Contents

1. Natural Polymers
2. Structure, applications and properties of
polymers.
3. Characteristics of Polymers.
4. Types of Polymers.
5. Uses of Polymers.
6. Bibliography.
 Natural Polymers
What is natural polymers?
A polymer is basically synthesized by joining small molecules or substances into a
single giant molecule by a chemical process. The small molecules which are used
in synthesizing a polymer is called as monomer. Natural Polymers are those
substances which are obtained naturally. These polymers are formed either by
the process of addition polymerization or condensation polymerization.
Polymers are extensively found in nature. Our body too is made up of many
natural polymers like nucleic acids, proteins, etc. The Cellulose is another natural
polymer which is a main structural component of the plants. Most of the natural
polymers are formed from the condensation polymers and this formation from
the monomers, water is obtained as a by-product.

Some of the Natural polymers also include DNA and RNA, these polymers are
very much important in all the life processes of all the living organisms. This
messenger RNA is the one that makes possible peptides, proteins, and enzymes
in a living body. Enzymes inside the living organisms help the reactions to
happen and the peptides makes up the structural components of hair, skin, and
also the horns of a rhino. The other natural polymers are polysaccharides or
called as sugar polymers and polypeptides such as keratin, silk, and the hair.
Natural rubber is also a natural polymer which is made of hydrogen and carbon.

Examples of Natural Polymers

There are about many examples of natural polymers which occur in nature. A
brief description on some of them are listed below-
 Proteins and Polypeptides- Proteins are the basic type of natural
polymers which constitutes in almost all the living organisms. Proteins are
said to be most versatile in nature. They can also be as catalysts. Some of the
proteins are called as enzymes. These enzymes are responsible for various
chemical reactions occurring in our body and it happens about million times
faster even without these enzymes. One type of protein in our blood called as
hemoglobin carries the oxygen from lungs to the cells of a human body.

 A protein is usually a naturally occurring type of polyamide. This polymer

consists of an amide group present in the backbone chain of human body.
 Collagen– Collagen is one of the natural polymers and is a protein. It makes
up the connective tissue present in the skin of human beings. This Collagen-
polymer is also a fiber that creates an elastic layer below the skin and thus
helps in keeping it supple and smooth.
 Latex- Latex is known to be a kind of rubber, and rubber is a natural
polymer. This latex occurs in both the forms either synthetic or natural. The
 natural form of latex is mainly collected from the rubber trees and it is also
found in variety of plants which includes the milkweed. It can also be
prepared artificially by the process of building up long chains of molecules of
styrene.
 Cellulose– Cellulose is one of the most abundant organic compounds found
on the Earth and moreover the purest form of natural cellulose is the cotton.
The paper manufactured from the woods of trees and also the supporting
materials in leaves and plants mainly comprise of cellulose. Like the amylose,
it is also a polymer which is made from the monomers of glucose.
 Starch– Starch is the derivative of condensation polymerization and consists
of glucose monomers, which further split into water molecules when
combined chemically. Starch is also a member of basic food groups called
the carbohydrates and it is found in the grains, cereal and potatoes. Starch is a
polymer of monosaccharide glucose. The molecules of starch consists of 2
kinds of glucose polymers namely amylopectin and amylose which are the
main component of starch in most of the plants.

Structure , applications and

properties of Polymers :-
Engineering polymers include natural materials such as rubber and synthetic
materials such as plastics and elastomers. Polymers are very useful materials
because their structures can be altered and tailored to produce materials 1) with a
range of mechanical properties 2) in a wide spectrum of colors and 3) with
different transparent properties.

The Structure of Polymers

Many common classes of polymers are composed of hydrocarbons, compounds of

carbon and hydrogen. These polymers are specifically made of carbon atoms
bonded together, one to the next, into long chains that are called the backbone of
the polymer. Because of the nature of carbon, one or more other atoms can be
attached to each carbon atom in the backbone. There are polymers that contain
only carbon and hydrogen atoms. Polyethylene, polypropylene, polybutylene,
polystyrene and polymethylpentene are examples of these. Polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) has chlorine attached to the all-carbon backbone. Teflon has fluorine
attached to the all-carbon backbone.
Other common manufactured polymers have backbones that include elements
other than carbon. Nylons contain nitrogen atoms in the repeat unit backbone.
Polyesters and polycarbonates contain oxygen in the backbone. There are also
some polymers that, instead of having a carbon backbone, have a silicon or
phosphorous backbone. These are considered inorganic polymers. One of the
more famous silicon-based polymers is Silly Putty®.

Mers

A polymer is composed of many Mer –

simple molecules that are The repeating unit in a polymer chain
repeating structural units called Monomer –
monomers. A single polymer A single mer unit (n=1)
molecule may consist of Polymer –
hundreds to a million Many mer-units along a chain (n=103 or more)
monomers and may have a Degree of Polymerization –
linear, branched, or network The average number of mer-units in a chain.
structure. Covalent bonds hold
the atoms in the polymer molecules together and secondary bonds then hold
groups of polymer chains together to form the polymeric material. Copolymers
are polymers composed of two or more different types of monomers.

Polymer Chains (Thermoplastics and Thermosets)

A polymer is an organic material and the backbone of every organic material is a
chain of carbon atoms. The carbon atom has four electrons in the outer shell.
Each of these valence electrons can form a covalent bond to another carbon atom
or to a foreign atom. The key to the polymer structure is that two carbon atoms
can have up to three common bonds and still bond with other atoms. The
elements found most frequently in polymers and their valence numbers are: H, F,
Cl, Bf, and I with 1 valence electron; O and S with 2 valence electrons; n with 3
valence electrons and C and Si with 4 valence electrons.

The ability for molecules to form long

chains is a vital to producing polymers.
Consider the material polyethylene,
which is made from ethane gas, C2H6.
Ethane gas has a two carbon atoms in
the chain and each of the two carbon
atoms share two valence electrons with
the other. If two molecules of ethane are
brought together, one of the carbon
bonds in each molecule can be broken
and the two molecules can be joined
with a carbon to carbon bond. After the
two mers are joined, there are still two free valence electrons at each end of the
chain for joining other mers or polymer chains. The process can continue liking
more mers and polymers together until it is stopped by the addition of anther
chemical (a terminator), that fills the available bond at each end of the molecule.
This is called a linear polymer and is building block for thermoplastic polymers.

The polymer chain is often shown in two dimensions, but it should be noted that
they have a three dimensional structure. Each bond is at 109° to the next and,
therefore, the carbon backbone extends through space like a twisted chain of
TinkerToys. When stress is applied, these chains stretch and the elongation of
polymers can be thousands of times greater than it is in crystalline structures.

The length of the polymer chain is very important. As the number of carbon
atoms in the chain is increased to beyond several hundred, the material will pass
through the liquid state and become a waxy solid. When the number of carbon
atoms in the chain is over 1,000, the solid material polyethylene, with its
characteristics of strength, flexibility and toughness, is obtained. The change in
state occurs because as the length of the molecules increases, the total binding
forces between molecules also increases.

It should also be noted that the molecules are not generally straight but are a
tangled mass. Thermoplastic materials, such as polyethylene, can be pictured as a
mass of intertwined worms randomly thrown into a pail. The binding forces are
the result of van der Waals forces between molecules and mechanical
entanglement between the chains. When thermoplastics are heated, there is more
molecular movement and the bonds between molecules can be easily broken.
This is why thermoplastic materials can be remelted.

There is another group of polymers in which a

single large network, instead of many molecules
is formed during polymerization. Since
polymerization is initially accomplished by
heating the raw materials and brining them
together, this group is called thermosetting
polymers or plastics. For this type of network structure to form, the mers must
have more than two places for boning to occur; otherwise, only a linear structure
is possible. These chains form jointed structures and rings, and may fold back
and forth to take on a partially crystalline structure.

Since these materials are essentially comprised of one giant molecule, there is no
movement between molecules once the mass has set. Thermosetting polymers are
more rigid and generally have higher strength than thermoplastic polymers. Also,
since there is no opportunity for motion between molecules in a thermosetting
polymer, they will not become plastic when heated.

 Types of polymers
o Commodity plastics
 PE = Polyethylene
  PS = Polystyrene
 PP = Polypropylene
 PVC = Poly(vinyl chloride)
 PET = Poly(ethylene terephthalate)
o Specialty or Engineering Plastics
 Teflon (PTFE) = Poly(tetrafluoroethylene)
 PC = Polycarbonate (Lexan)
 Polyesters and Polyamides (Nylon)

Characteristics of Polymers : -
The simplest definition of a polymer is a useful chemical made of many repeating
units. A polymer can be a three dimensional network (think of the repeating units
linked together left and right, front and back, up and down) or two-dimensional
network (think of the repeating units linked together left, right, up, and down in a
sheet) or a one-dimensional network (think of the repeating units linked left and
right in a chain). Each repeating unit is the “-mer” or basic unit with “poly-mer”
meaning many repeating units. Repeating units are often made of carbon and
hydrogen and sometimes oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, chlorine, fluorine,
phosphorous, and silicon. To make the chain, many links or “-mers” are
chemically hooked or polymerized together. Linking countless strips of
construction paper together to make paper garlands or hooking together
hundreds of paper clips to form chains, or stringing beads helps visualize
polymers. Polymers occur in nature and can be made to serve specific
needs. Manufactured polymers can be three-dimensional networks that do not
melt once formed. Such networks are called THERMOSET polymers. Epoxy
resins used in two-part adhesives are thermoset plastics. Manufactured polymers
can also be one-dimensional chains that can be melted. These chains are
THERMOPLASTIC polymers and are also called LINEAR polymers. Plastic
bottles, films, cups, and fibers are thermoplastic plastics.
Polymers abound in nature. The ultimate natural polymers are the
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) that define life. Spider
silk, hair, and horn are protein polymers. Starch can be a polymer as is cellulose
in wood. Rubber tree latex and cellulose have been used as raw material to make
manufactured polymeric rubber and plastics. The first synthetic manufactured
plastic was Bakelite, created in 1909 for telephone casing and electrical
components. The first manufactured polymeric fiber was Rayon, from cellulose,
in 1910. Nylon was invented in 1935 while pursuing a synthetic spider silk.

Molecular Arrangement of Polymers

Think of how spaghetti noodles look on a plate. These are similar to how linear
polymers can be arranged if they lack specific order, or are amorphous.
Controlling the polymerization process and quenching molten polymers can
result in amorphous organization. An amorphous arrangement of molecules has
no long-range order or form in which the polymer chains arrange themselves.
Amorphous polymers are generally transparent. This is an important
characteristic for many applications such as food wrap, plastic windows,
headlight lenses and contact lenses.

Obviously not all polymers are transparent. The polymer chains in objects that
are translucent and opaque may be in a crystalline arrangement. By definition, a
crystalline arrangement has atoms, ions, or in this case, molecules arranged in
distinct patterns. You generally think of crystalline structures in table salt and
gemstones, but they can occur in plastics. Just as quenching can produce
amorphous arrangements, processing can control the degree of crystallinity for
those polymers that are able to crystallize. Some polymers are designed to never
be able to crystallize. Others are designed to be able to be crystallized. The higher
the degree of crystallinity, generally, the less light can pass through the polymer.
Therefore, the degree of translucence or opaqueness of the polymer can be
directly affected by its crystallinity. Crystallinity creates benefits in strength,
stiffness, chemical resistance, and stability.

Scientists and engineers are always producing more useful materials by

manipulating the molecular structure that affects the final polymer produced.
Manufacturers and processors introduce various fillers, reinforcements and
additives into the base polymers, expanding product possibilities.

Characteristics of Polymers

The majority of manufactured polymers are thermoplastic, meaning that once the
polymer is formed it can be heated and reformed over and over again. This
property allows for easy processing and facilitates recycling. The other group, the
thermosets, cannot be remelted. Once these polymers are formed, reheating will
cause the material to ultimately degrade, but not melt.

Every polymer has very distinct characteristics, but most polymers have the
following general attributes.

1. Polymers can be very resistant to chemicals. Consider all the

cleaning fluids in your home that are packaged in plastic. Reading the
warning labels that describe what happens when the chemical comes in
contact with skin or eyes or is ingested will emphasize the need for
chemical resistance in the plastic packaging. While solvents easily dissolve
some plastics, other plastics provide safe, non-breakable packages for
aggressive solvents.

2. Polymers can be both thermal and electrical insulators. A walk

through your house will reinforce this concept, as you consider all the
appliances, cords, electrical outlets and wiring that are made or covered
with polymeric materials. Thermal resistance is evident in the kitchen with
pot and pan handles made of polymers, the coffee pot handles, the foam
core of refrigerators and freezers, insulated cups, coolers, and microwave
cookware. The thermal underwear that many skiers wear is made of
polypropylene and the fiberfill in winter jackets is acrylic and polyester.

3. Generally, polymers are very light in weight with significant

degrees of strength. Consider the range of applications, from toys to the
frame structure of space stations, or from delicate nylon fiber in pantyhose
to Kevlar, which is used in bulletproof vests. Some polymers float in water
 while others sink. But, compared to the density of stone, concrete, steel,
copper, or aluminum, all plastics are lightweight materials.

4. Polymers can be processed in various ways. Extrusion produces

thin fibers or heavy pipes or films or food bottles. Injection molding can
produce very intricate parts or large car body panels. Plastics can be
molded into drums or be mixed with solvents to become adhesives or
paints. Elastomers and some plastics stretch and are very flexible. Some
plastics are stretched in processing to hold their shape, such as soft drink
bottles. Other polymers can be foamed like polystyrene (Styrofoam™),
polyurethane and polyethylene.

5. Polymers are materials with a seemingly limitless range of

characteristics and colors. Polymers have many inherent properties
that can be further enhanced by a wide range of additives to broaden their
uses and applications. Polymers can be made to mimic cotton, silk, and
wool fibers; porcelain and marble; and aluminum and zinc. Polymers can
also make possible products that do not readily come from the natural
world, such as clear sheets and flexible films.

6. Polymers are usually made of petroleum, but not always. Many

polymers are made of repeat units derived from natural gas or coal or
crude oil. But building block repeat units can sometimes be made from
renewable materials such as polylactic acid from corn or cellulosics from
cotton linters. Some plastics have always been made from renewable
materials such as cellulose acetate used for screwdriver handles and gift
ribbon. When the building blocks can be made more economically from
renewable materials than from fossil fuels, either old plastics find new raw
materials or new plastics are introduced.

7. Polymers can be used to make items that have no alternatives

from other materials. Polymers can be made into clear, waterproof
films. PVC is used to make medical tubing and blood bags that extend the
shelf life of blood and blood products. PVC safely delivers flammable
oxygen in non-burning flexible tubing. And anti-thrombogenic material,
such as heparin, can be incorporated into flexible PVC catheters for open
heart surgery, dialysis, and blood collection. Many medical devices rely on
polymers to permit effective functioning.

Solid Waste Management

In addressing all the superior attributes of polymers, it is equally important to
discuss some of the challenges associated with the materials. Most plastics
deteriorate in full sunlight, but never decompose completely when buried in
landfills. However, other materials such as glass, paper, or aluminum do not
readily decompose in landfills either. Some bioplastics do decompose to carbon
dioxide and water, however, in specially designed food waste commercial
composting facilities ONLY. They do not biodegrade under other circumstances.

For 20051 the EPA characterization of municipal solid waste before recycling for
the United States showed plastics made up 11.8 percent of our trash by weight
compared to paper that constituted 34.2 percent. Glass and metals made up 12.8
percent by weight. And yard trimmings constituted 13.1 percent of municipal
solid waste by weight. Food waste made up 11.9 percent of municipal solid
waste. The characteristics that make polymers so attractive and useful,
lightweight and almost limitless physical forms of many polymers designed to
deliver specific appearance and functionality, make post-consumer recycling
challenging. When enough used plastic items can be gathered together,
companies develop technology to recycle those used plastics. The recycling rate
for all plastics is not as high as any would want. But, the recycling rate for the
1,170,000,000 pounds of polyester bottles, 23.1%, recycled in 2005 and the
953,000,000 pounds of high density polyethylene bottles, 28.8%, recycled in
2005 show that when critical mass of defined material is available, recycling can
be a commercial success2.

Applications for recycled plastics are growing every day. Recycled plastics can be
blended with virgin plastic (plastic that has not been processed before) without
sacrificing properties in many applications. Recycled plastics are used to make
polymeric timbers for use in picnic tables, fences and outdoor playgrounds, thus
providing low maintenance, no splinters products and saving natural lumber.
Plastic from soft drink and water bottles can be spun into fiber for the production
of carpet or made into new food bottles. Closed loop recycling does occur, but
sometimes the most valuable use for a recycled plastic is into an application
different than the original use.
An option for plastics that are not recycled, especially those that are soiled, such
as used food wrap or diapers, can be a waste-to-energy system (WTE). In 2005,
13.6% of US municipal solid waste was processed in WTE systems1. When
localities decide to use waste-to-energy systems to manage solid waste, plastics
can be a useful component.

The controlled combustion of polymers produces heat energy. The heat energy
produced by the burning plastic municipal waste not only can be converted to
electrical energy but also helps burn the wet trash that is present. Paper also
produces heat when burned, but not as much as do plastics. On the other hand,
glass, aluminum and other metals do not release any energy when burned.

To better understand the incineration process, consider the smoke coming off a
burning item. If one were to ignite the smoke with a lit propane torch, one would
observe that the smoke disappears. This exercise illustrates that the by-products
of incomplete burning are still flammable. Proper incineration burns the material
and the by-products of the initial burning and also takes care of air and solid
emissions to insure public safety

Many materials found in nature are polymers. In fact, the basic molecular
structure of all plant and animal life is similar to that of a synthetic polymer.
Natural polymers include such materials as silk, shellac, bitumen, rubber, and
cellulose. However, the majority of polymers or plastics used for engineering
design are synthetic and often they are specifically formulated or “designed” by
chemists or chemical engineers to serve a specific purpose. Other engineers

(mechanical, civil, electrical, etc.) typically design engineering components from

the available materials or, sometimes, work directly with chemists or chemical
engineers to synthesize a polymer with particular characteristics. Some of the
useful properties of various engineering polymers are high strength or modulus
to weight ratios (light weight but comparatively stiff and strong), toughness,
resilience, resistance to corrosion, lack of conductivity (heat and electrical),
color, transparency, processing, and low cost. Many of the useful properties of
polymers are in fact unique to polymers and are due to their long chain
molecular structure. These issues will be discussed at length in the next chapter.
In this chapter, focus will be on general characteristics, applications and an
introduction to the mechanical behavior including elementary concepts of their
inherent time dependent or viscoelastic nature.

How polymers are configured?

Polyethylene (PE), having the simple structure, is made from ethylene
CH2=CH2 via a polymerization process that opens its double bond and forms a
structure as follows.

Figure 1

The average molecular weight for a linear PE ranges between 200,000 g/mole
and 500,000 g/mole. A single PE chain can modify its configuration instantly
and randomly. The long chain polymer, with a high length to diameter ratio,
behaves like a soft rubber wherein highly entangled chains are stretchable under
force and can retain their original state upon release. By replacing one H from
each repeat unit of PE with Cl, poly-(vinyl chloride) (PVC) can be created.

Figure 2

However, the change in element makes the -C-C- bond rotation in PVC difficult,
making it stiff. The structural change from PE to PVC has significantly affected
the properties and applications of the two polymers.

Inter-and Intra-molecular characteristics :

Intra-polymer structure characteristics: Polymer chains are mostly ‘soft’, ‘stiff’ or
in-between. The intra-polymer structure characteristics of the polymers decide
whether a long chain polymer is ‘stiff’ or ‘soft’ or something in between.
Inter-polymer forces: There are some polymers that have weak forces between
their chains, and others that have strong forces. van der Waals forces decide this
inter-polymer force. These two factors can help in understanding the varied
properties of polymers and also the reason why polymers are very different from
materials like metals and ceramics.

Glass Transition Temperature (Tg) and its Physical Meaning

An important parameter unique to polymers is Tg. The length of a polymer chain

segment varies due to intra-and inter-polymer characteristics. Figure 3 illustrates
the rapid changes in shape when a rope is moved up and down.

Figure 3

From this illustration, it has been observed that the stiffness of a polymer chain
increases with the length of its segment. Tg can be defined as the transitional
temperature at which polymer segments begin to flow from the frozen state (with
raise in temperature), or start freezing (with drop in temperature). Figure 4
illustrates this change in the chain segment.
 Figure 4

Melting and Crystallization Temperatures Tm and Tc

By contrast to majority of the inorganic crystalline materials, polymers are not

able form 100% crystals. Polymers always have at least two phases namely,
amorphous and crystalline. It is not its Tg, but rather its crystallinity that
determines whether the material is a plastic or rubber. The crystals (hard phases)
and rubbery (soft phases) make the PE behave as a plastic with toughness, and
not as a rubber. Re-crystallization takes place on heating before melting, which
increases complexity in polymers.

Figure 5
Both melting and crystallization cover a specific range of temperatures around
the peak temperatures Tm and Tc. The uncompleted crystallization process is
responsible for the re-crystalllization on heating. Hence, when the polymer is
heated, re-crystallization will take place at temperatures before the melting
temperature of the existing crystals. Hence, Differential Scanning Calorimetry is
not reliable for polymer crystallinity measurement.

Polymers molecular weight and its meaning

There are two ways widely utlized to present molecular weight as a polymer
parameter. One is number average of molecular weight Mn, and the other is
weight average Mw. Figure 6 illustrates a realistic molecular weight distribution.

Figure 6

Types of Polymers :
Polymers in Plants
 Plants are made of a polymer
called cellulose. This is the tough stuff
that wood and stems - and Paul's tree
house! - are made from. Cellulose is also
what makes fibers like cotton and hemp
that we can twist into threads and weave
into clothing. And many plants also
make starch. Potatoes, corn, rice, and
grains all have a lot of starch. Starch is
also a polymer.

Even though starch and cellulose are both made from the same sugar (glucose),
they act very differently (because the glucose molecules are joined together
differently). Starch will dissolve in water, but cellulose won't. So we make food
from starches and we build things and make clothing out of cellulose.

Polymers in food

Starch is all twisted up in a tight blob, with lots of

branches and ends sticking out all over. Starch is really just a compact way to
store a lot of glucose in a small space. Our bodies break the starch down into
glucose, which can be used for energy so you can run and jump and play and
think.

Plants use cellulose for strength. The cellulose chains are all stretched out, and
like to stay tight right next to each other, like raw spaghetti that's all stuck
together. That's why cellulose can hold up the tallest trees! And wooden houses
too! Cotton is mostly cellulose - those stretched-out chains make great fibers.
The cellulose in vegetables and grains is the fiber in our foods. We can't digest it,
but it's good for us because it helps keep our insides clean.

Cellulose and starches are both made from sugars - so they're called
polysaccharides (meaning "many sugars").

Another useful natural polymer produced by plants is rubber. It has been

harvested from trees in Central and South America for hundreds of years. In the
last couple hundred years people have figured out ways to make it stronger and
more durable. And scientists have been very successful in inventing their own
versions of rubber for different purposes.

Polymers in People - and all kinds of animals, too ...

Protein

You know they say "You are what you eat." Well,
one natural polymer that we eat a lot of is also one we are made of - PROTEIN!
Protein also forms some of the things you wear - namely leather, silk, and
wool. Protein is a natural polymer formed from molecules called amino acids.
Chicken nuggets and hamburgers have a lot of protein (but the bun has a lot of
starch!). Protein is the main thing in skin, organs, muscles, hair and fingernails.
The most common protein in your body, collagen, is used for support and
structure. It's in-between all the cells in your body, all around your organs, even
in your teeth and bones.
 Feathers and fur, hair and fingernails (even animal
hooves), are all made of the protein keratin. Wool is made from sheep hair, and is
great for clothing and fabric. Wool is warm and sometimes a little itchy, but it's
still widely used. You'll find it everywhere from hats to skirts to the inside of a

piano... and of course in sweaters. In fact

many kinds of animal hair besides wool have been used to make clothing. Angora
rabbits have extra light, soft, fluffy fur.
Cashmere is a wool that comes from special
goats, and is very soft and long-wearing.
Alpacas and llamas also produce wool that's
soft and warm.

Silk
Another great protein is silk - a sort of fiber
made by special caterpillars. This stuff has
been used for thousands of years to make
beautiful fabric for clothing. And though
people have made their own version of silk
called nylon, there's still nothing out there
quite like silk. Spider silk is incredibly strong
for its weight, and scientists have been working hard to mimic this fiber, too.

Enzymes
A special group of proteins that work inside the body are enzymes. Each enzyme
is a specific little glob of a protein that does a specific job in the body, and does it
really really fast. Without enzymes, these jobs either just wouldn't happen, or
would go way too slowly to make life possible! Some enzymes even make other
enzymes. The enzymes all work together to keep everything in your body going,
like processing your food into energy so you can chase your little brother
around. Click here to see how you can taste enzymes working.

Chitin
What do lobsters and giant cockroaches and mushrooms have in common?
Chitin!

Chitin is the strong waterproof stuff that crustaceans like crabs and shrimp and
all kinds of bugs make to form their protective outer shells. It's even found in the
cell walls of mushrooms (weird, huh?!). The neat thing about chitin is that its
structure is a lot like cellulose. One might think it would be a protein since it's
made by animals (mostly), but it's more like the tough stuff in plants. Scientists
have found a way to purify the chitin into an off-white powder that can be useful
to farmers, doctors, and even in food as a thickening agent.
Uses of Polymers:

Uses of Polymers
Polymer Properties Applications
Neoprene very chemical shoe soles,
resistant, rubbery hoses, radiator
hoses, wetsuits
polyamide fibrous, strong, parachutes,
(nylon) durable, moisture carpet, ropes,
resistant form-fitting
skiwear,
hosiery,
swimware, boat
sails
polyacrylonitrile resinous, fibrous, ABS plumbing
or rubbery, pipe, structural
combines with panels, kettle
butadiene and handles,
styrene to form housewares;
hard, Orlon® fabric
tough ABScopoly
mer

polychloro-trifluoroethylene can be molded by gaskets, linings

extrusion, for containers,
chemically parts for valves
resistant and pumps
polyester fibers recover filters,
quickly after conveyor belts,
extension and sleeping bag
absorb very little insulation, coat
 moisture. insulation, tire
cords. Brand
name polymers
include:
Dacron® ,
Fortrel® ,
Terylene® ;
Mylar® &
Lexan® .
can be easily milk, water,
formed into and juice
lightweight containers;
containers toys, liquid
detergent
bottles

polyethylene
(high-density ) HDPE
polyethylene can be stretched bread bags,
(low-density) LDPE into fine, tough, frozen food
films. bags, grocery
bags
polyethylene terephthalate strong, easily soft drink
(PET, PETE) moldable, bottles, peanut
chemically butter jars,
resistant, light- salad dressing
weight bottles,
nonbreakable
bottles

Polyolefin fiber composed of hosiery,

at least 85% sportswear,
 polyethylene or undergarments,
polypropylene pile fabrics,
upholstery,
outdoor
furniture,
indoor
carpeting,
indoor-outdoor
rugs and
carpets, filters,
marine
cordage,
automobile seat
covers,
electrical
insulation,
carpet backing
polystyrene thermoplastic; Styrofoam® cu
resists attack by ps, grocery
acids, alkalis, and store meat
many solvents, trays, fast-food
does not absorb sandwich
water; excellent containers,
electrical video cassette
insulator. cases, compact
disk jackets,
cafeteria trays,
refrigerator
insulation
Polysulfone tough, strong, household and
stiff, chemically plumbing
and thermally items, various
resistant automotive
parts, wire
coatings
polytetrafluoro- strong, tough, · Viton® :
ethylene waxy, gaskets,
(PTFE) nonflammable, bearings,
chemically linings for
resistant, slippery containers and
surface, thermally pipes.
 stable
· Teflon® :
non-stick
cookware,
cooking
utensils, pump
valves,
plumbing tape.
polyurethane flexible foams, · flexible foams:
highly elastic upholstery
quick drying material,
fibers, or hard- mattresses
drying films
· rigid foams:
cores for
airplane wings

· fibers:
spandex
clothing fiber,
support
hosiery;
Lycra® ,
Numa® ,
Spandelle® ,
and Vyrene®.

· hard films:
polyurethane
varnishes
polyvinyl alcohol colorless, water- component in:
soluble, adhesives,
flammable resin emulsifiers,
lacquers,
coatings, and
films
polyvinyl chloride rigid when · unplasticized
unplasticized; form: water
flexible when pipe, plumbing
plasticized fittings,
phonograph
 records,
synthetic floor
tiles, credit
cards

· plasticized
form: raincoats,
shower
curtains, and
packaging
films.

polyvinyl fluoride resistant to attack protective films

by chemicals or by for: building
weathering sidings, pipes,
corrosive
chemical
containers
polyvinylacetate water-insoluble carpet
resin backings; film-
forming
ingredient of
water-based
(latex) paints,
adhesives,
lacquers, and
cements

Conclusion
 1. Numerous synthetic biodegradable polymers are available and still
being developed for sustained and targeted drug delivery application.
2. Biodegradable polymers have proven their potential for development
of new, advanced and efficient DDS and capable of delivering a wide
range of bioactive materials.
3. However, only few have entered the market since many drug faces the
problem of sensitivity of heat, shear forces and interaction between
polymers.
4. This problem can be overcome by fully understanding the degradation
mechanism to adjust the release profile.

Biblography

Internet :1. www.chemistrydialy.com

2.www.polymerproject.com

3.www.scienceDirect.com
Books: 1. ISC chemistry class 12th by H.C Shrivastava

2. ISC organic chemistry by K.L. Chugh

3. ISC Chemistry by Dr. R.D Madan.