CHAPTER-V- INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN

SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION AREAS

1. INTRODUCTION
What is environment?
The sum total all surrounding of a living organism, including natural forces and other living
things, which provide conditions for development and growth as well as of danger and damage.
Construction effects on environment since it modify it in one way or another.
An environmental impact assessment is an assessment of the possible positive or negative
impact that a proposed project may have on the environment, together with consisting of the
environment, social and economic aspects. The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that
decision makers consider the ensuing environmental impacts when deciding whether to
proceed with a projector not. The International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA)
defines an environmental impact assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting,
evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development
proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made."
EI As are unique in that they do not require adherence to a predetermined environmental
outcome, but rather they require decision makers to account for environmental values in their
decisions and to justify those decisions in light of detailed environmental studies and public
comments on the potential environmental impacts of the proposal.
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT

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MAIN COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Physical Environment:
Geology; topography; soils; climate and meteorology; surface and ground water hydrology and
quality upstream and downstream.
Each and every specific issue must be assessed, where possible in percentage (%), proportions
and types in length (km), and detailed information must be indicated and presented and
evaluated.
Biological Environment:
Flora and fauna types; rare or endangered species; significant natural sites and sensitive habitats
including parks and reserves; etc.; species of commercial importance (medicinalplants,fish)
and reliance of the local people on these resources; and species with potential to become a
nuisance, vectors or dangerous.
Socio-economic Environment:
Socio-economic impacts of the any construction and/or development on the local community,
land use and cover and use types, land tenure systems and holding sizes, human settlements;
impacts on infrastructure facilities, present water supply and water resources utilization;
availability of and impacts on archaeological and historical sites, existence of any indigenous
peoples, impact on gender, control over allocation of resource use rights; patterns of new
settlements; transport patterns, archaeological and historical sites, cultural heritages etc.
Physical Cultural Resources:
Physical cultural resources are defined as movable or immovable objects, sites, structures,
groups of structures, and natural features and landscapes that have archaeological,
paleontological, historical, architectural, religious, aesthetic, or other cultural significance.
Physical cultural resources may be located in urban or rural settings, and may be above or
below ground, or under water.
Sensitive Environmental findings:
Sensitive Environmental findings that need special concern with a corresponding impact.
In general, the effect of infrastructure on environment shall be checked both at the time of
construction and during the life time of the infrastructure. The major issues that are considered
(to varying depths) within the scope of the majority of EIAs can be summarized as:
1. Landscape and visual
2. Ecology
3. Land use
4. Traffic and transport
5. Air quality
6. Noise
7. Water
8. Ground conditions
9. Archaeology

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ENVIRONMENTAL GEOTECHNICS
Environmental geotechnics is an interdisciplinary subject that applies geotechnical principles,
processes and techniques in a way to preserve the environment.
All the construction activities especially those that close related to geotechnical engineering
should be carefully plan and the execution should not bring any harm to the environment.
In order to achieve that, the application of modern tools are encourage so that it will not only
reduce the environmental impact but also benefit the environment.
Application of geotechnics for environmental control.
Broadly, geoenviromental engineering is reserved for overall engineering of environmental
projects that encompass the earth, groundwater, safe water containment, site remediation etc.,
and which require the expertise of scientists and engineers from several discipline.
Almost all geoenviromental problems requiring geotechnical expertise fall into three
categories.
1. Design, construction, operation and maintenance of new waste disposal and containment
facilities.
2. Isolation of containment ground

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3. Remediation of contained sites.
2. INTERFERENCE OF RETAINING STRUCTURES ON THE ENVIRONMENTS
Retaining Walls: Due to the steep adjacent terrain along the project corridor, retaining walls
will be required to reduce the impacts from roadway grading and slopes. Retaining walls should
be installed as needed to minimize impacts to utilities, the environment, and adjacent
properties.
Retaining Wall Types
Below is a description of the four basic types of retaining walls along with their Characteristics.
Gravity: Gravity retaining walls rely on the mass of the wall structure for stability. The wall
mass must be sufficient to counteract sliding and overturning forces from the retained soil.
These systems can use stone, concrete or other heavy material as well as mechanically
stabilized earth (MSE) for stability. These are the most common type of retaining walls and
include gabions, bin walls, and modular block concrete construction. In most cases the slope
behind the wall needs to be temporarily removed during construction. For mechanically
stabilized earth walls, the reinforcing often extends horizontally into the embankment about as
far as the exposed wall face is tall.

Piling: Piling retaining walls have structures that extend significantly below grade to provide
support to counteract horizontal forces from the retained soils. Typically two thirds of the
structure height is embedded below grade. The structures are usually steel sheet piles or H
beams. Piles are driven into the soil while H beams can either be driven in or set into drilled
holes. Quite often, the structural face of a piling wall is covered with a facade of concrete
blocks or panels. These are some of the most expensive types of retaining walls but they do
allow construction with very little removal of soil behind the wall.

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Cantilever: Cantilever retaining walls have a large effective mass due to the soil placed over
a horizontal section of the wall. These walls are typically constructed of cast-in-place,
reinforced concrete. The horizontal (cantilevered) leg of the structure can either extend back
into the retained soil or out away from the slope. The slope behind the wall typically needs to
be temporarily removed during construction. Cantilever walls are relatively expensive due to
the work required to build concrete forms, install reinforcing, pour concrete, and provide joints
between pours. The concrete needs ample time to cure before the soil can be replaced behind
the wall.
Anchored: Anchored (or tieback) retaining walls use cables driven horizontally into the soil
to counteract opposing horizontal forces from the retained soils. The anchors, which typically
pull horizontal plates or sheets against the soil, can be soil nails, tieback cables, or screw
anchors. The soil behind the wall does not need to be removed during construction. The anchors
may need to extend into the embankment quite a ways, which can impact buried utilities or
future development.

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3. EFFECT OF BORROW FILL SITES ON THE ENVIRONMENT
A complete discussion of the potential environmental impacts due to the creation of the
Proposed Borrow Area is a brief discussion of air, noise and water pollution is included below.
1. Control of Air Emissions
As needed, roads, loading areas, and working faces will be sprayed with water to minimize
Airborne dust.
2. Control of Noise
The same equipment that is involved in the current borrow operations and on the adjacent
landfill, where it meets the Part 360 noise regulations, will continue to be used at the facility.
The potential changes in noise levels will be due to the operation of excavation equipment at
locations adjacent to facility property lines sound level increases at the closest receptors would
be considered unnoticed to tolerable.
3. Control of Water Quality and Quantity
Surface water will be controlled within the Proposed Borrow Area. The erosion and sediment
control systems were developed in accordance with the. New York State Storm water
Management Design Manual (NYSDEC, October 2001). The New York State Storm water
Management Design Manual contains guidance on the sizing of sedimentation control basins.
Additionally, the facility maintains a Storm water Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP) and Spill
Prevention Control and Countermeasure Plan (SPCC), these documents provide details for
training, record keeping, potential sources of pollution, best management practices and clean-
up procedures.
4. Silt Control
As described above, both the West and East Areas will contain sedimentation basins consisting
of a fore bay and permanent pool. These sedimentation basins will be used to remove sediments
from water that collects as the remaining portion of the borrow area is developed. Water will
flow by gravity into the fore bay and then into the permanent pool for eventual discharge into
the NYSDEC regulated wetland. Accumulated sediments will be removed when 50 percent of
the fore bay storage capacity is filled. Surface water runoff from the Proposed Borrow Area
will be contained within the excavation area. Temporary erosion and sediment control
structures will be placed between the excavation areas and the demarcated wetlands.
Drainage along the main access road will continue to convey storm-water to the designated
Outflow points. If drainage patterns are altered as a result of excavation activities, all flow will
be directed into the borrow area and subsequently into the sedimentation basins. Temporary
stockpiles will be graded, stabilized, and maintained as necessary to minimize sediment
transport. A silt fence will be placed down-gradient of stockpiles. Stockpiles will be seeded
within 30 days of material placement. Erosion and sediment control measures will be inspected
periodically and repaired as necessary
5. Water Table
The Proposed Borrow Area is separated into a West and East Area; each area will be graded to
drain to a sedimentation basin. The deepest portion of each area will be within the
sedimentation basin; neither is expected to penetrate the underlying formation of sand and
gravel. Monitoring wells SB4-08 and SB9-08 are screened in the underlying formation of
coarse sand and gravel. These wells indicate that the water table is several feet below the top
of the coarse sand and gravel formation. The borrow operation will be in the clay till deposit
above the underlying formation of coarse sand and gravel, therefore the excavation will occur
above the water table.

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4. EFFECT OF SANITARY LANDFILL ON ENVIRONMET
Sanitary landfill or solid waste management is one of the common environmental problems
facing any community. Since the beginning of time, people have disposed of solid wastes by
burning or depositing them in open dump. When land was plentiful of waste materials, location
of the dump posed little problem or danger. Today sanitary landfill is a controlled dump and in
intended to isolate the wastes from the environment.
The first concern in designing & locating a sanitary landfill site must be the nature of the waste
materials.
Problem arising from the disposal of solid wastes is not the material itself, but rather the types
of pollution that can be released into the environment when air, water come into contact with
it. All types of pollution which are water, gas, air and soil in sanitary landfill must be
controlled.

Waste materials can be subdivided into general classes

ENVIRONMENTAL IMBALANCE
• Solid & liquid wastes
• Petroleum contamination
• Acid rain & acid drainage
• Scrap wastes
• Arid lands and deserts
• Wetlands
• Coastal margins
• Soil erosion
• Land subsidence

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Water pollution
1. Depletion of dissolved oxygen through aerobic decay.
2. Bacteriological and virus contaminations.
3. Pollution of surface streams with runoff from the site.
4. Chemical alteration of groundwater and surface waters.
Gas and air pollution
1. Noxious odors.
2. Releases of methane from anaerobic decomposition, ammonia, hydrogen, hydrogen
sulfates and other gases.
3. Dust released during operations and smoke caused by fires.
Soil pollution
1. Release of ions that can react with the soils.
2. Release of chemical compounds or ions that are taken up and concentrated in plants.
Aesthetic pollution
1. Unsightly or odious aspects of an active landfill.
2. Increased traffic and truck spillage.

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LANDFILL DESIGN
The proposed of a landfill is to dispose the solid waste materials safely at a minimum cost. It
is necessary to plan its operation once o geologically suitable site has been defined. The control
of leachate movement is a primary importance in the design of a landfill. Leachate generation
and movement are controlled by the hydrologic characteristic of the area and also by the
geological of the site. Specifically the underlying rock or soil unit and its permeability,
structure, attitude and lithology as well as the cover material available are the factors that decide
the suitability of a site as landfill.

Modern municipal solid waste and hazardous waste landfills are generally configures as shown
schematically below.

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The Primary concern of such a landfill facility is
1) Preventing the escape of leachate
Leachate: Fluid resulting from the leaching of contaminants from waste, contaminated
ground. The liner system must restrict the escape of leachate to acceptable limit through a
combination of an effective leachate collection and removal system and a suitably
impervious seepage layer. To assure proper performance over the long life a waste landfill
requires that there be chemical, biological and mechanical compatibity between several
components. Mechanical compatibility requires consideration of the stress-deformation
and strength behaviour of each components alone and altogether under a range of static and

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 dynamic loading condition. The leachate collection and containment function requires
application of hydraulic conductivity, seepage, and drainage principles.
2) The cover
The cover must resist infiltration of water, support vegetation or other ground cover suitable
for post-closure landfill use. Must with-stand large deformations to accommodate settlements
within waste below. It must also provide a barrier against uncontrolled escape of landfill gases
and to support gas collection and venting system.

Figure: Typical landfill cover

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3) Safety of Landfill
The landfill must be safe against several possible types of stability failure, both during
construction and filling periods and after closure. Schematic diagrams of some potential failure
modes are shown schematically in figure below.

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None of these issues can be addressed properly without correct application of soil mechanics
and foundation engineering. The principles, concepts, and analytical procedures that have been
developed for stress-deformation behaviour, shear strength, consolidation and settlement
analysis, seepage and dynamic analysis of soils are essential.
ISOLATION AND CONTAINMENT OF CONTAMINATED GROUND
Isolation and containment of ground, for both temporary and permanent applications, have a
very important role in environmental protection. The main purpose is to effectively prevent
contact between hazardous and toxic materials and uncontaminated groundwater, soil and air.
A typical containment barrier system usually involves some type of cut off wall, a bottom seal,
a cover.

Figure: Schematic diagram of a typical solid waste containment Barrier System

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Among the issues that should be addressed that requires geotechnical expertise are:
1. The stability of slurry trenches during excavation
2. The state of stress within different types of trench backfills; e.g., soil-bentonite, cement-
bentonite, and its influence on the hydraulic conductivity and stress-deformation properties of
backfill materials.
3. Stresses and deformations of the ground adjacent to the slurry trench and their potential
adverse effects on structures and facilities.
4. Seepage and contaminant transport through the barrier walls, floors, and covers. The
susceptibility of barriers materials to attack by the containment they are intended to contain
must also be considered.
Key Terms:
Aquifer: Geological formation capable of transmitting significance quantities of water under
practically relevant hydraulic gradients.
Aquitard: Geological formations that may contain ground water but is not capable of
transmitting significant quantities of ground water under hydraulic gradient. In some situation,
aquitardsmay function as confining beds.
HDPE: High Density Polyethylene geo-membrane manufactured in thin sheets from synthetic
polymers. Contaminant barriers in landfills barrier systems. HDPE also used for pipes, shafts,
gas colleting systems, leachate collecting systems.
In addition, it is important to consider:
1. The nature of waste materials
2. Details of ground water chemistry
3. Soil-waste interactions
4. The properties and behaviour of non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs)
5. The generation and effects of gases.
6. Mechanical and durability properties of the vast range of geosynthetic and
geosynthetic-clay composite materials that are now used in waste containment and
environmental control systems.

CASE STUDIES
1) Drilling:
Application of chemicals such as bentonite slurry around aquifers. It may result in
undesired flow from ground water and lowering of artesian pressure.-There may be
settlement due to removal GW. Noise and Vibration from drilling can influence the
surrounding. Special noise protection shields are important.

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 2) Grouting
Any impact from grouting depends on the chemical composition of the grout, the retention
properties (e.g. adsorption and dilution), and the volume of grout used as well as the
distribution of grout in soil, rock and transport pathways. Hence, it is important to know
the soil and rock parameters such as the stress state, the porosity and the distribution and
size of the fissures and properties of pervious layers. The parameters that control the spread
of grout are primarily the injection pressure, the injected volume and the properties of the
grout.
3) Quarries and Borrow Areas
Selection of quarries and burrows must consider the local drainage pattern, important wildlife
areas, present and planned parks and reserves and etc.
A well designed burrow must have:
a) Controlled access in and out of the pit
b) Working space
c) Storage areas for stockpiling top soil and overburden separately, etc.
Upon abandonment, restoration of burrow sites is important. Restoration steps to be taken
before abandonment are:
a. Clean-up
b. Drainage and erosion control
c. Re-contouring
d. Overburden replacement
e. Vegetation
Discuss the necessary environmental consideration in design, construction and through life
time of the facility.
1. Landfill
2. Piling
3. Retaining Structures

GEOSYNTHETICS MATERIAL
 In order to overcome the environmental imbalance issues, the use of modern tools
such as geosynthetics material are encouraged.
 Geosynthetics is a plastic sheet product, which have found rapid application in civil
engineering construction.
 Since the late 1960s & early 1970s.
 Used as a planar product manufactured from polymeric material.
 It can be used with soil, rock, earth or other geotechnical structure.

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CLASSIFICATION OF GEOSYNTHETICS
The broad categories are listed below:
1. GEOCOMPOSITE: a product composed with two or more material.
2. GEOFOAM: block or planar rigid cellular foam polymeric material.
3. GEOMEMBRANE: an essentially impermeable geosynthetic composed of one or
more synthetic sheet.
4. GEOSYNTHETIC CLAY LINER: a manufactured hydraulic barrier consisting of
clay bonded to a layer of geosynthetic material.
5. GEOTEXTILE : a permeable polymeric material comprised of synthetic fibers and
textile (most widely used in slope structure)
Geosynthetic are generally identified by the following criteria:
1. Density of polymer (High density or low density)
2. Type of basic element constituting (eg. filament, yard, strand, rib & etc.)
3. Manufacturing process (eg. woven, heat-bonded non-woven, stitch-bonded, knitted &
etc.)
4. Physical properties describing the material ( eg. mass per unit area, thickness &
opening size)

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