PROCESS CONTROL AND DYNAMICS (Crash Course)

Overview:
Process control is a mixture between the statistics and engineering discipline that deals with the
mechanism, architectures, and algorithms for controlling a process.

Process dynamics refers to unsteady-state (or transient) process behavior.

The primary objective of process control is to maintain a process at the desired operating conditions,
safely and economically, while satisfying environmental and product quality requirements.

A Process is the conversion of feed materials to products using chemical and physical operations. In
practice, the term process tends to be used for both the processing operation and the processing
equipment.

Advantages of having a Process Control:

• Enhanced process safety

• Satisfying environmental constraints
• Meeting ever-stricter product quality specifications
• More efficient use of raw materials and energy
• Increased profitability

Two Common Control Strategies:

• Feedback Control
-the controlled variable is measured, and that the measurement is used to adjust the
manipulated variable
-the disturbance variable is not measured.

 Negative Feedback
-refers to the desirable situation in which the corrective action taken by the controller
forces the controlled variable toward the set point.
-ensures that the difference between T R and T m is used to adjust the control element
so that the tendency is to reduce the error.
 𝜀 = 𝑇𝑅 − 𝑇𝑚
 Positive Feedback
- the controller makes things worse by forcing the controlled variable farther away from
the set point.
𝜀 = 𝑇𝑅 + 𝑇𝑚
• Feedforward Control
-the disturbance variable is measured, but the controlled variable is not
-the important advantage of feedforward control is that corrective action is taken before the
controlled variable deviates from the set point
-also called anticipative control

Some Terminologies:

• Input Variable - This variable shows the effect of the surroundings on the process. It normally
refers to those factors that influence the process. Ex. Flow rate of the steam to heat exchanger
a. Manipulated inputs: variable in the surroundings can be control by an operator or the
control system in place.
b. Disturbances: inputs that cannot be controlled by an operator or control system. There exist
both measurable and immeasurable disturbances.
• Output variable - Also known as the control variable. These are the variables that are process
outputs that effect the surroundings. The process variable that we want to maintain at a
particular value. Ex. Amount of carbon dioxide that comes out of the combustion reaction
 • Block diagram - Diagram that indicates the flow of information around the control system and
the function of each part of the system.
• Closed loop - In closed loop, the measured value of the controlled variable is fedback to the
controller.
• Controller - A device that outputs a signal to the process based on the magnitude of the error
signal. A proportional controller outputs a signal proportional to the error.
• Disturbance rejection - One goal of a control system, which is to enable the system to “reject”
the effect of disturbance changes and maintain the controlled variable at the set point.
• Error - The difference between the values of the set point and the measured variable. Error = set
point - process variable.
• Offset - The steady-state value of the error.
• Open loop - In open loop, the measured value of the controlled variable is not fed back to the
controller.
• Set point - The desired value of the controlled variable.
• Set point tracking - One goal of a control system, which is to force the system to follow or
“track” requested set point changes.
• Dead Time - The amount of time it takes for a process to start changing after a disturbance in
the system.
• Derivative Control - The "D" part of a PID controller. With derivative action the controller output
is proportional to the rate of change of the process variable or error.
• Integral Control - The "I" part of a PID controller. With integral action the controller output is
proportional to the amount and duration of the error signal.
• PID Controller - PID controllers are designed to eliminate the need for continuous operator
attention. They are used to automatically adjust system variables to hold a process variable at a
set point. Error is defined above as the difference between set point and process variable.
• Proportional Control - The "P" part of a PID controller. With proportional action the controller
output is proportional to the amount of the error signal.
• Set point - The set point is where you would like a controlled process variable to be.
• Digital Control Systems (DCS) also known as Distributed Control System is the brain of the
control system. It is used mainly for the automation of a manufacturing process and manages
the logic that exist for major unit operations.

Measurables for process systems include:

• Temperature
• Pressure
• Flow rate
• pH
• Humidity
• Level
• Concentration
• Viscosity
• Conductivity
• Turbidity
• Redox/potential
• Electrical behavior
 • Flammability

Sensors and Actuators:

• Thermocouple – Temperature Control

A thermocouple is a device to measure and control temperature within a system. They are used
in a wide variety of industrial applications (gas turbines, chemical reactors, exhaust, chemical
manufacturing etc) due to their low cost and portability. The fundamental working principle for
thermocouple operations is the Seebeck Effect. Mostly, thermocouples operate in a P or a PID
control mode.

• Pressure Switch – Pressure Control

A pressure switch is a device that controls systems against pressure drops or pressure spikes.
The most basic types of pressure switches work on an ON-OFF basis, but can also be
manufactured to work in PID mode. The fundamental method of operation is to set the “Set-
Pressure” to a given quantity.

• Ratio Control – Composition Control

A
ratio
controller
is
used
to
ensure
that
two
or
more
process
variables
such
as
materia
l
flows
are
kept
at
the
same
ratio
even
if
they
are
changing
in
value.
Control
modes
c
an
be
operatedin
different
types,
but
mostly
feedback
PI
controller
is
used
for
ratio
con
trol.

 • Level Switches – Level Control

Level controls are used to monitor and regulate the liquid level in industrial vessels. There are
many various sensors used in level control including ultrasonic, lasers, and floatation sensors.
They all work on the same general principle. A sensor measures the distance from the base of
the vessel to the top of the liquid level, mainly by using sonar waves or a laser beam.

• Flow Meters – Flow Control

Flow controls are used to regulate the flow of a liquid or gas through a system. The main form of
flow control is a valve. There are many different types of valves, but they all change flow rates
by opening or closing based on what amount is needed. A flow sensor reads the flow rate, and a
controller will operate the valve to increase or decrease the flow. Some basic types of flow
sensors are rotameters and digital mass meters.

Signal types include:

• Electric
• Pneumatic
• Light
• Radiowaves
• Infrared (IR)
• Nuclear

Two Major Control Structures:

1. Single input-Single Output (SISO) - for one control (output) variable there exist one manipulate
(input) variable that is used to affect the process

2. Multiple input-multiple Output (MIMO) - There are several control (output) variable that are
affected by several manipulated (input) variables used in a given process.
Types of Control Method:

 On/Off Control
 Continuous Control
Ex. P (Proportional), I (Integral) and D (Derivative) or some combination of those three.

Source: Process Systems Analysis and Control by Coughanowr & LeBlanc

Modeling for Process Dynamics:

Types of models:

• Theoretical models are developed using the principles of chemistry, physics, and biology.
• Empirical models are obtained by fitting experimental data.
• Semi-empirical models are a combination of the models in categories (a) and (b); the numerical
values of one or more of the parameters in a theoretical model are calculated from
experimental data.
Useful Equations:

Example of Mathematical Modelling:

The steady-state model:

The unsteady-state model:

(OMB)

(Component Balance)
How to solve these
differential
equations?

Source: Process Dynamics and Control by Seborg, Edgar, Mellichamp & Doyle
Laplace Transforms:
Source: Process Dynamics and Control by Seborg, Edgar, Mellichamp & Doyle
Note: Laplace transform is applicable to linear, ordinary, differential equations (ODEs) with constant
coefficients.

For Non-linear systems: Use Linearization technique such as Taylor’s Series

Transfer Functions:

Transfer Function Models:

Consider an nth order differential equation:

Assuming that the model is based on deviation variables, the initial conditions become

Taking the Laplace Transform of each term,

Solving for Y(s),

or in other books

𝑔𝑝 (𝑠) is the Transfer Function

Types of Input:
• Step Input

• Ramp Input

• Rectangular Pulse

• Sinusoidal Input

• Impulse Input

Forms of basic transfer functions:

Dynamic Behaviors for first-order and second-order processes:

First-Order Process:

The typical linear, first-order process is

Assuming that y(0) = 0,

The Laplace transform then is

Solving for y(s),

For Second-Order Process:

Written in the form,

𝑎0 ≠ 0
Taking the Laplace transform and assuming that ,

The characteristic equation of the second-order transfer function is 2s2 + 2s + 1. We can find
the roots (known as the poles) by using the quadratic formula and they are
For underdamped step response characteristics:
For Higher-Order Processes:

For a differential equation,

The Laplace Transform could be,

Effects of Zeros and Poles:
Time Delay:

Polynomial Approximation to 𝒆−𝜽𝒔

1. Taylor Series Expansion

2. Padé Approximations

Skogestad’s “half rule” (For Higher-order processes)

The Control System:

 Closed loop: The measured value of the controlled variable is fed back to the controller.
 Controller: A device that outputs a signal to the process or final control element based on the
magnitude of the error signal. A proportional controller outputs a signal proportional to the
error.
 Deviation variable: The difference between the actual value of a variable and its steady-state
value. Block diagrams are always constructed using deviation variables.
 Error: The difference between the value of the set point and that of the measured variable.
 Final control element: A device that provides a modulated input to the process in response to a
signal from the controller. For example, this may be a heater, a control valve, or a variety of
other devices.
 Load: The change in any process variable that can cause the controlled variable to change.
 Measuring element: A sensor used to determine the value of the controlled variable and to send
it to the comparator/controller. Examples include a thermocouple (temperature), a strain gage
(pressure), a gas chromatograph (composition), and a pH electrode (acidity). These sensors
typically have some dynamic behavior associated with them and can affect the design of the
control system.
 Negative feedback: The error is the difference between the set point and the measured variable
(this is usually the desired configuration).
 Positive feedback: The measured variable is added to the set point. (This is usually an
undesirable situation, and frequently it leads to instability.)
 Regulator problem: The goal of a control system for this type of problem is to enable the system
to compensate for load changes and maintain the controlled variable at the set point.
 Servo problem: The goal of a control system for this type of problem is to force the system to
“track” the requested set point changes.
 Set point: The desired value of the controlled variable.
Example:

Routh Stability Test:

Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion:

For the characteristic equation,

Arrange the coefficients in the following manner.

Example:

Feedback Controllers:

Basic Control Modes:

Example:

PID Tuning:

Two classical methods:

1. Ziegler-Nichols Controller Tuning
2. Cohen & Coon Controller Tuning

Other methods:
-IMC Method
-Direct Synthesis Method