. There are many proprietary products on the
market that have low viscosity to penetrate and seal very fine cracks. Resin can be injected into
cracks as narrow as 0.05 mm (0.002 in); half the thickness of a human hair.
Recommend the use of grouting to repair structural cracks in order to restore the structural
soundness of the element, and to seal leaking cracks. Sealing leaking cracks requires a specialized
epoxy formulations and a high degree of skill that only specialist contractors possess. Be sure
that the installers meet these qualifications.
Injection equipment varies from the basic, hand-held caulking gun to more sophisticated
automatic injection equipment. The simplest hand-held gun holds a cartridge of premixed epoxy.
The gun operates by manually or pneumatically. Hand-held guns are only suitable for relatively
small jobs or for projects in which a number of small cracks require sealing. For large jobs,
recommend a compressed-air pressure pot for use. The installers mix the epoxy materials before
filling the pot. They close the pot and pressurize it with compressed air. They control flow of
grout with valve at the nozzle end of the delivery hose. Pressure pots are designed for a steady
flow of material at a constant pressure. These pots are suitable for injection of moderate amounts
of grout. The pot life of the epoxy must be long enough to avoid viscosity build-up and
blockages.
There are several types of automatic injection equipment used to pump pre-proportioned resins
and hardeners to a mixing head at or near the injection port. The operator can adjust the rates of
deliver and control the flow at the point of injection. With this type of equipment, the pot life of a
material is not important because mixing takes place at the injection nozzle.
Dry Packing — is accomplished placing a low W/C ratio mortar into a routed crack. The
placement is done by hand with the aid of wooden tools. Before starting dry pack repair,
recommend routing a the crack at the surface to form a slot that is 25 mm (1 in) wide and 25 mm
(1 in) deep. Verify the cleaning of any debris from the slot and the coating of the cavity surfaces
with a bonding agent immediately before placing the dry pack material. Apply the bond coat either
pneumatically or brushed into the surface. Mix the dry pack mortar just before placing it.
Hand tamp the dry pack material into place in layers no thicker than 10 mm (3/8 in). Recommend
wood tamping because wood tools produce a superior bonding surface. To finish the mortar,
place the side of a hardwood block against the filled crack and strike it several times with a
hammer. Use a curing compound to cure the placed material, or a strip of wet burlap supported
along the length of the crack to promote curing.
These repair methods are for the repair of static cracks. If installers use these repair methods for
active cracks, either the repair material will crack, or a new crack will develop in the parent
concrete in the vicinity of the original crack.
Dynamic Crack
Dynamic (active) cracks do not remain constant in width, but open and close as the structure is
loaded or as thermal and moisture changes occur in the concrete. Either the repair materials must
be flexible enough to allow crack movement, or eliminate the movement. Recommend repair of
active cracks using flexible sealing or stitching.
Flexible Sealing — When using flexible sealing, an active crack becomes a movement joint. The
installers cut a recess along the line of the crack, and fill the recess with a flexible material. The
width of the recess and the strain capacity of the sealing material determine the amount of
movement that the joint will accommodate. Use the manufacturer’s recommendations to
determine the shape (width and depth) of the recess. ACI 504 provides additional information for
the selection of suitable shape factors, sealants, and methods of installation.
After the routing of the active crack, require cleaning of the crack using sandblasting, water jet, or
air jet. When the crack is clean, install a bond breaker at the bottom of the recess so the sealant
will not flow into the crack. The bond breaker will allow the sealant to change shape and will not
cause a concentration of stresses on the bottom of the sealant. Figure 13 illustrates the effect of a
bond breaker in dynamic crack repair.
The bond breaker may be a polyethylene strip, pressure-sensitive tape, or any other material which
will not bond to the sealant while the cure is in process. Of the many bond breaker materials
available, only closed-cell, foamed, polyethylene rod can be used safely with all types of sealant.
The sealant should be a high range elastomeric sealant, which includes materials such as silicones,
urethanes, polysulfides, solvent release acrylics, and certain proprietary compounds. These
products are designed for working or moving joints (movement of ±10 to 40% of joint width).
Sealants should resist infiltration of debris and water into the crack, exhibit long-lasting
extensibility, and bond to the sides of the joint recess. Consult the sealant manufacturers for
technical information on sealant properties. Some of the important properties are as follows:
• Adhesion
• Cohesion
• Hardness
• Modulus of elasticity
• Stress relaxation
• Compression set
• Resistance to weather
• Application characteristics
Stitching — When using the stitching method, the installers drill holes on both sides of the crack
and grout stitching dogs in place to span the crack. Stitching dogs are U-shaped metal units with
short legs, as illustrated in Figure 14. The crack is repaired with a rigid resin material. The
stitches that span the crack are often recessed into closed grooves on both sides of the crack.
Recommend a non-shrink grout or an epoxy-based adhesive to anchor the legs of the dogs.
Figure 14.
Stitching Concrete
Recommend stitching when tensile strength must be re-established across major cracks. Although
stitching will not close a crack, stitching provides a means to stop the movement of an active
crack and does not allow the crack to spread further. Stitching a crack stiffens the structure
locally and may accentuate the overall structural restraint. This restraint may cause the concrete to
crack elsewhere. Therefore, recommend stitching only when the restraint of the live crack will not
cause damage elsewhere in the structure. Where there is a water problem and the crack is leaking,
recommend sealing the crack watertight before stitching it to protect the dogs from corrosion.
Some situations require stabilizing the structure before the making the crack watertight because
movement may break the sealant material within the crack.
In the stitching procedure, the installers drill holes on both sides of the crack. They clean the
holes, and anchor the legs of the dogs in the holes using either a non-shrink grout or an epoxy-
resin-based bonding system. Vary the length and orientation of the stitching dogs. Locate the
stitching dogs so that the tension that is transmitted across the crack is not applied to a single
plane within the section, but is spread over an area. Because stress concentrations occur at the
ends of cracks, reduce the spacing of stitching at such locations. Drill a hole at each end of the
crack to blunt it and to relieve the concentration of stress.
If the area is too large to use the stitching method, and if the cracks must be closed, the stressing
technique can be used. First, the installers embed rods or cables in the distressed concrete. Next,
they stress the rods or cables to a predetermined tension. Finally, they anchor the rods or cables.
Verify that a knowledgeable installer performs this procedure to prevent reappearance of the
distress elsewhere in the structure.
The repair of disintegrated concrete may involve one or more of the following techniques and
materials:
• Patching
• Concrete replacement
• Traditional concrete
• Shotcrete
Patching
Patching refers to the restoration of relatively small areas of damage to the profile of the
surrounding concrete. Recommend repair of spalls and other surface irregularities by hand-
applied, poured, or placed techniques.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Poured and placed techniques are used to place flowable materials (cementitious or polymer) in
horizontal locations. These techniques may also be used in vertical and overhead locations if the
formwork is provided.
The consistency of a poured material is much higher than the consistency of a placed material.
Most pourable materials are formulated to be extremely flowable and self-consolidating. Pourable
materials are poured into the prepared cavity in the substrate and left to harden. Materials that are
placed, instead of poured, into the prepared cavity must be consolidated by vibration or rodding
techniques.
Poured and placed techniques have the advantages and disadvantages shown in Table 7
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Generally expensive.
Concrete Replacement
When concrete is replaced, the defective concrete is replaced with a new cementitious or polymer
concrete that is placed in a conventional manner. If the repair material is a cementitious concrete
that has mix proportions and properties similar to the parent concrete, the repair material is
referred to as "traditional concrete." Traditional concrete is discussed in the next section.
• The repair is several centimeters (inches) deep and extends beyond the reinforcement
If economically justified, replacement of the concrete is probably one of the best repair methods
with respect to durability and soundness of the repaired work. The new section can be reinforced
and made self-sustaining. With proper construction and contraction joints, and through the use of
water-stops, the repair can be rendered substantially watertight. Thin sections, which may be
troublesome when the temperature changes, are avoided. In fact, the greater thickness reduces the
magnitude and frequency of temperature variations in the underlying parent mass and, most
important, at the interface between the new and repaired concrete.
Concrete replacement may be achieved through the use of one of the these methods: form and
cast-in-place or form and pump.
Form and Cast-in-place — follows the traditional method of concrete construction. Formwork
is erected around the cavity to be filled. The repair concrete is placed and consolidated to follow
normal concrete placement procedures. However, the formed surfaces make the placement of
bonding agents difficult. In some cases, it is difficult to completely fill a vertical cavity, and
drypacking must be applied at the top of the section as a final step after the repair material has
hardened.
A major advantage of the form and cast-in-place repair method is that the construction procedures
are well known.
Form and Pump Method — is a relatively new repair technique that has been developed within the
last 20 years. The form and pump repair method is a two-step process. First, formwork is
constructed; then, repair material is pumped into the cavity that is bounded by the formwork and
the existing concrete. Prior to erection of the formwork, any surfaces that may cause air to be
entrapped during the pumping process must be trimmed, or vent tubes may be installed. Then the
formwork is erected around the prepared cavity. The formwork must be designed to
accommodate the weight and pressure of the repair material.
The filling material is always pumped from the low points to the high points unless the process is
performed overhead. In overhead operations, the material is pumped from one extremity to the
other. When the cavity is full, pump pressure is exerted on the form to cause the repair material to
consolidate and bond with the substrate.
The form and pump technique has the advantages and disadvantages shown in Table 8.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Almost any repair material can be used. The substrate must be carefully prepared to
ensure that air entrapment is avoided
Repair materials are premixed and Formwork must be tight and designed for the
continuously placed. weight and pressure of the repair material.
All materials are supported by formwork Pumping equipment must be matched to the type
as the material is placed and cured of repair material and the size of the repair
project
Pressure consolidates the repair material Repair materials must have good pumpability.
and provides for full encapsulation of
exposed rebar.
Formwork protects the repair material Repair materials must retain their workability
while it cures. until the cavity has been filled.
Traditional Concrete
Traditional concrete refers to a cementitious repair concrete of conventional proportions that has
properties similar to the parent concrete (substrate). If the parent concrete was of inferior quality,
a similar material should not be used for the repair work. In cases of inferior quality concrete, the
repair material should have properties that meet the structural and durability requirements of the
element under repair.
The use of normal concrete as a repair material has the following advantages:
• Proportions of the new concrete can be made to resemble the proportion of the section
under repair.
• Incompatibilities between the new and old concretes can be reduced.
• Damage that is caused by temperature changes is reduced.
• Damage that is caused by moisture changes is reduced.
• Differential elastic or inelastic strains are reduced.
Traditional concrete is normally produced, placed, consolidated, and cured through the use of
conventional procedures. Concrete replacement is usually achieved through the use of the form
and cast-in-place technique.
The uses, advantages, and disadvantages of cement-based repair materials were discussed in the
section titled Repair Materials. Cement-based repair materials can be Portland cement concrete or
mortar. Concrete is most often used to replace complete sections and to fill deep cavities that
extend beyond the reinforcing bars. Portland cement mortars are generally used in the following
situations:
• The repairs are too shallow to accommodate the coarse aggregate in concrete, and
• Fluidity of grout is not required.
The uses, advantages, and disadvantages of polymer-based mortars and concretes were discussed
in the section titled Repair Materials. Polymer Portland cement concrete or mortars are mixtures
that contain latex or epoxy emulsions. When compared to cement-based repair materials, these
mixtures exhibit greater bond strength, faster curing characteristics, improved tensile strength and
flexibility, increased chemical resistance, and lower permeability.
Shotcrete
Shotcrete refers to a mortar or concrete that is pneumatically projected at high velocity onto a
prepared surface. Shotcrete can be applied through the use of either a "dry mix" or "wet mix"
process.
In the dry mix process, the cement and sand are premixed and transferred through a hose in a
stream of compressed air to a nozzle. At the nozzle, water is injected and mixed with the material
as the material exits at high velocity. The water content can be adjusted at the nozzle. The
dampened material is jetted from the nozzle onto the prepared surface.
Dry admixtures, such as steel fibers, polypropylene fibers, silica fume, accelerators, and latex, may
be introduced into the premix. Liquid admixtures, such as accelerators and liquid latex, may be
added at the nozzle. Accelerators have been shown to increase drying shrinkage and to reduce
shotcrete strength over time. Chemical accelerators should be avoided unless they are absolutely
necessary.
The high impact force at which the material is applied compacts it to form a dense concrete which
has the following properties:
• Low permeability.
• Low absorption.
• Low shrinkage.
In the wet mix process, a predetermined amount of cement, aggregate, and water is batched,
mixed, and transferred to a pump. The concrete is pumped along a flexible hose to a discharge
nozzle and projected at high velocity onto the surface that is under repair. A rapid setting
admixture is commonly added at the nozzle to enable buildup of thick layers. In the wet process,
the nozzleman only controls the material placement. In the dry mix process, the nozzleman also
controls the water content and, therefore, the consistency of the mixture.
Dry mix shotcrete has the advantages and disadvantages shown in Table 9.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Excellent bond Requires specially trained workers
Very low shrinkage Quality is dependent on workers
Easily placed Unsuitable where excessive rebar congestion
exists
Shrinkage cracking is caused by high cement
content, improper curing, or excessive water
content
Wet mix shotcrete has the advantages and disadvantages shown in Table 10
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Easily placed Diminished bond to reinforcement
High placement rates Greater shrinkage potential
Requires accelerators which increase shrinkage and
pose a health hazard
Requires specially trained workers
The tendency for the repair material to sag
Moist curing is essential for shotcrete. Quick drying promotes cracking that is caused by
shrinkage. Cracking can be reduced through the use of steel fibers or polymer latex.
Pre-placed aggregate concrete (PAC) is another useful repair technique. PAC involves a two-step
process. First, graded coarse aggregate is placed into the repair cavity while the formwork is
erected. Then, a highly flowable grout is pumped through the formwork and into the preplaced
aggregate.
PAC was originally developed for structural repairs primarily because PAC exhibits low setting
shrinkage, good bond to the substrate, and reduced drying shrinkage. PAC is used in vertical or
overhead structures and can be produced in either thick or thin sections, under water or above
ground. PAC is especially useful for repairs in locations in which it is difficult to maneuver
construction equipment. The PAC method is used for situations such as underwater, in which
placing conditions are difficult and low volume change is required.
In PAC restoration, the deteriorated concrete is removed and the concrete substrate is cleaned to
provide a good mechanical bond. Before the aggregate is placed in the formwork, 19 to 25 mm
(3/4 to 1 in) diameter grouting pipes are installed. Proper design and arrangement of pipes are
necessary to ensure the successful placement of the grout.
After the grouting pipes have been installed, the coarse aggregate is placed in the designated area.
To provide proper flow and distribution of the grout, the maximum size of aggregate is usually
restricted to 12.5 mm (1/2 in). To ensure a good bond between the grout and the stone, the
aggregate must be clean, and all dust, grit, fines, and clay that have adhered to the aggregate must
be removed. The grouting should be completed as soon as possible after the aggregate is in place.
The rate at which the grout is used should be in accordance with the form design, the setting time
of the grout, pumping temperatures, and other job requirements.
The primary functions of the grout are to fill voids in the aggregate, to bind the aggregate
together as the mixture hardens, and to consolidate the entire mass. Grout mixtures consist of
Portland cement, sand, supplementary cementing materials, water, and admixtures. ASTM 939
Standard Test Method for Flow of Grout for Preplaced-Aggregate Concrete (Flow Cone
Method) is used to determine the flow value of the grout. Flow values of approximately 12 to 24
seconds may indicate a suitable grout consistency. However, specific grout consistency
requirements may be based on experience or field tests.
Grout is usually introduced at the lowest points of the formwork to prevent the formation of
entrapped air pockets. More than one injection point is usually required. All pumping should be
done slowly to permit the grout to fill all the voids. Pumping pressures of 0.069 to 0.103 MPa (10
to 15 psi) are generally required. When pumping has proceeded to the top of the form, pressure is
usually monitored for 1 hour to ensure the removal of any excess water. The pressure of the grout
on the forms is assumed to increase 0.0069 MPa (1 psi) for each 30 cm (1 ft) of depth. Vents
must be provided at high points in the formwork to allow air to escape as the formwork fills with
the grout.
Pre-placed aggregate concrete has the advantages and disadvantages shown in Table 11
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Low setting shrinkage. Requires skilled operators.
Good bond to substrate. Relative high water content.
More time-consuming than pumping conventional concrete.
Curing Practices
Cementitious repair materials must be properly cured to prevent the evaporation of the mixing
water, which can cause plastic shrinkage cracking, drying shrinkage cracking, reduced
compressive strength, and reduced durability. The following two approaches are used to ensure
satisfactory moisture content:
Curing, like proper substrate preparation, is necessary for good cementitious repair material
performance. Neglected curing can defeat all the care taken in proper preparation and
workmanship. Consult ACI 308 for detailed information on curing of cementitious mixtures.
Polymer-modified materials are generally self-curing unless drying conditions are hot and windy,
in which case the material should be covered by damp burlap. The manufacturers of the polymer
should be consulted before wet curing techniques are used because wet curing is not universally
recommended for all repair materials. This precaution is especially applicable to some polymer-
modified and/or rapid-setting materials.
Polymer Portland cement materials generally require 24 to 48 hours of wet curing that is followed
by a 72-hour drying period before the structure can be put into service.
The following publications provide additional information on the curing of polymer materials:
• ACI 548.1
• ACI 548.3R.
• ACI 548.4
No single coating will have all of the desired properties, but there are many types of coatings that
can be formulated to enhance the characteristics that are required for a particular application.
Within any coating type, there are several products, some of which may be unsuitable for the
intended application. When a coating is under consideration, the prospective user should seek the
advice of a trusted supplier.
An organized approach to the selection of the most appropriate surface treatment would consist
of the following steps:
• Equipment required.
• Test reports.
• Job specification.
Concrete repair materials are selected on the basis of the following factors:
If the correct material has been chosen, there is no need to apply a surface treatment or coating to
protect the repaired area. However, if the area that includes the repaired section will be subjected
to moisture, chlorides, carbon dioxide, harmful chemicals, ultra-violet (UV) exposure, or physical
or mechanical attack, a surface treatment may be appropriate for both the repaired and unrepaired
areas.
Most protection treatments are applied to protect the concrete. All protection treatments are not
necessarily designed to provide a visually attractive surface. If aesthetics are important, give
special consideration to a protective system providing an attractive surface. If aesthetics are not
important, give consideration to the application of additional treatments.
Properties that influence the performance of surface protection systems include the following:
• Durability
• Chemical resistance
• UV resistance
• Adhesion
• Ease of application
• Thermal compatibility
• Tensile strength
• Exposure to moisture
• Exposure to chemicals
• Special considerations
The condition of the concrete surface can limit the choice of a suitable surface treatment. Thin
film coatings will not hide some profile irregularities and may not provide an acceptable aesthetic
appearance.
A weak and friable surface can fail under a coating, which may also cause the coating to fail.
Cracked surfaces may result from using heavy breakers to remove the deteriorated concrete.
Exposure to Moisture
The ability to reduce water absorption varies significantly for some treatments. The designer must
know if the system must withstand total immersion in water, or frequent soaking and cleaning.
The designer must also know if the surface treatment must allow moisture vapor to be transmitted
through and out of the slab.
Moisture in the substrate may influence the coating bond, especially in cases of coatings that do
not breathe. Breathable sealers that are fully cured may transmit moisture vapor but will often not
be able to withstand rising moisture vapor from a substrate during application. Verify that the
substrate is allowed to dry if water-cleaning or water-blasting techniques have been used to
prepare the surface. The adhesion and integrity of some protection systems in service can be
disrupted by moisture vapor, especially under freezing and thawing conditions.
Many surface treatments are only suited for an enclosed environment. If protection from an
exposed environment is required, make a careful evaluation of a product's resistance to moisture
ingress, ultra violet exposure, chemical attack, and compatibility with the substrate as temperature
changes occur.
Exposure to Chemicals
Many surface treatments are designed to protect concrete from harmful chemicals that could
cause deterioration as a result of the alkaline, permeable, and the reactive nature of the substrate
materials. If a treatment may be exposed to potential chemical spills, or if chemical cleaning
preparations are to be used, contact the manufacturer for advice. Fully evaluate the concentration
and temperatures of the cleaning chemicals. The degree of exposure to the chemicals is also
important because occasional spillage may be as detrimental as conditions of frequent immersion.
Evaluate the performance of surface treatments that will be exposed to abrasive, impact, and point
loading conditions. Some systems may provide an extremely tough surface, but continual abrasion
may wear through a thin coating very quickly. Discuss the optimum thickness of the with the
manufacturer
If hygiene conditions are important, examine the ability of a treatment to provide a cleanable
surface. For example, a treatment (sealer) may be suitable to prevent floor dusting, but the
treatment may not be able to block the ingress of contamination. If steam cleaning is required,
evaluate the treatment's porosity (for unsealed systems) and resistance to thermal shock. Many
environments in the hydrocarbon processing plants require a surface protection system that can be
decontaminated.
Special Considerations
The primary function of a surface protection system is to protect the surface. The protection
system may not necessarily provide a visually attractive surface. If aesthetics are important,
special consideration should be given to the application of additional treatments (such as
painting), or to the use of dual-purpose systems.
Many facilities may have heavy equipment in place that cannot be removed easily or dismantled
before a surface treatment. Other access restrictions may also constrain the type of preparation
system that can be used. Evaluate fully the limitations that these conditions impose on the
application and performance of a surface treatment should be fully evaluated. Make plans for
these factors at the time of surface treatment selection.
During application, many systems, especially systems that contain volatile solvents, produce
obnoxious odors and fumes. Some systems provide varying degrees of toxic exposure, although
most systems tend to be harmless when fully cured. Evaluate these problems, as appropriate.
The speed at which a concrete surface can be returned to use is an important factor in many
facilities and may often cause an expensive system to be selected over a more economical
alternative.
When considering the economics of alternate surface treatments, do not overlook the maintenance
issues and the economics of maintenance. Planners often overlook these factors. A high
performance topping can sometimes provide a more economical long-term solution than cheaper
coating materials. High-build coatings may prove more economical than thin-film coatings.
Before selecting a surface treatment, find out from the manufacturer, the maintenance techniques
and practices necessary to ensure long-lasting life and effective performance. There are no
standards or codes that cover the application of repair materials.
Different surface treatments accomplish different objectives. Select the surface treatment based
upon those objectives. Before determining what treatment to select, it is important to know the
classifications of surface treatments and the design specification of each one.
• Hardeners
• Sealers
• Coatings
• Underlayments
• Bonded Toppings
Hardeners
Floor sealing and hardening products are not floor finishes. These products are usually applied to
upgrade the wear resistance and reduce dusting. These products are usually based on sodium
silicate or silicofluorides. In North America, in recent years, dilute solutions of both solvent and
water-based emulsions of resins such as epoxies, urethanes, and methyl methacrylates have been
used as floor hardeners. It should be emphasized that these products will only improve the wear
resistance and reduce the dusting of the existing floor. Sealers and hardeners will not convert a
poor quality floor into a good quality floor.
Hardeners are aqueous solutions that are broomed or squeegeed on the surface of the hardened
concrete. Hardeners react with the free lime in the concrete to form a hard, glossy material within
the pores of the concrete. This material prevents the concrete from dusting and toughens the
immediate top surface.
The treatment of a slab surface usually consists of three to four coats applied on successive days.
Since the degree of improvement depends on the degree of penetration by the hardener, highly
diluted solutions are used to obtain adequate penetration. The floor should be mopped with clear
water shortly after the application has dried to remove encrusted salts. Safety precautions must be
observed when fluorides are applied because of the toxicity of these salts.
All liquid hardeners must be applied on concrete that is at least 28 days old and on concrete that
has been moist cured. If liquid curing compounds have been used, the surface should be prepared
through the use of conventional sandblasting or waterblasting techniques. The surface can then be
swept or vacuumed.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Substrate preparation is easy. Concrete must be dry.
Application is simple. More than one application is required.
Dusting is reduced. Some materials can be toxic.
Wear resistance is improved.
Sealers
One of the best methods to reduce the permeability of the concrete surface is applying a sealer.
Previously, the sealers commonly used for concrete were linseed oil, methyl methacrylate, and
polyurethane. However, very little control was exercised over preparation and application.
Therefore, these materials did not prove very effective. Recent studies have shown that linseed oil
does not provide an effective barrier against the ingress of chloride ions.
In recent years, better sealers have been developed. These improved sealers are based on the use
of the following materials:
• Silane
• Siloxane
• Epoxy resin
• Blended or modified materials that are based on silane, siloxane and epoxy resin
• Dual component systems that are based on combinations of silane, siloxane and epoxy
resin
• Other materials, such as methyl methacrylate.
Although water-based systems are also available, these new materials are usually supplied in
volatile solvent solutions which aid penetration, coverage rates, and film formation.
Sealer application is effective when the material penetrates the pores and capillaries of the
substrate. The treated surface must be free of oil, dust, dirt, curing compounds, and other
coatings. To ensure proper surface cleanliness before the sealer is applied, the surface should be
vacuum-cleaned after it is has been shotblasted or sandblasted. All loose particles and dust must
be removed.
The concrete surface must be dry to ensure the proper penetration of sealers that are based on
epoxy and methyl methacrylate resins. These sealers must penetrate deep into the concrete for
best performance. In the case of silanes, a premature reaction with moisture on the surface will
prevent penetration of the remaining silane solution. Sealer manufacturers generally recommend
that concrete should be at least 28 days old before sealers are applied.
Sealer solutions can be applied with low pressure (0.103 to 0.207 MPa [15 to 30 psi]), positive
displacement, airless spray equipment that is fitted with fan spray nozzles that are adjusted to a
wet spray setting. Mist spraying causes too much material to be lost. Sealers should be applied
when there is little or no wind and when ambient temperatures are between 4 to 40°C (40 to
100°F). Most materials are applied as single coats, but some applications may require two coats.
Manufacturers generally recommend application rates of 2.5 to 3.5 m2/l (125 to 175 ft2/gal).
Do not apply Silane sealers in the rain or in the presence of strong winds. Premature contact with
water destroys the effectiveness of a silane sealer. Most manufacturers recommend that the
treated surface be lightly wetted with water 12 to 24 hours after the application of the sealer to
ensure that the initial reaction with water takes place. The application rate for silanes is about 1.5
m2/l (60 ft2/gal), which is somewhat higher than the application rate that is used for other sealers.
Solutions of these materials must be stored in moisture-proof containers. Repeated skin contact or
prolonged breathing of the vapors from sealer solutions should be avoided. Air respirators should
be used if silanes are applied in enclosed areas.
Warning: Avoid repeated shin contact and prolonged breathing of the vapors
of Silane sealers to prevent serious injury. Wear air-supply respirators when
applying these materials in an enclosed area in accordance with SAES-H-102.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Reduce moisture penetration. Require good substrate preparation.
Reduce chloride penetration. Do not improve chemical or abrasion
resistance.
Reduce surface permeability. Should not be used under constant or
frequent immersion conditions.
Permit substrate to "breathe." Will not bridge cracks
Easy to apply, vertically or horizontally Require periodic reapplication from 1 to 5
years.
Curing compounds are sometimes erroneously called Temporary Sealers. The primary function of
a curing compound is to achieve the proper moisture content in the early curing stages of the
concrete. Typical curing compound products are wax-based, petroleum resins, emulsified resin,
and sodium silicate. All these compounds are placed in volatile solvent or water, as appropriate.
The film formed by the application of a curing compound is unable to penetrate the green
concrete but "floats" on the surface until the concrete has hardened.
Curing compounds do not provide a permanently sealed surface. The film will eventually break
down under ultra-violet exposure and moderate abrasion, however, the residue within pores and
indentations will interfere with the penetration of moisture.
Coatings
Coatings may be described as materials that form a membrane that is intended to remain
permanently on the surface of the concrete. Coatings are generally non-breathable (in contrast to
sealers). Some coatings permit the transmission of moisture vapor, to a limited extent.
Caution: Non-breathable coatings will block moisture passage from either side of
the coating. Care must be taken in selecting it for use.
If a coating is applied to the top surface of concrete that has moisture moving through it (for
example a pier or foundation in contact with moisture), the coating will trap the moisture inside
the concrete and cause corrosion of the rebar and/or delamination of the coating. What will
happen on both sides of the coating should always be considered before a coating is selected for
repair work.
Coatings are applied more heavily than conventional paints and will usually produce a dry film of
varying thickness. For the less effective coatings, the film thickness varies from 0.025 to 0.125
mm (1 to 5 mils). For more effective systems, the coating thickness varies between 0.5 to 3.0 mm
(10 to 60 mils). Note that quality and type of material influence coating effectiveness as much as
thickness. Some materials require several applications to reach the required minimum dry film
thickness.
• Applies easily
• Simple to repair
Materials that are classified as coatings include the following products:
Cure and Seals. Cures and seals are usually one-component chlorinated rubber or acrylic
dispersions that can be applied to the freshly finished concrete to promote curing. Cure and seals
can be applied to hardened concrete also and are generally selected to retard surface dusting and
staining. Cure and seals have varying degrees of breathability, which depends on film thickness.
Film thickness is usually only 0.025 to 0.125 mm (1 to 5 mils). Cure and seals are applied at
greater thicknesses than conventional curing compounds. However, these materials are not
considered to be long-lasting treatments and need to be recoated on a regular basis. The time
interval between applications will depend on resin quality and dry film thickness. Cure and seals
will generally have poor chemical resistance and varying resistance to ultra-violet attack, in
accordance with the quality of the resin. Although classified as coatings, these materials should
not be considered for industrial or exposed use
Thin Film Coating. Thin film coating usually contain 40% to 60% solids that are dispersed in a
volatile solvent or water. Typical thin film coatings are based on epoxy, modified epoxy, urethane,
modified urethane, acrylic dispersions, reactive methyl methacrylate, or vinyl resin.
After the carrier evaporates, typical dry films are between 0.125 to 0.25 mm (5 to 10 mils) thick,
although greater thicknesses can be achieved if multi-coats are applied. The degree of chemical
and/or abrasion resistance will depend upon the thickness of the application and the nature and
type of material. Treated surfaces should be recoated every one to three years. To reveal heavy
wear patterns, the top coat should be coated with a darker or different colored coating than the
underlying coat. Heavy wear areas can be recoated more frequently or with heavier film
thicknesses.
Many thin film coatings are self-priming, although a seal coat primer may be required to ensure a
pin-hole-free finished coating. A fine silica sand can be incorporated into thin film coatings to
provide an anti-slip surface.
High Build Coatings. High build coatings provide a much thicker coating on the surface of the
concrete. The dry film thickness per coat usually ranges from 0.375 to 0.625 mm (15 to 25 mils).
Two applications will provide a high build application of about 1.5 mm (60 mils). These coatings
are 100%-solids materials, which do not contain an evaporative solvent. As a result, the wet and
dry film thicknesses should be the same. Typical products within this category are based on
epoxy, urethane, and reactive methyl methacrylate resins.
Generally, high build coatings have superior chemical and abrasion resistance as compared to thin
film coatings. Service lives of five to seven years should be achieved with high build coatings.
Coatings may be applied with a brush, roller or spray. The substrate should be prepared in the
same manner that is used when sealers are applied.
The major advantages and disadvantages of coatings are shown in Table 14.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Stop water penetration. Require good substrate preparation.
May be aesthetic. Limited chemical resistance.
Able to span cracks up to 3 mm (1/8 May require skilled applicators.
in).
Membrane is continuous. Different coefficient of thermal expansion
than substrate.
Underlayments
Underlayments are materials that are applied over irregular or pitted floors in a commercial or
residential environment. Underlayments are only meant to provide a smooth surface on which a
subsequent floor covering, such as tile or carpet, will be laid. Underlayments should not be used in
exposed or industrial environments.
Thin-set, self-leveling underlayments are highly fluid materials that have true self-leveling
properties when they are applied to a prepared substrate. The materials may be poured or pumped
over a substrate that is clean and free of oil, sealers, curing compounds, paint, polymer coatings,
dust, or other foreign (bond-breaking) matter. Some underlayments require a primer to be
brushed into the substrate before the underlayment is applied.
Thick-set, trowel-applied underlayments are usually thin-set materials with a suitable filler added,
such as silica sand. The resulting mortar-consistency material may be applied thickly by trowel to
correct floor slopes and/or to provide adequate cover of severe profile irregularities.
Traffic-bearing membranes are used to protect concrete parking structures and bridge decks.
Traffic-bearing membranes prevent the ingress of water and chloride-laden moisture into
reinforced concrete, especially through cracks in suspended and exposed decks. These membranes
are not often applied to slabs on grade where penetrating sealers or breathable coatings are used.
When bonded properly to the substrate, traffic-bearing membranes provide an extremely effective
barrier against the ingress of water. The membranes must also bridge "live" cracks to provide
effective moisture protection. Most manufacturers recommend special treatment of cracks that are
present when the membrane is applied.
It should be noted that although the top surface of a suspended slab may have been waterproofed,
moisture vapor and oxygen will still be able to penetrate the slab from the underside unless an
impermeable coating has been applied.
Traffic-bearing systems are classified into two categories: liquid-applied and prefabricated sheet
membrane systems.
Liquid-Applied Systems — Each liquid applied elastomeric system is designed for a specific
method of application that includes multiple coats and curing regimes. These systems are sold to
licensed applicators, who are usually trained in the application of the membrane by the
manufacturer.
When liquid applied systems are installed, the substrate must be clean and free of oil-based
contaminants. A trisodium phosphate solution is used to remove oil, grease, and other oil-based
contaminants. The solution must be completely rinsed from the surface, and the concrete substrate
should be dry before the coating is applied. If the moisture content of the substrate is high,
moisture will collect at the interface between the substrate and the membrane. This moisture
collection can cause the coating to develop pinheads or blisters. Moisture content can be
determined through the use of the plastic sheet test.
Working joints and all cracks that are wider than 0.5 mm (0.02 in) should be routed and filled
with a low modulus sealant. Cracks less than 0.5 mm (0.02 in) in width may be coated with the
membrane material at least 50 mm (2 in) on either side of the crack. Any voids in the substrate
that are wider than 3 mm (1/8 in) should be filled with a latex/cement or epoxy mortar. All
preparatory work on the substrate should be performed at least one day before the membrane is
applied; this timeline allows 18 to 24 hours of cure time for the patching materials.
Liquid applied traffic-bearing systems consist of the following separate but integrated
components:
A hard aggregate is incorporated into the coating. Generally, the membrane portion is neoprene,
latex/rubber emulsion or urethane. The membrane is applied in multiple applications to develop
the required thickness, which is usually 0.50 to 1.0 mm (20 to 40 mils). The membrane, which
may be a one-component or two-component product, is usually applied to a primed surface.
The wearing course is generally a modified epoxy or urethane. The wearing course is applied by
squeegee at a slurry consistency to achieve a thickness that ranges from 0.5 to 1.5 mm (20 to 60
mils) to meet wear resistance requirements. Generally, the wearing course is applied in a single
coat. A hard aggregate can be mixed into the product, or the aggregate can be broadcast over the
wearing course. The covered surface is cross-rolled or left totally saturated to cure. The next day,
the surplus aggregate is swept from the surface, and a tie coat can be applied to produce a
cleanable surface, if required. The tie coat can be the same material as the wearing course that has
been diluted in solvent, or the tie coat may be a specially designed product.
Common waterproofing sheets include rubber types, such as ethylene propylene diene monomer
(EPDM) and neoprene, PVC, modified asphalt, Hypalon, and ethylene inter-alloy. These products
are manufactured in factories and are subjected to careful quality control, however, careful field
installation is required.
The substrate is prepared in the same way that the substrate is prepared for liquid-applied traffic-
bearing systems. The procedures and techniques that are used to join and fasten prefabricated
sheet membranes are described under the following categories:
• Rubber sheets
• PVC sheets
• Modified asphalt
Rubber sheets must be bonded with adhesives because they are not thermoplastic and cannot be
heat fused. Contact adhesives that are based on butyl and neoprene are commonly used to bond
rubber sheets. EPDM sheets are usually coated with talc so that the sheets will not stick to
calendar rolls in the manufacturing process. The talc must be completely removed to ensure
proper seaming when the sheets are installed.
The adhesive can be applied with a brush or roller. Some manufacturers specify brush application
only. The recommended brushing method technique is to use long strokes parallel to the edge of
the seam. Circular motion of the brush is discouraged to avoid weakened seams. The contact
adhesive must be allowed to dry thoroughly before the sheets are bonded. After the sheets are
bonded, the prepared joints are rolled out with a 5 cm (2 in) diameter steel roller to ensure proper
seam contact and to force out any entrapped air. Care must be taken with non-reinforced EPDM
sheets which have a tendency to tear. EPDM does not bond well to reinforcement materials.
PVC Sheets are normally reinforced with glass mat or woven polyester. Glass-reinforced sheets
are available in various colors. Glass-reinforced sheets can be UV-resistant or non-UV-resistant.
Sheets are seamed in the field by hot air and solvent welds. The hot air weld is more reliable than
solvent welds under inclement weather conditions. Defective seams are located with the aid of a
screwdriver that is pressed firmly along the seam or by cut tests across the seam.
Modified asphalt waterproofing membranes can be applied in several ways. These membranes can
be applied by mop with hot asphalt, by torch, cold adhesive, or self-stick methods. Superior
bonding and flexibility characteristics are achieved when a propane torch is used to produce a
homogeneous modified asphalt membrane. However, because of the fire hazard associated with
torch application, alternative methods, such as solvent cutback
Solvent blends must be compatible with the modified asphalt to prevent degradation of the
modified sheet. The slow release of solvents through the heavy modified sheets is also a problem
because the system will not develop interply adhesive strength rapidly. Several products are
available with self-adhesive characteristics. These products consist of a layer of modified asphalt
that is usually 1 to 2.4 mm (40 to 60 mils) thick and a heavy polyethylene backing. To apply these
products, a release paper is removed from the modified asphalt layer and the sheet is pressed into
the substrate.
After the pre-formed sheets have been joined and bonded to the concrete substrate (in accordance
with the manufacturers' recommendations), the waterproofing membrane is protected with an
asphalt impregnated protection board and paved with asphalt paving.
Table 15 shows the advantages and disadvantages of the prefabricated sheet membrane systems.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Impermeable, if applied properly. System is not a structural component of the deck.
May decrease corrosion activity. Not suitable for rough deck surfaces.
Bridges cracks. Proper surface preparation is required.
May increase dead load.
Bonded Toppings
Bonded toppings are materials that are applied at greater thickness than coatings. Bonded
toppings are bonded to the concrete substrate. (Unbonded toppings are not bonded to the
concrete substrate.)
The main differences between a floor coating and a floor topping are the thickness of the coating
and the extent to which the coating is filled. Unfilled and partly filled coatings that are under 0.75
mm (30 mils) in thickness are usually called coatings. Filled systems with thicknesses between
0.75 mm (30 mils) and 10 mm (3/8 in) are called toppings.
Toppings are used to resurface industrial floors that are in advanced stages of deterioration.
Materials that are used for topping mixes may be either cementitious or polymers.
Materials that are currently available for topping repairs can be classified into the following
categories:
Concrete repairs must successfully integrate new and old materials to form a composite that is
able to endure the exposures to use, environment, and time. However, concrete structures are
dynamic, which means that these structures constantly adjust to the ambient temperature,
moisture conditions, and other environmental factors. Stresses and strains that are imposed on the
parent concrete and repair materials will cause structures to deteriorate continually. Repairs and
the parent concrete must be continuously monitored through the use of a Compressive inspection
program. If deterioration reaches a critical stage, remedial action must be taken.
This section discusses the following aspects of an inspection program for repaired concrete:
• Monitoring repairs
• Preventive maintenance
Monitoring Repairs
There are no established in situ test methods that are specially designed to monitor the
performance of repairs. However, a program can be set up to monitor the following items:
• Chloride ingress.
• Moisture levels.
• Debonding.
• Rebar corrosion.
• Carbonation.
Chloride Ingress
Chloride content may also be determined for repair materials shortly after the repairs are
completed to provide the "background" level of chloride content in the repair material.
Periodically samples can be taken from the repaired area and compared to the background level to
estimate the rate of chloride ingress.
Moisture Levels
Debonding
Periodically, sounding with a hammer or chain drag can be used to detect debonding. If
debonding has not occurred, but if cracks or voids in the concrete are suspected, ultrasonic testing
or Impact-Echo testing may be performed.
Rebar Corrosion
Standard half-cell testing can be used to check for signs of active corrosion after a repair has been
made. This work should be carried out at regular intervals. Epoxy rebar coatings and dielectric
repair materials may yield inconclusive readings.
Carbonation of Concrete
Carbonation of concrete can be monitored by checks on drilled concrete dust through the use of a
solution of phenolphthalein. Color changes in the phenolphthalein solution indicate the alkalinity
of the concrete. An alkalinity below pH 10.5 is indicated by a pink or purple color. A pH of this
level would indicate that passivity around the reinforcing steel has been lost and that the potential
for corrosion exists.
Preventive Maintenance
To protect the original investment and the investment in repair procedures, a program of
preventative maintenance must be planned and implemented as soon as the repairs are completed.
Preventive maintenance often includes regular, detailed inspections that are combined with
changes in house-keeping practices. To be effective, the maintenance program should be
documented in a diary form. Detailed inspections should include repair monitoring as described in
preceding paragraphs.
House-keeping practices consist of the routine maintenance practices that affect the concrete,
such as cleaning and crack repair.
Considerable damage is done to concrete when raw water and/or cleaning solutions are used to
clean the concrete. Chlorides in the raw water can cause corrosion of the reinforcing steel.
Sulfates in the water can result in sulfate attack. A change from raw water to sweet water can
reduce the rate of deterioration significantly. Early repair of cracks can prevent the ingress of
harmful solutions and chemicals into the concrete. Cracks must not be ignored when first noticed.
Rather, cracks should be repaired quickly, before the ingress of salt-laden water can cause the
potential for ongoing and progressive deterioration.
• Type of failure.
• Repair environment
GLOSSARY
bonded toppings Materials that are applied at greater thickness than coatings and
that are bonded to the substrate.
breaker point A steel point or chisel that is used with a jack hammer or
chipping hammer
coefficient of linear The change in linear dimension per unit length (also change in
thermal expansion volume per unit volume) per degree of temperature change
(thermal coefficient of
expansion)
concrete mobile A mobile concrete batch plant that is used to batch and mix
equipment concrete materials
consistency The relative mobility of the material or the ability of the freshly
mixed material to flow
electrolytic conditions The conditions that pertain when an electric current is carried by
the movement of ions through a nonmetallic conductor
flow tables Tables in the standards that specifies the flow rate of various
grout consistencies.
latex-modified concretes, A mixture of water and Portland cement, aggregate, and latex
latex-modified mortars
linear shrinkage (length The decrease in length that usually results from a loss of
change) moisture
modulus of elasticity (E) For tensile or compressive stress below the proportional limit of
the material, the ratio of normal stress to corresponding strain
moil points A conical shaped point on a tool that is used to make holes in
concrete
nozzleman The operator who manipulates the nozzle and controls the
placement of the shotcrete
plastic shrinkage Shrinkage that takes place before cement paste, mortar, grout,
or concrete sets
polymer The molecular chain that is formed from monomers. If more than
one monomer is used, the resulting material is a copolymer.
polymer concrete Concrete that consists of aggregate and polymer binder (no
Portland cement or water).
pot life The interval after a liquid material has been mixed in which the
material remains usable with no difficulty
slump cone A mold in the form of a cone that is used to fabricate a specimen
of freshly mixed concrete for the slump test
stitching dog A metallic rod or bar that is bent in the shape of a staple and that
is used to prevent the expansion of a crack in concrete
traffic-bearing Materials that are designed to prevent the ingress of water and
chloride-laden moisture into traffic-carrying slabs of parking
membranes garages and bridge decks. They may be liquid applied or sheet
applied materials.
underlayments Materials that are cement and/or gypsum-based and that are
applied as very thin, self-leveling toppings over irregular or
pitted floors. Underlayments are usually covered by tile or
carpet.
working time The length of time in which the repair material maintains its
ability to be placed and consolidated.
Use this checklist of criteria to assist you in selecting the appropriate concrete repair materials.
Answer the following questions which will help you make your selection.
4. What will be the operating conditions while the concrete is placed and cured?
6. What is the chosen placement technique, and what material characteristics are required for
placement?
7. What material properties are required to meet the requirements and conditions of Items 1
through 6, above?
A. Bond strength
B. Length change
C. Compressive strength
D. Consistency
E. Working time
G. Durability
H. Modulus of elasticity
I. Permeability
9. Does the selected repair material/system have the optimum cost performance ratio?
Use this checklist to assist you in evaluating concrete repair procedures. Those areas marked
no should be rejected, if they will interfere with the effectiveness of the repair materials. The
task should be reaccomplished to the inspector’s satisfaction.
Concrete Removal
• Was the perimeter of the repair area saw cut to provide a straight, vertical butt joint?
Substrate Preparation
• Was the substrate cleaned to remove all loose particles, dust, oil and grease?
• Was the substrate saturated surface dry, if a cementitious repair material was used?
Was a bonding agent or primer used in accordance with the manufacturer's recommended
procedures?
• Was the bonding agent or primer still tacky when the repair material was placed?
• If the reinforcing steel had lost more than 25% of its cross-section due to corrosion, were new
bars or supplemental bars installed?
• If the reinforcing bars were primed, were the primer manufacturer's recommended procedures
followed?
Crack Repair
• Were cracks classified as active or passive before a repair material was selected?
Were the cracks thoroughly clean and dry before the crack filling material was applied?
• Was a bond breaker installed at the bottom of the recess of each "active" crack?
• Was the correct type (flexible or rigid) sealant used to seal the crack?
• Were the sealant manufacturer's recommendations followed when the cracks were sealed?
Patching
• Was the repair material mixed and placed in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations?
Curing
• Were cementitious repair materials properly cured to prevent the evaporation of the mixing
water?
• Were polymer Portland cement repair materials first wet-cured for 24 to 48 hours and then dry-
cured for 72 hours?
Use Table 16, a listing of materials to assist you in identifying the class of appropriate surface
treatment.
Hardeners
Chemicals that are applied to concrete floors and slabs to reduce wear and dusting.
Hardeners are usually sodium silicates or fluorsilicates.
Advantages Disadvantages
Table 16(cont’d)
sealers
Materials that are applied to the surface of concrete to restrict the ingress of moisture and
chlorides and to reduce the rate of carbonation.
Advantages Disadvantages
coatings
Materials that are applied to a concrete surface to preserve, decorate, protect, seal or
smooth the substrate. Coatings are generally non-breathable.
Advantages Disadvantages
Table 16 (cont’d)
underlayments
Materials that are applied as very thin self-leveling toppings over irregular or pitted
floors. These materials are usually cement and/or gypsum based. Underlayments are
usually covered by tile or carpet.
Advantages Disadvantages
Materials that are applied to the surface of traffic-carrying slabs of bridge decks and
parking garages to prevent the ingress of water and chloride-laden moisture. The
membranes may be liquid applied or sheet applied materials.
Advantages Disadvantages
Table 16 (cont’d)
bonded toppings
Materials that are applied to the surface of a slab at greater thickness than coatings to
prevent the ingress of moisture and chloride-laden moisture. The toppings are bonded to
the substrate. Bonded toppings are usually cementitious concretes.
Advantages Disadvantages
Work Aid 3B. Checklist for Selecting the Correct Surface Treatment
Use this Work Aid in conjunction with Work Aid 3A to assist you in selecting the appropriate
surface treatment. Answer the following questions. If the answer to any one of the questions is
no, further organization of the approach is required Also, explain your answer in the blank
spaces provided..
5. Have you had tests performed on various candidate materials selected through the use of
Work Aid 3.?
7. Have you developed a list of qualified contractors/installers that might do the job.?
8. Have you and other engineers written a job specification or Scope of Work for the job.
Write out the main specifications for the job. This should be a written report using all the
above answers and written comments. In addition, you should include information on how
the concrete will be removed and the surface prepared for the new treatment The
Instructor will provide blank paper for this use..
Use this work aid to assist you in identifying post-repair assessments Answer the following
questions to see if the assessment program is sufficient. Any question answered no requires
further evaluation.
1. Was a chloride profile (background level) provided for the newly applied surface using
powdered samples or cores.
2. Has a program been established to monitor chloride ingress through salt water penetrating
into the newly repaired concrete by taking periodic chloride profiles to match with the
original one.
3. Has a program of moisture monitoring been established to determine the moisture ingress.
4. Are periodic sounding tests made to determine debonding of the repair materials.
5. Has a program of standard half-cell testing been established for non-coated rebar and other
testing established for coated rebar.
6. Has a program been established to test for carbonation of the repaired concrete. For an
alkalinity below pH 10.5, what steps have been taken to deter the reinforcement steel
corrosion.
7. Has a preventive maintenance program been established to provide the best environment
possible for the repaired areas to include:
Caution: Cleaning should never be done with raw water and harsh cleaning solutions
with chloride or sulfates.
8. Has a failure analysis program been established to investigate why a repair failed to perform
as specified to include the following:
A. Type of failure
B. Repair environment
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ACI 308-92, Standard Practice for Curing Concrete and ACI 305R Hot Weather Concreting
ACI 318-93, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete,
ACI 503-92, Standard Specification for Bonding Plastic Concrete to Hardened Concrete with a
Multi-Component Epoxy Adhesive.
ACI 504-82 Guide to Sealing Joints in Concrete Structures
ACI 515.1R-79, A Guide to the Use of Waterproofing, Dampproofing, Protective, and
Decorative Barrier Systems for Concrete
ACI 548.1-89, Guide for the Use of Polymers in Concrete.
ACI 548.3R-95, State-of-the-Art Report on Polymer-Modified Concrete.
ACI 548.4-93, Standard Specification for Latex-Modified Concrete (LMC) Overlays.
ASTM C109-95, Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars
ASTM C157-93, Test Method for Length Change of Hardened Cement Mortar and Concrete
ASTM C469-94, Standard Test Method of Static Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson's Ratio of
Concrete in Compression.
ASTM C531-68-95, Test Method for Linear Shrinkage and Coefficient of Chemical-Resistant
Mortars, Grouts and Monolithic Surfacings
ASTM C827-95, Standard Test Method for Change in Height at Early Ages of Cylindrical
Specimens from Cementitious Mixtures
ASTM C881-90, Epoxy-Resin Based Bonding Systems for Concrete
ASTM C882-91, Standard Test Method for Bond Strength of Epoxy-Resin Systems Used With
Concrete By Slant Shear
7ASTM C883-89, Standard Test Method for Effective Shrinkage of Epoxy-Resin Systems Used
with Concrete
ASTM C939-94 Standard Test Method for Flow of Grout for Preplaced-Aggregate Concrete
(Flow Cone Method))
CRD-C48, Method of Test for Water Permeability of Concrete. (US Corp of Engineers, No date
available, Not available in the Technical Library.)
CRD-C163 Test Method for Water Permeability of Concrete Using Triaxial Cell. (US Corp of
Engineers, No date available, Not available in the Technical Library.)
CSA A23.2-94 Method of Testing Concrete. (Canadian Standards Association.)
SAES-H-102, Safety in the Application of Coatings.