UNIVERSITY OF LONDON: IMPERIAL COLLEGE

A plastic theory of design for ordinary reinforced

and prestressed concrete including moment
re-distribution in continuous members
by Professor A. L. L. Baker, B.Sc. (Tech.), M.I.C.E., M.I.Struct.E.

SUMMARY: when (b) the steel reaches a stress at which a

A general expression is derived for the ultimate small number of further repetitions of load
strength in bending of ordinary reinforced concrete would cause increased yield and fracture.
and two types of prestressed concrete beams, taking
NOT A TION. (See Figure 1.)
into account plasticity. A method of calculating
b breadth of beam.
elasto-plastic deformations is developed and applied
d = effective depth of beam.
to the problem of re-distributing bending moments
n1d depth of neutral axis.
in continuous members and frames.
yn1d depth of centre of compression.
Introduction p. percentage of steel.
c concrete stress at the extremity of the
SUFFICIENT IS ALREADY known of the stress section.
strain relations of concrete in beams to justify tensile stress in the reinforcement.
presenting a tentative theory of ultimate strength, ocn1dc area of concrete stress diagram.
deformation and moment re-distribution in regard AB
to beams and continuous frames. Further research E, modulus of plasticity of steel =OB
is needed to determine more closely the values of
some of the factors involved and this may lead to (see Figure 2.)
some modifications. The present theory, however, = AB (see Figure 2) = modulus of plas-
may have some value in guiding further research. OB ticity of concrete
For simplicity rectangular sections have been at the extremity of
investigated, but using the same assumptions the the cross section.
theory can be extended to T and I sections.
E.
Ultimate strength of ordinary reinforced and m
Ee
prestressed beams in bending M moment of resistance or applied bending
ASSUMPTIONS moment.
(I) Strain is proportional to distance from the Steel stress at loading condition. Fig. 1 (c)
neutral axis, in accordance with a straight line f3 ultimate stress
law. (Test results show that this is very (in prestressed beams).
approximately true.) Average concrete stress adjacent to steel
F
(2) Prestressed beams crack before failure and Maximum concrete stress adjacent to
concrete has no tensile strength. steel
(3) A beam is loaded to its ultimate strength: when (in end anchored prestressed beams)
(a) the concrete begins to crush, either (i) without
the steel yielding or (ii) on account of the steel NOTES ON THE ABOVE FACTORS
yielding and causing the neutral axis to rise or The value of y may be determined from beam

57
 Magazine of Concrete Research: June 1949

f. _~~t-'~

.!!------JC_-"-A _ _ _ _ _
1Jnrd
I
_
~ --
_
I
I

H.T.Stul

...
a. Strain Dil\ribution. b. Stre .. Distribution. Mild
ORDINARY REINFORCED ~:"---:-?i---IcStce I
CONCRETE.
L

Jj

Strain

c. Suen Diltributiol't.

PRESTREsseD CONCRETE.
a.STEEL
Figure 1: Diagrams showing strain and stress dis-
tributions in ordinary reinforced and pre- In the case 01 prestressed concrete stress
stressed beams. at the origin 0 is not zero. but corrcsilonds
to that given by the load conditions in Fig.le
tests by measuring the concrete and steel strains
from which values of nl and T (the total tension)
can then be deduced. Then ~ =d-ynldwhereMis
the externally applied bending moment. The value
of !:! is probably '33 at low stresses and between
·4 and '5 at high stress, approaching failure of the
concrete.
The value of 0( can also be deauced from
beam tests and by applying the expression
M =0( bn1dc (d -yn1d) and is probably ·5 at low
stresses, and at high stress varies between approxi- A
mately ·75 for dense high grade concrete and 1 for
ordinary grade concrete. A value of c equal to ..... ./
the concrete prism strength must be assumed.
In relating the steel to the concrete stress in end
..
L

\I) ,/
,/
./

,/
anchored prestressed concrete beams it is necessary ,,/
to equate the total strain of the steel throughout ,/
the length of the beam to the total strain in the ./
./
adjacent concrete since there is no bond. A ./
factor F must therefore be introduced and its value ./
may be assumed to be about ·66 for beams o 8
Strain
supporting uniformly distributed load, and not
less than ·5 for beams supporting central point
load.
The value of f1 depends on the value of the pre- b.CONCRETE.
tension applied to the steel and the steel stress at
which the beam reaches its ultimate strength.
Since the value of the steel pre-tension is usually
approximately '66 of the yield stress. lmd since Figure 2: Stress-strain curves for steel and concrete.

58
Plastic theory for reinforced concrete
losses due to shrinkage creep and elastic yield are
small and bending before cracking only slightly
increases the steel tension, the value of fJ will
generally be approximately' ,75. Its precise value o·a ~----+-----~-----+------~--~
can in any given case be determined without great n _ __ p.+/p.Z+~
difficulty. ,
100
E.. sometimes called the effective or secant 0-6 ~____+-____~~z~m~+-____~~~~~
modulus of elasticity of steel, may drop from ~t1\.l!l
30x 106 to 20x 10 6 or even lOx 106 lb. per sq. in. n,
with some steels without appreciably reducing the
strength for repeated loading. Generally it is not
necessary to consider values below lOx 106 lb.
per sq. in. as when such a value is reached, the
concrete begins to crush on account of the high
position of the neutral axis. For high tensile steel
wires as used in prestressed concrete the value of
E, may drop to 20 x 106 lb. per l1q. in. on account
of straightening. o 0'2 0-4 0·6 o·a 1·0
Ps per cen t
E., sometimes called the effective or secant
modulus of elasticity of concrete, varies with the
stress, quality, water-cement ratio and form of Figure 3: Curves relating depth of neutral axis to per-
cenrage of steel for various values of zm.
the concrete (e.g. test cube, prism or column values
are lower than beam values). It is essential that
the values used should be those at the extremity of the value of Ec in regard to the concrete at the
the cross section of a beam. The value increases extremity of the section lies between 500c and 820e,
towards the neutral axis. C. S. Whitney (1) found where e is the cylinder crushing strength of the
from tests of a large number of beams that for concrete. Because of this relationship it is possible
balanced designs M='33 bd2 e. (where e is the to omit the term m in the expression for the
cylinder crushing strength). Professor R. H. mOIllent of resistance of a concrete beam of
Evans(2) has also obtained similar results. balanced design.
Since M=(1.bd 2c (nl-yn12)
EXPRESSIONS FOR ULTIMA TE STRENGTH IN
Assuming (1.=1 and y= '5, M=bd 2c (nl_n;) BENDING

n1 2 Since strain is proportional to the distance from

.. nl - 2 =t or nl =0,425 the neutral axis
Since strain is proportional to distance from the (=e (l-nl) Fm " .. (1)
neutral axis ndl-fJ)
E, e(l-nl)
(=- ---
Ec nl F
Sttbstituting nl =0,425 Let z = 2(1. (l-fJ)
E,=30 X 106 and (=50,000
Then substituting in (1)
Then E c =820c
1
Similarly, assuming y =·8 and y= '45 then nl=------
Ec=500c.
The value of c at the edge of the section is 1+ 2 (1. ( (2)
zmc
slightly less than the cylinder strength, but the
error involved in assuming them to be the same Expression (2) gives the value of nl for the
is not important. ultimate load condition for a balanced design,
Since the limits chosen above for (1. and yare provided the values of mt and c are appropriate
reasonable, it can be assumed that at the stress at for this condition.
which the concrete in a beam commences to crush, By equating total tension to total compression

(1) c. S. WHITNEY Application of plastic theory to the design of modern reinforced concrete structures, Journal of the
Boston Society of Civil Engineers, January. 1948.
(2) R. H. EVANS The plastic theories for the ultimate strength of reinforced concrete bpams, Journal of the Institution
of Civil Engineers, December, 1943.

59
 Magazine of Concrete Research: June 1949
r ABLE 1 : Values of R for ultimate load conditions in balanced design for various types of beam.
M=rJ. bd2 c (nl-ynl2)
=Rbd2

I E, t
Type of beam F rJ.
f1 z lOS E. m zm 1,000 nl Y R
I
-- --- - - --- -- --- - - - - - - --- - - -- --
60,000 38,000
Ordinary reinforced 1·0. 0.·8 0. 0.·63 30. 500c 50. 0.'55 0.·4 o.'33c
concrete, plastic c c
theory
60,000 38,000
1·0. 0.·8 0. 0'63 30. 500c 40 0.·60 0.'4 o.'38c
c c
36,500 18,250.
1·0. 1·0. 0. 0.·50. 30. 82o.c 50. 0.·42 0.·5 o.'34c
c c
36,500 18,250. _
1·0. 1·0. 0. 0.'50. 30. 82o.c 40 0.'47 0.·5 o.'37c
c c
--- -- - - --- "-- -- --- --- -- -- -- -
End anchored 60,000 75,000
0.·5 0.·8 0.'75 1·25 30. 500c 200 0.·375 0.·4 o.'25c
pre-stressed reinforced I c c
concrete beam. Central
point load. Straight 24,300 10,000
wires. 0.·5 1·0. 0.·4 0.·415 20. 82o.c 175 0.·102 0.·5 a'lOe
e e
-- -- -- -- -- -- --- --- -- -- -- --
End anchored 60,000 98,400
0.·66 0.·8 0.·75 1-64 30. 500e 200 0.'44 0.·4 o.·2ge
pre-stressed reinforced c e
concrete beam.
Uniformly distributed 24,300 13,400
load. Straight wires. 0.·66 1'0. 0.·4 0.·55 20. 82o.e 175 0.·133 0.·5 o.'12e
e e
"- -- -- -- -- -- -- --- --- -- -- -- --
60,000 150.,000
Concrete gripped 1·0. 0.'8 0.'75 2'5 30. 500c 200 0.·54 0.·4 o.'34c
pre-stressed concrete c c
60,000 150.,000
1·0. 0.·8 0.'75 2'5 30. 500c 175 0.'51 0.·4 o.'36c
c c
24,300 20.,000
1'0. 1·0. 0.·40. 0.·83 20. 820e 200 0.·17 0.'5 o.'16c
c c
24,300 20.,000
1·0. 1·0. 0.·40 0.·83 20. 82o.c 175 0.·18 0.·5 o.'17c
c c

the following expression for nl is obtained:
_p+ ~p2+ 200p,
__
, • zm
(3)
100
zm
Expression (3) gives values of nl in terms of
p, and zm and may be used for "unbalanced"
designs, at any stage of loading to find the value of
nl for appropriate values of p, and zm. Figure 3
shows curves relating nl to p, for various values of
zm and may be used to find values of p, for a
balanced design (i.e. for the general case nl having
been found from expression (2)). In ordinary
reinforced concrete design (standard theory) z = 1
and the curves can be used in the usual way with
the appropriate value of m (e.g. m=15 in 1948
British Standard code of practice).
M =rJ.bd2c (nl - ynl2) .. (4)
= say Rbd 2 (5)
Table 1, calculated by applying the above
expression, gives values of R for ultimate load
conditions in balanced designs for various types of
beam, for extreme values of rJ. and zm and for
suitable values of t. Concrete moments of
resistance in .. unbalanced" designs can be
obtained in a similar way by using the curves in
Figure 3 to obtain the value of nl for the appro-
priate conditions. Whitney's results appear as a

60.
Plastic theory for reinforced concrete
~ TENSION STRAIN x IO~ COMPRESSION - . .
-12 -II -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -I 0 I .2 3 '" 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 ,<

Figure 4 : Curves showing the strain distribution measured at the centre of an ordinary reinforced concrete beam.

~TENSION STRAIN X 10 4 COMPRESSION ~

.E, 25 20 15 10 5 o 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
T//~
~ ~
c(
2

.
W
CO

0
Q. 6
4
~H ~~ ~
~

tr
~ ~V-/ ' ~~
2101 iD-o 22-1
~ 1---'
____

-
8
~ V
V
~ //J
.
IX

W
10

12
17-0 I ·0

.,.-
14·0

././
.,.- //
.,.-

/ /} Numb(~r ncar loch curve indic;:atls total

lood P in tons .
U 14
.,.- ...-
Z

~ 16
./
~...- / / } --
25 18
IN /'
./
10'0/ 7·,L 4-Oi
(a) Strain d j stri but ion at various stagu of load j·ng .

TOTAL LOAD (p) TONS.

10 15 20 25
0
p p

r
"2 "2

r-
E:raCkS

+ + 5'-1
2 opening
s' s'
C
I
4
'0_

f f
C 6 80ttom Of flon e

10
(b) Mov~m~nt of n~utral axis. (c) LoadinCj system.

Figure 5 : Test on an end anchored prestressed concrete beam (Magnel system).

61
 Magazine of Concrete Research: JUlIe 1949
·8 r---.,---.,-----r----,----,

y ---x

".
~·4r------r----~------+_~r7~~--~
,
N.
c:
----
n,d
-- --t -strain crost
distribution 'Scction
o ·8
",
Figure 7 : Relationship between values of n1 and
o x (1Il 2-YIll3)
for various value of y.

short length ds,

r=radius of curvature of the member at P
1I 1d=depth of neutral axis

Figure 6: Diagram showing the change of curvature of Eo = modulus of plasticity of concrete at

the neutral axis plane. . extremity of section.
c=maximum stress of concrete in segment
PQ
particular application of a more general theory. M=applied bending moment at P (which is a
The value of the lever arm for determining the area function of x, hence M and curvature
of reinforcement increase in direction x)
=d-yn1d.
In a very much under reinforced beam of high Slope of beam at point P =~ 'fix
grade concrete y might be as low as 0'33 and 111
high on account of the value of <X being about dx=ds very approximately as long as the
slope of the beam is small.
0'50. Eo however would be high, say 4 x 106
lb. per sq. in., and E, migRt drop to 20 X 10 6
d2 y
Rate of change of slope at P=--
lb. per sq. in. before the steel appreciably weakened.
dx2
Re-distribution of moments in continuous beams I
=degree of curvature = .-
and frames, and elasto-piastic deformation of re- r
inforced concrete members. dy /1,dx
SIope=(jx=
ASSUMPTIONS
(I) Strain is proportional to distance from the QR is paranel to P'O, .'. ~~ =: ~~
neutral axis. alsods=dx
(Tests indicate that this is approximately true ds cdx
even after plasticity has fully developed. r
Figures 4 and 5 show typical results from tests 1 c
carried out on ordinary reinforced and pre-
stressed beams respectively).
(2) All changes of slope or radius of curvature of
members can be related to and expressed in
terms of the deformation of the concrete on the
compression side of the neutral axis.
Referring to Figure 6 which shows the side
elevation of the neutral axis plane OPQ of a
reinforced concrete member having zero slope
at x=l, PQ is a segment of the member of infinitely

62
Plastic theory for reinforced concrete
~."
A
~
C~ 60ft.
B
~
Figure 8: Bending moment diagram for two-span con-
tinuous beam.
Then slope of beam = f~dX. Therefore the
usual methods of calculating deformations accord-
ing to elastic theory can be used, provided values
of EJ due to plasticity are taken into acc·ount.
Elastic theory methods which are convenient for
dealing with problems in which the value of I varies
are also convenient for taking into account the
effects of plasticity on moment distribution. The
curves in Figure 3 can be used to determine varia-
tions in the value of ni caused by changes in the
value of zm when plasticity brings about reductions
in the value of Ee or E,.
SPECIAL CASE OF ORDINARY REINFORCED
CONCRFTE BEAMS
Tests have shown that in the case of ordinary
reinforced concrete beams the position of the
neutral axis remains approximately the same as
long as the value of the modulus of elasticity of
the steel does not alter. Referring to expression (3)
above it will be seen that if nIP, and E, are constant
F=1 and {3=O, then Ee ~ must be constant.
Assume E/l. = K
then EJ = Kbd 3 (n1 2 - y n l 3 ) ..
In a reinforced concrete beam, therefore, the
variation in value of EJ caused by plasticity
cannot be very great.
In Figure 7 the term (nI2_ ynI 3) is plotted for
various values of ni and for y = ·33 and '5, and it
is seen that the value of EJ can only vary on
account of plasticity to a very small extent. Over
a long period it is probable that owing to creep ~
would approach 1 in value and Ee might be reduced
to t of the low stress value, in which case the value
of EJ obtained from expression (8) above would
be slightly reduced.
EXAMPLE OF MOMENT RE-DISTRIBUTION
IN A 2 SPAN CONTINUOUS BEAM
Figure 8 shows a continuous beam having two
equal spans. To avoid cumbersome expressions
numerical values are assumed for the equal spans
/=60 ft. and for the equal maximum bending
moments for uniformly distributed load M F =20 ft.
lb. It is also assumed that the concrete section of
the beam is constant and the value of EI = 1 before
plasticity develops .
.. sIope at B = T
. h A as ongm
WIt 1 JMXd
EI x
Equating/times the slope at B due to free and
support moments (EI being constant and equal
to 1 is omitted).
}MFq· = MBi·tl
24,000
=
.. M B =MF =20 lb. ft.
If no plasticity develops then the bending
moment at the support =20 lb. ft.
and the mid-span bending moment = 10 lb. ft.
If the beam is slightly over-reinforced (Ps = 1 per
cent.) so that the concrete commences to crush at
B before the steel commences to yield, the value
of I might be reduced before failure over the end
4 ft. of the beam adjacent to B (referring to
Figure 7) from '58 IX bd3 to 0·5 IX bd3 causing an
increase in the
MX ·58
J EI dx value of 20 x 4 x 58(
=740
--:s
-1)
This reduction based on reasonable assumptions
is small in comparison with 24,000. It is clear
therefore that plasticity in the concrete can assist
very little in equalising the moments at mid-span
and support, unless plasticity extends over a wide
support. It will be seen that yielding of the steel
is much more effective. From the shape of the
bending moment diagram it is also clear that
sufficient reinforcement must be provided at
mid-span to prevent any yield occurring there
(8) before sufficient yield has developed at the support
to appreciably reduce the support moment. Yield
over a considerable length at the centre of the beam
would increase theJ~;dx value for the free
moment at a faster rate than for the support
moments as these high moments only extend over
a short length of beam unless the support is very
wide. Yield due to plasticity of the concrete only
could have the same effect and cause an increase
in the support moment.
Re-distribution of bending moment due to yield
of steel only
It is not practical to obtain a direct solution
since there are so many factors involved. A
solution within safe limits can, however, be quickly
obtained by trial with the help of the curves in
Figures 3 and 7.
A value of the ultimate load support moment
must be assumed and checked.
63
 Magazine of Concrete Research: June 1949

TABLE 2

E, *M Increase in
x m nl n12-yn1 3 EI factor M factor*.
106
EI
II
59·5 10 4 0'2 0·035 2·5 0·5
58'5 17 6'8 0·24 0·055 1·64 0·64
57·5 24 9'6 0·28 0'075 1·18 0'18
56·5 30 12 0·32 0'090 1·0 0·0

plasticE'1values "Factors for the increase in ; values due to plasticity.

*Ratio of
elastic ~ values

TABLE 3

M
- x
Mx.
Yield increase I I ncrease In. EI
Mx
I EI I I EI I factor
Support moments. 16'75 59·5 1,000 1'5 1,500
14'50 58'5 850 0·64 545
13·0 57'5 750 0·18 135
I

EI Increase Iior support moments

IJMx. =2,180

Free moments. 0·5 59·5 30 1·5 45

1'5 58'5 88 0·64 66
2'5 57·5 144 0·18 26

I IJ ~x increase for free moments = 137

I I
n Mx
At ultimate load after yield ~ EI free moments = 24,000+ 137=24,137

IJMx
EI support moments=(l7x30x40)+2,180=22,480

ASSUMPTIONS (5) the beam (outside) value of Ec just previous to

(1) Maximum mid-span free moment=20 lb. ft.
(2) Support moment (no plasticity) =20 lb. ft.
(3) The values of IX, h, d, Y and the crushing
strength of the concrete are such that:
(a) the concrete crushes when nl is less than
0'20.
(h) the steel appreciably weakens and may be
considered to have reached ultimate
strength at a tension of 58,000 lb. per
sq. in. for which a value of p, =·6 is
required when nl =0'20, and M = 171b. ft.
(4) the value of E, vanes as shown in Figure 9.
the concrete reaching crushing stress = 2· 5 X 106
lb. per sq. in.
(6) Sufficient steel is provided at mid-span to
prevent yield.
As a first approximation try the support moment
reduced' by plasticity to 17 lb. ft. The following
conditions at the support section must be satisfied:
(1) p, not less than 0·6 to avoid excessive steel
tension when nl =0'2.
(2) nl not less than 0'2 which depends on the
value of p, and m which depends on the value
of E, which again depends on the value of p,

64
Plastic theory for reinforced concrete
30
"'1°
w-
10 Pocking Plate
Hydraulic cool
bursters for
applying non-uni form
load.
40 so 60
i Section A-A is identical with
10'
Figure 9: Relationship between Plastic
Modulus of Steel and Steel
Stress.
which determines the tension in the steel.
From Figure 9, E, =lOx 106 when 1=53,000
.. m=~s=4
Ec
From Figure 3, when Ps =·6 and m =4, nl =·2
approximately, which approximately satisfies the
above requirements.
It can therefore be assumed that under ultimate
load conditions the steel at the support develops a
stress of 53,000 lb. per sq. in. The bending
moment diagrams to the left of B (see Figure 8)
must now be divided into strips of convenient
width, starting from B and extending towards A,
until the bending moment is reduced to ~ of the
maximum bending moment, i.e., until a section is
reached at which the steel stress =40,000 and no
yield occurs. The effect of yield over this range in
. . Mx I . the support moments would be obtained to effect
mcreasmg EI va ues can now convemently be de-
termined by tabulation and summation. It is
assumed that the value of p, equals ·6 throughout,
that no yield occurs at mid-span and that any
slight increase in p, to ensure this does not
appreciably affect the value of 1 (see tables 2 and 3).
The value of E, varies with the steel tension in
accordance with Figure 9. The steel tension is
assumed to vary with M (i.e., it is sufficiently
accurate to assume that the lever arm remains
constant) :
E,
m = - - -6
2·5 x 10
nl is obtained from Figure 3, and the terms
(n12-yn13) from Figure 7, assuming y has a mean
Tension.
L """ A
Concrete
Specimen. "
"
'I
I,
-'
rli'I;~~~(----rrrr
beam cross section.
Figure 10: Diagram of bending assimulation machine.
value between ·33 and ,5. The value of (n1 2 -yn13)
is proportional to the 1 value which for comparative
purposes has been assumed = lover the un yielded
part ofthe beam, i.e. 1=1, when (n12-yn13)=·09.
Assuming bending moment at B= 17 at the
ultimate stage of loading, Table 3 gives elastic
Mx
EI values for free and support moments and
increases due to plasticity_
It is seen that the ~; values for free and support
moments are not equal and a further trial with,
say, support moment equal to 18 should be made
or, in practice, it would probably be found that by
taking into account yield extending over the width
of the support a sufficient increase in~; values for
a balance.
In the case of continuous prestressed members
the effect on the value of nl at every section due
to variation in the value of f3 would need to be
taken into account. Over the un cracked parts of
bd 3
the beams Iwould be assumed = 12 approximately.
Similarly in vertical members subject to bending and
bd3
compression over uncracked lengths 1 = - -
12
approximately and over cracked sections
1=rf..bd3 (n12-yn13) approximately. Care must be
taken to use appropriate values of Ec and 1 in
conjunction with changes of stress due to bending.
These approximations will probably serve to
65

demonstrate that plasticity in the concrete has
only a small influence on moment re-distribution
in comparison with the yield of suitably arranged
reinforcement and can often be neglected.
In frames subject to sway, yield of reinforcement
will extend over a much greater length of the
members on account of the shape of the bending
moment distribution diagrams and will therefore
have greater influence in re-distributing bending
moments.
Conclusions
(1) Plasticity of concrete considerably increases
the ultimate concrete moment of resistance of both
reinforced and prestressed concrete beams.
(2) Plasticity in the concrete does not greatly
influence the re-distribution of bending moments
in continuous members, as the reduction in the
value of Ec is small. In cases where high .. free"
bending moments extend over a considerable
proportion of the length of the beam plasticity may
be a disadvantage in regard to bending moment
re-distribution.
(3) Yield of reinforcement can provide ad-
vantageous moment re-distribution, but may be
limited by weakening of the steel or by excessive
rise of the neutral axis which causes the concrete
to crush. It is important to ensure that reinforce-
ment cannot yield at mid-span sections of con-
tinuous beams until support sections have de-
veloped full yield. The width of the support has
66
Magazine of Concrete Research: June 1949
a considerable influence on the moment re-
distribution. Sway bending moments in frames,
since they reduce less rapidly along the members
than bending moments at supports in continuous
beams supporting distributed load, are more
subject to advantageous bending moment re-
distribution. In prestressed concrete beams the
small amount of steel yield available may reduce
the moment re-distribution possible as compared
with ordinary reinforced concrete.
(4) More precise data are required in regard to
the values of IX y and Ec for various grades of
concrete at various stresses. It is impracticable
to test ·Iarge numbers of beams for this purpose
and in any case the exact stress distribution cannot
be determined in this way. It ii therefore essential
to test large numbers of specimens identical with
short lengths of beams of various cross section in
a testing machine which can apply a load similarly
distributed to the stress in a beam subject to
bending. Such a machine is shown diagram-
matically in Figure 10. When specimens are
deformed so that the strains are identical with
those obtained in beam tests (generally a straight
line distribution) it follows that the specimen
must be subject to the same stress distribution as
similar concrete in the form of a beam. True
stress-strain relations of concrete at all parts of a
beam cross-section can then be determined from
strain gauge readings on the specimen and pressure
gauge reading on the hydraulic jacks.